1.

0 INTRODUCTION

Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surface’s water and subsurface water
from an area. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils is good enough to prevent
severe waterlogging, but many soils need artificial drainage to improve production or to
manage water supplies. The civil engineer is responsible for drainage in construction projects.
They set out from the plans all the roads, street gutter, drainage, culverts and sewers involved
in construction operations.

The actual location and design of a road can dramatically improve drainage, or lead to
its demise. Water is fundamental for life, but too much water with nowhere to go can cause
serious damage to roadways. The greater the velocity of water as it races across pavement,
the faster it will deteriorate surfaces. It is so important for ditches, cuts or other waterways to
handle moving water. The function of the field drainage system is to control the water table,
whereas the function of the main drainage system is to collect, transport and dispose of the
water through an outfall or outlet.

There are several common problems associated with poor roadway drainage. When
water continually flows over a surface it causes erosion, or the giving way of materials.
Clogged culverts or small diameter culverts can lead to water flooding into the road and
causing erosion. Soils that are most sensitive to erosion include silt, silty moraine and sand.
As for the traffic safety, drivers are not safe when roadway lacks proper drainage system.
Also, wet surfaces equate to reduce friction and longer braking time, ultimately increasing the
risk for accidents. Roads can experience permanent deformation when proper drainage is not
included. As a result, roads are less safe, drivers experience greater issues, and roads have
lower bearing capacities. Proper roadway drainage system increase the lifeline of a road and
reduce maintenance costs considerably.

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Drainage in highly erodible soils may require riprap, rock rubble lining, jute matting,
or grass seeding. Riprap or rubble-lined drains will tend to retard flow enough to allow water
movement while retaining the sediment load at low flow periods. Lining drains can reduce
erosion by as much as 50 percent and may provide economic benefits by reducing the
required number of lateral cross drains when materials can be obtained at low cost. Drain
water should not be allowed to concentrate, nor should it be allowed to discharge directly into
live streams. The flow or discharge of water and the velocity can be calculated by using V =

. Next, the hydraulic depth, D formula is D = , which T is the top width. For open
channel geometries there were formulas for every channel section such as rectangular,
triangular, trapezoidal and circle to calculate area, A, Top width, T and wetted perimeter, P.
The formulas are:

Channel section Area, A Top width, T Wetted perimeter, P

Rectangular By B B + 2y
Triangular zy2 2zy 2y
Trapezoidal By + zy2 B + 2zy B + 2y
Circle Dsin

A cross drain such as a culvert should carry the drain water across and onto a
protected surface. The drain grade will normally follow the roadway grade. However, the
minimum grade for an unpaved drain should be 1 percent. Runoff intensity or discharge
values needed to calculate ditch size can be determined by calculations described below for
culvert design. However, allowances should be made for sedimentation, plus at least 0.3 m
between the bottom of the roadway subgrade and the full flow water surface. The suggested
minimum size of roadside ditches is shown:

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 Velocity of the drain water is a function of cross section, roughness and grade. For a
typical triangular and trapezoidal cross section, the velocity can be calculated from Manning's
equation:

V=

where V equals velocity in meters/second. For a triangular channel with side slopes of 1:1
and 2:1, flowing 0.3 meters deep, the hydraulic radius, R, equals 0.12 m. In most cases, drain
lines should be protected to withstand the erosion. For channels with grades steeper that 10
percent, a combination of cross section widening, surface protection and increased surface
roughness may be required. The discharge of the water for triangular and trapezoidal cross
section can also be calculate from Manning’s equation:

Q=

From the above equations, there is hydraulic radius, R. The equation for R is R = , which is
A is the area of channel equation and P is wetted perimeter of the channel section.
Furthermore, a non-erodible should be designed for the best hydraulic efficiency. Best
hydraulic section gives minimum area for a given discharge. Referring to the channel
conveyance,

K==
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For a constant flow area, A, the conveyance increases with increase in hydraulic radius R or
decrease in the wetted perimeter, P. Simply, Qmax, Rmax, and Pmin gives best hydraulic section.
The Pmin can reduces construction cost (less lining material) and can reduce friction force.
The formula that can be used in best hydraulic sections are:

Cross Side Area, A Wetted Hydrauli Top Hydrauli Section

section slope, z perimeter c radius, width, T c depth, factor, Z
,P R D

Trapezoida y2 2 y
l

Rectangle - 2y2 4y 2y y 2y2.5

Triangle 1 y2 2 y 2y

Semicircle - y 2y

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3.0 METHOD AND SOLUTION

HIGH PART

𝑚3 1
Assume : Q = 14.5 ,Side slope =0.0016 , n=0.025 , z =
𝑠 √3

By using best hydraulic section for trapezoidal :-

2
𝑄𝑛
𝐴𝑅 3 = 1 ,
𝑆2

2
𝑦 3 (14.5)(0.025)
(√3(𝑦)2) ( ) = 1
2 (0.0016)2

2
𝑦 3
2
((√3(𝑦) ) ( ) ) = 9.0625
2

Normal depth, y = 2.212 m.

2 2
Find b :- 𝑏 = 3(√3)(𝑦) ,= 3 (√3)(2.212) = 2.554𝑚

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Check stability : -

𝐴3 𝑄2
Find critical depth :- =
𝑇 𝑔

3 4 (14.5)2
((√3(𝑦 2 )) /(( ) √3 (𝑦)) =
3 9.81

𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ , 𝑦 = 1.570𝑚

Normal depth = 2.212m > Critical depth =1.570m

Therefore it is subcritical flow.

Finding velocity : - V= Q /A

(14.5)
𝑉= = 1.711 𝑚/𝑠
√3( 2.212 𝑚)2

𝑉
Calculate Froude number : - 𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝐷

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D = A/T = √3(2.212)2 /(3)(√3 (2.212) = 1.659

(1.711)
𝐹𝑟 = = 0.424
(√(9.81)(1.659)

0.424 < 1 = The flow is subcritical

OK for sediment.

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 LOWER PART

Same shape but different in size .

29𝑚3
Assume Q = , side slope = 0.0016 , n =0.025 , b = 5 m, z =2
𝑠

2
𝑄𝑛
𝐴𝑅 3 = 1
𝑆2

2
5𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 3
29(0.025)
(5𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 ) ( ) = 1
5 + 2𝑦√22 + 1 (0.0016)2

Normal depth ,y = 1.841m

Check stability : - find the critical depth

𝐴3 𝑄 2
=
𝑇 𝑔

(5𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 )3
= (29)2 /9.81)
5 + 4𝑦

Critical depth = 1.264 m

Normal depth = 1.841m > critical depth = 1.264 m

Therefore the flow is subcritical

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Finding velocity :- V= Q /A

29 1.814𝑚
𝑉= 2
=
5(1.841) + 2(1.841) 𝑠

𝑉
Finding Froude number : - 𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝐷

𝐴 5𝑦 + 2𝑦 2
𝐷= = = 1.292
𝑇 5 + 2𝑧𝑦

1.814
𝐹𝑟 = = 0.5095
√9.81 × 1.292

0.5095 < 1 , therefore the flow is subcritical

OK for sediment.

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4.0 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Open-channel design is often based on the assumption of uniform flow and normal
depth. From the hydraulic view point, the best open channel cross section is the one that
requires the least cross-section area for a given flow rate. If the flow rate is not been given,
we have to calculate it by using Q = AV which is Q is the flow rate, A is the area of the shape
or cross-section and V is the velocity of the water in the channel. By calculating the flowrate,
we can determine the best hydraulic section for the channel, direction of water flow in the
channel and prevent extra cost for maintenance the channel in future if it needs.

To determine the velocity in the channel of a cross-section, we will use and refer to
this two formula of Manning Formula and Chezy Formula as show in Figure 1.

Figure 1

For Chezy Formula, the C constant is needed by referring it to the section or

calculating it using the formula of Bazin Formula in Figure 2 and Ganguillet-Kutter Formula
as shown in Figure 2.1.

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 Figure 2

Figure 2.1

In Manning Formula, the n is referring to the table which is table of value of Manning
roughness coefficient. This table will show the value base on the type of the surface
characteristic of the channel given. Before calculating the velocity, we have to determine the
hydraulic radius of the shape of the cross-section with the formula of R=A/P, which is A is
the area and the P is the wetted perimeter of the cross-section. All the formula is referring to
Table 1. Base on the problem of the road in the project statement, we study and analyze the
problem and we decided to chose trapezoidal shape for the drainage section channel. Figure
3 show the example of the trapezoidal shape.

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Channel section Area, A Top width, T Wetted perimeter, P
Trapezoidal By + zy2 B + 2zy B + 2y

Table 1

Figure 3

Base on the shape that have our group choose, it has the better shape and can control
the flow rate when the water flow through, it also is the most ideal shape using in
construction industry to determine the quantity of water flow without constructing any weir
or sluice gate at the end of the channel. Lastly, trapezoidal shape cross-section also has the
most reasonable cost in constructing it in long term effect through period of time.

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4.1.1 DISCUSSION

From the project statement that we have, our group has chosen trapezoidal shape
cross-section type for the drainage. In order to prove this matter, we already listed some of
example of other shape and the trapezoidal shape self. The type of geometry is influencing in
the type of flow rate that will produce in the channel. Different number of area obtain in each
of the cross-section will affect the number of velocity in the Manning and Chezy Formula
calculation because in order to find the flow rate, we need to apply the Q = AV which is the
area of the shape cross-section will time the velocity of water through the channel of
drainage.

Before calculating the velocity, we need to find and calculate the hydraulic radius of
the shape cross-section by applying the formula of R = A/P, which is A is the area of the
shape cross-section and divided by P which is the wetted perimeter. To determine direction of
the water flow, we must refer to the plan and long profile of the road given in the project
statement.

The shape of the trapezoidal shape cross-section also must be exactly refer to the type
of the road side structure so that it will not interrupt all the structure beside the road such as
traffic light, road signage and other. After calculating all the formula that are need to
determine the type of structure that will be use, our group decided to use the trapezoidal
shape cross-section because it is the most efficient and practical in collecting water from the
road side into the drainage, and it also is the common type of shape cross-section that is use
in every road construction area.

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5.0 CONCLUSION

Drainage must meet the requirements of economic technical. Factor often influence
the flow system and the planning of a public sewer system building. The type of geometry
will influence in the type of flow rate that will produce in the channel. In this project we have
been choose shape of trapezoidal. Trapezoidal is a combination of a rectangular and
triangular channel. Trapezoidal have a several advantages which is minimal head loss,
resistance to submergence, wide range of sizes and accurate over a wide range of flows. In
the calculation parts, for the high part we gets the y = 2.212m, yc = 1.570m, and the flow is
subcritical flow while for the lower part we gets the y = 1.841m, yc = 1.264m, and the flow is
also subcritical flow. For this both part, it is suitable for the sediments.

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6.0 REFERENCE

1. UTHM hydraulic note chapter 1 and 2

2. http://www.roadex.org/e-learning/lessons/drainage-of-low-volume-
roads/introduction-why-drainage-is-important/
3. http://kleencoconstruction.com/news/importance-efficient-roadway-drainage-systems/
4. https://www.slideshare.net/Sanjayjataria/planning-design-and-estimation-of-road-
side-drainage-system
5. http://www.fdot.gov/roadway/drainage/files/DrainageDesignGuide.pdf
6. https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/%28ASCE%290733-
9437%281994%29120%3A1%2827%29 (general formula of best hydraulic section)
7. https://www.slideshare.net/yourmohsin/dymanics-of-open-channel-flow (trapezoidal
section)
8. https://www.slideshare.net/yourmohsin/part-i-open-channels (manning and chezy
formula)
9. https://www.openchannelflow.com/blog/advantages-of-trapezoidal-flumes

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