College of Engineering – University of Misan

Petroleum Engineering Department

Fluid Mechanics lectures

Second Stage

2018-2019

Chapter Five

Prepared By
Assist. L. Radhwan Ali

@ Radhwan.ali@uomisan.edu.iq

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 Chap.5. Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
5.1 Dimensional analysis:
In the previous chapters we presented many important equations of fluid mechanics, and
illustrated their application to the solution of some practical problem. In all these cases
we were able to obtain an algebraic solution in the form of an equation that describes the
flow. In some cases, however, a problem can involve a complicated flow, and the
combination of physical variables and fluid properties, such as velocity, pressure, density,
viscosity, etc., that describe it may not be fully understood. When this occurs, the flow
can then be studied by performing an experiment.
Unfortunately, experimental work can be costly and time consuming, and so it becomes
important to be able to minimize the amount of experimental data that needs to be
obtained. The best way to accomplish this is to first perform a dimensional analysis of all
the relevant physical variables and fluid properties. Specifically, dimensional analysis is
a branch of mathematics that is used to organize all these variables into sets of
dimensionless groups. Once these groups are obtained, we can use them to obtain the
maximum amount of information from a minimum number of experiments.
For example, consider the drag force on a stationary smooth sphere immersed in a
uniform stream. What experiments must be conducted to determine the drag force on the
sphere? To answer this question, we must specify what we believe are the parameters that
are important in determining the drag force. Clearly, we would expect the drag force to
depend on the size of the sphere (characterized by the diameter, D), the fluid speed, V,
and the fluid viscosity, μ. In addition, the density of the fluid, ρ, also might be important.
Representing the drag force by F, we can write the symbolic equation

F =f (D, V, ρ, μ)
Although we may have neglected parameters on which the drag force depends, such as
surface roughness (or may have included parameters on which it does not depend), we

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 have set up the problem of determining the drag force for a stationary sphere in terms of
quantities that are both controllable and measurable in the laboratory.

5.2 The Buckingham Pi theorem

The Buckingham Pi theorem states that if a flow phenomenon depends upon n physical
variables, such as velocity, pressure, and viscosity, and if present within these physical
variables there are r dimensions, such as M, L, and T, then through dimensional analysis,
the n variables can be arranged into (n - r) independent dimensionless numbers or
groupings. Each of these groupings is called a Π (Pi) term, because in mathematics this
symbol is used to symbolize a product. Once the functional relationship among the Π
terms is established, it can then be investigated experimentally to see how it relates to the
flow behavior using models. The groupings having the most influence are retained, and
those having only a slight effect on the flow are rejected.

5.3 Procedure for Analysis

The Buckingham Pi theorem is used to find the dimensionless groupings among the
variables that describe a particular flow phenomenon, and thereby establish a
functional relationship between them. The following procedure outlines the steps
needed to apply it.

 Define the Physical Variables.

Specify the n physical variables that affect the flow phenomena, and then see if it is
possible Π terms to inspection. If this cannot be done, then determine the number m of
primary dimensions M, L, T or F, L, T that are involved within the collection of all
these variables. This will result in (𝑛−r)Π terms that can be formulated to describe the
phenomena. For example, if pressure, velocity, density, and length are the suspected-
physical variables, then n= 4. From Table 5-1, the dimensions of these variables are
ML-1T-2, LT-1, ML-3,and L, respectively. Since M, L, and, T are represented in this
collection, r = 3 and so this will result in (4 - 3) = 1 Π term.
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 Select the Repeating Variables

From the list of n variables, select r of them so that all these r variables contain the r
base dimensions. As a general rule, select the ones with the simplest combination of
dimensions. These r variables are called repeating variables. To reduce the amount of
work no dimensionless repeating variable should be selected since this in itself is a Π
term. AIso, no repeating variable should be-selected if it is defined in terms of other
repeating variables using multiplication or division, such as Q=VA. In the above
example we can select pressure, velocity, and density (r = 3) as the repeating variables,
since their collection of dimensions involves M, L,T (r = 3).

 𝚷 Terms

From the remaining list of (n - r) variables, select any one of them, called q, and
multiply it by the r repeating variables. Raise each of the r variables to an unknown
exponent, but keep the q variable to a known power, such as one. This represents the
first Π term. Continue the process of selecting any other q variable from the (n - r)
variables, and again write the product of q and the same r repeating variables, each
raised to an unknown exponential power, producing the second Π term, etc. This is
done until all (n - r) Π terms are written.

Dimensional Analysis

Express each of the (n - r) Π terms in terms of its base dimensions (M, L,T or F, L,T),and
solve for the unknown exponents by requiring each dimension in the Π term to cancel
out, since the Π term must be dimensionless. Once determined, the Π terms are then
collected into a functional expression f (Π1,Π2,...) = 0, or in the form of an explicit
equation, and the numerical values of any remaining unknown constant coefficients or
exponents are then determined from experiment.

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List the dimensions of each variable according to {MLT} or {FLT} is given in this Table 5-1

Problem5.1: What are the dimensions of acceleration of gravity, density, dynamic

viscosity, Kinematic viscosity, specific weight, and speed of sound in (a) the FLT system,
and (b) MLT system?

Problem5.2: The drag force, F, on a smooth sphere depends on the relative speed, V,
the sphere diameter, D, the fluid density, ρ, and the fluid viscosity, μ. Obtain a set of
dimensionless groups that can be used to correlate experimental data.

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Problem5.3: Establish the Reynolds number for a fluid flowing through the pipe in
Figure below, using dimensional analysis, realizing that the flow is a function of the
density and viscosity of the fluid, along with its velocity and the pipe's diameter.

Problem5.4: The wing on the aircraft in Figure below is subjected to a drag FD

created by airflow over its surface. It is anticipated that this force is a function of the
density and viscosity of the air, the characteristic, length of the wing, and the velocity
of the flow. Show how the drag force depends on these variables by using FLT
system.

Problem5.5:The Reynolds number ρvd/μ is very important parameter in fluid

mechanics. Verify that the Reynolds number is dimensionless, using both the FLT
system and MLT system for basic dimensions, and determine its value for ethyl
alcohol flowing at a velocity of 3m/s through a 2-in diameter pipe.( the μ and ρ for
alcohol are 1.19×10-3 Pa.s , 789 Kg/m3, respectively)

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5.4 Important dimensionless numbers
Euler Number: It is the difference in static pressure between two points in a fluid,
that causes the fluid to flow, and so the ratio of the force caused by this pressure
difference to the inertia force, 𝜌𝑉2𝐿2, is called the Euler number or the pressure
coefftcient. The pressure force Δ𝑝𝐴 can be expressed in terms of its length dimensions
as Δ𝑝𝐿2, and so the Euler number is

This dimensionless number controls the flow behavior when pressure and inertia
forces are dominant, as when a liquid flows through a pipe. It also plays a role in the
cavitation of a liquid, and in the study of drag and lift effects produced by a fluid.

Reynolds Number: The ratio of the inertia force 𝜌𝑉2𝐿2 to the viscous force is called
the Reynolds number. For a Newtonian fluid, the viscous force is determined from
Newton's law of viscosity, 𝐹𝑣=𝜏𝐴=𝜇(𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑦). Retaining the fluid property 𝜇, the
viscous force has length dimensions of 𝜇(𝑉/𝐿)𝐿2, 𝜇𝑉𝐿, so that the Reynolds number
becomes

This dimensionless number is investigating the behavior of laminar and turbulent flow in
pipes and it controls flow in closed conduits, such as pipes, viscous forces also affect the
flow of air around slow-moving aircraft, and water around ships and submarines.

Froude Number: The ratio of the inertia force 𝜌𝑉2/𝐿2 to the fluid's weight
𝜌∀𝑔=(𝜌𝑔)𝐿3 becomes 𝑉2/𝑔𝐿. If we take the square root of this dimensionless
expression, we have

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This dimensionless number studies the surface waves produced by the motion of a
ship. It is important in the study of any flow having a free surface, as in the case of
open channels, or the flow over dams or spillways.

Weber Number: The ratio of the inertia force 𝜌𝑉2𝐿2 to the surface tension force 𝜎𝐿 is
called the weber number, named after Moritz weber, who studied the effects of flow in
capillary tubes. It is

It is important in studying the effects of flow in capillary tubes, and the flow of thin
films of liquid over surfaces, or the flow of small-diameter jets or sprays.

Mach number: The square root of the ratio of the inertia force 𝜌𝑉2𝐿2 to the force that
causes the compressibility of the fluid is called the Mach number.

Where c is the speed at which a pressure disturbance (sound) will naturally travel within
a fluid medium. This dimensionless number is important in studying the effects of
compressible flow.

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5.5 Similarity:
Moreover, the dimensional analysis provides scaling laws, which can convert data from a

cheap, small model to design information for an expensive, large prototype.

We do not build a million-dollar airplane and see whether it has enough lift force. We

measure the lift on a small model and use a scaling law to predict the lift on the full-scale

prototype airplane. There are rules we shall explain for finding scaling laws. When the

scaling law is valid, we say that a condition of similarity exists between the model and

the prototype. Similarity is achieved if the Euler, Reynolds, Froude, Weber, and Mach

numbers are the same for both the model and the prototype.

 Geometric Similarity:

A model and prototype are geometrically similar if and only if all body dimensions
in all three coordinates have the same linear-scale ratio.

Note that all length scales must be the same. It is as if you took a photograph of the
prototype and reduced it or enlarged it until it fitted the size of the model. If the model is
to be made one-tenth the prototype size, its length, width, and height must each be one-
tenth as large. Not only that, but also its entire shape must be one-tenth as large, and
technically we speak of homologous points, which are points that have the same relative
location. For example, the nose of the prototype is homologous to the nose of the model.
The left wingtip of the prototype is homologous to the left wingtip of the model. Then
geometric similarity requires that all homologous points be related by the same linear-
scale ratio. This applies to the fluid geometry as well as the model geometry.

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 Kinematic Similarity:
Kinematic similarity requires that the model and prototype have the same length-scale
ratio and the same time-scale ratio. The result is that the velocity-scale ratio will be
the same for both:
The motions of two systems are kinematically similar if homologous particles lie at

homologous points at homologous times.

Length-scale equivalence simply implies geometric similarity, but time-scale equivalence

may require additional dynamic considerations such as equivalence of the Reynolds and
Mach numbers.

 Dynamic Similarity

Dynamic similarity exists when the model and the prototype have the same length-scale
ratio, time-scale ratio, and force-scale (or mass-scale) ratio. Again geometric similarity is
a first requirement; without it, proceed no further. Then dynamic similarity exists,
simultaneous with kinematic similarity, if the model and prototype force and pressure
coefficients are identical. The many types of forces to be considered include those due to
pressure, viscosity, gravity, surface tension, and elasticity. This means that for complete

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dynamic similitude, the Euler, Reynolds, Froude, Weber, and Mach numbers must be the
same for both the model and the prototype.

Problem5.6: Flow through the pipe coupling (union) in Figure below is to be studied
using a scaled model. The actual pipe is 6 in. in diameter, and the model will use a pipe
that is 2 in diameter. The model will be made of the same material and transport the same
fluid as the prototype. If the velocity of flow through the prototype is estimated to be
6 ft/s, determine the required velocity through the model. (Ans: 18 ft/s)

Problem5.7: In order to determine the formation of waves around obstructions in a river,

a model having a scale of 1/10 is used. If the river flows at 6 ft/s, determine the speed of
the water for the model. (Ans: 1.897 ft/s)

Problem5.8: Water flowing through a 100-mm-diameter pipe is used to determine the

loss in pressure when gasoline flows through a 75-mm diameter pipe at 3 m/s. If the
pressure loss in the pipe transporting water is 8 Pa, determine the pressure loss in the pipe
transporting the gasoline. Take υg=0.4651×10-6m2/s and υw = 0.8901×10-6 m2/s, ρg = 726
kg/m3, ρw = 997 kg/m3. (Ans: 2.83 Pa)

Problem5.9: For a certain fluid flow problem, it is known that both the Froude number
and the Weber number are important dimensionless parameters. If the problem is to be
studied by using a 1:15 scale model, determine the required surface tension scale if the
density scale is equal to 1. The model and prototype operate in the same gravitational
field. (Ans: 4.44×10-3).

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Problem5.10: The flow-rate over the spillway of a dam is 27000 ft3/min. Determine the
required flow-rate for a 1:25 scale model that is operated in accordance with Froude
number similarity. (Ans: 8.64 ft3/min)

Problem5.11: A model of a submarine is built to determine the drag force acting on its
prototype. The length scale is 1/100, and the test is run in water at 20°C, with a speed of 8
m/s. If the drag force on the model is 20 N, determine the drag force on the prototype if it
runs in water at the same speed and temperature. This requires that the drag coefficient CD
= 2FD/ρV 2L2 be the same for both the model and the prototype. (Ans: 200KN)

Problem5.12: A model is to be used to determine the velocity of the liquid flow through a
small diameter passage in a wall separating two pressurized tanks as shown in Figure
below. Prototype characteristics are indicated on the figure. The model is to have a length
scale of 1/4, a viscosity scale of 2, and if possible, the pressure are to be the same for
model and prototype. Assume that V is a function of P 1-P2, d, L, and the fluid Viscosity, μ.
Determine the required dimensions for the model by using FLT system, and velocity
scale. (Ans: 0.125)

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Problem5.13: A thin flat plate having a diameter of 0.3ft is towed through a tank of
oil ( γ= 53 Ib/ft3) at a velocity of 5 ft/s. the plane of the plate is perpendicular to the
direction of motion, and the plate is submerged so that wave action is negligible.
Under these conditions the drag on the plate is 1.4 Ib. if viscous effects are neglected,
predict the drag on the geometrically similar, 2 ft diameter plate that is towed with a
velocity of 3 ft/s through water at 60 F under conditions similar to those for the
smaller plate

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