8 Solutions

LOOKING AHEAD
Many of the chemicals you use, both in the laboratory and at
home, are not pure substances; they are aqueous solutions. In this
chapter you will study the dissolving process and some of the
types of solutions that result. You will also learn about the quanti-
tative aspects of solutions, because the properties of solutions
depend not only on their composition, but also on their concen-
tration—the relative proportions of solute and solvent.

When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:
■ Define solution, solute, solvent, solubility, and saturation.
■ Describe the effects of temperature and pressure on the solubil-
ity of various solutes.
■ Define and use concentration units such as molarity, percent by
mass, and parts per million.
■ Describe the effect of a solute on the vapor pressure, boiling
point, and freezing point of a liquid solvent.
■ Use and interpret solubility curves.

283
What Is a Solution?
A solution is a homogeneous mixture consisting of a solvent and
a solute. The solvent is what does the dissolving. The solute is
what is dissolved. When substances of different phases, such as a
solid and a liquid, are mixed to form a solution, the solvent
retains its phase, while the phase of the solute changes. In a water
solution of salt, for example, the solution is a liquid. Therefore
water, the liquid, is the solvent, while salt, which was originally a
solid, is the solute. When the substances that are mixed to form a
solution start out in the same phase, the substance present in
greater quantity is generally called the solvent. However, the dis-
tinction is not important.
You learned that a homogeneous mixture is uniform in com-
position—it has only one phase. In other words, a homogeneous
mixture is a uniform system. Solutions are uniform systems. They
are therefore considered to be homogeneous. If you compare sam-
ples of equal volume taken from a salt solution, the quantities of
the solvent—water—and the solute—salt—are the same in each
sample. The salt solution is homogeneous.
Solutions contain one distinguishable, or visible, phase. This
means that you see only one phase with the naked eye or even
with the help of a magnifying lens. This is called a visible, or
macroscopic, view of a solution. Such a view might suggest that
only one kind of matter is present in a solution, because all you
see is a single liquid. If you could actually see the particles in a
solution, however, you would find two kinds of matter: solute
and solvent particles (molecules or ions).
Systems that contain more than one distinguishable sub-
stance are called mixtures. Consider a mixture of salt and sugar.
No matter how finely ground the salt and sugar are, you can still
distinguish two substances in the mixture: salt and sugar. You can
distinguish the substances because boundaries separate the parts
that make up the mixture. No boundaries can be detected in a
solution.

Types of Solutions
There are many different types of solutions. The most com-
mon type is solids dissolved in liquids. Other types of solutions
include:

284 | Chapter 8: Solutions

 1. Solutions of gases in liquids. An example is carbon dioxide
gas dissolved in water (carbonated water).
2. Solutions of liquids in liquids. Alcohol dissolved in water is a
solution of this type.
3. Solutions of gases in gases. Nitrogen and oxygen are dis-
solved in each other in air.
4. Solutions of gases in solids. An example is air dissolved in ice.
5. Solutions of solids in solids. Copper is dissolved in zinc in the
alloy called brass.
6. Solutions of solids in gases or solutions of liquids in gases.
Iodine vapor is a solution of iodine particles in air. Carbon
tetrachloride vapor is a solution of particles of carbon tetra-
chloride in air. Both of these types of solutions are generally
considered to be solutions of gases, or vapors, in gases.

The Nature of the Dissolving Process

When two elements react and form a compound, the properties
of the compound are generally different from the properties of
the elements that make up the compound. For example, sodium,
a very reactive metal, combines with chlorine, a poisonous gas,
and forms sodium chloride, or table salt, a common and useful
part of our diet.
Solutions are different from compounds in this respect. A
solution has some of the properties of the solute and some of the
properties of the solvent. For example, potassium chromate,
K2CrO4, is a yellow compound. A solution of K2CrO4 in water is
yellow like the solute, K2CrO4. The solution also has many of the
properties of the solvent, water. On the other hand, the boiling
point, freezing point, and density of a solution are different from
those of either the solute or the solvent.
Energy changes accompany the dissolving process. Heat
may be given off (an exothermic change), or heat may be
absorbed (an endothermic change). These energy changes indi-
cate that there are interactions between the solvent and solute
particles. We will now examine the nature of some of these
interactions.

The Nature of the Dissolving Process | 285

 Solid in Liquid Solutions
When a solid dissolves in a liquid, the bonds that hold it
together in the solid state are broken, and the resulting particles
are surrounded by the liquid molecules. If the solid is ionic, for
example, NaCl, the ions separate on dissolving. Molecular sub-
stances, such as sugar, break up into individual molecules, which
are then surrounded by the solvent molecules. In either case,
energy is required to overcome the attractions within the solid.
The energy needed to separate the solid particles, whether they
are ions or molecules, is called the crystal lattice energy.
The attractions between the solute particles and the solvent
particles result in a release of energy. In aqueous solutions, this
energy is called the hydration energy. When a solid dissolves in
water, the crystal lattice energy is absorbed and the hydration
energy is released. The attractions within the solid tend to pre-
vent it from dissolving, while the attractions between the solid
and the liquid tend to favor dissolving.
Ionic solids are held together by strong interionic attractions.
They cannot dissolve appreciably unless there are also strong
attractions between the ions and the solvent molecules. Let us
examine what happens when NaCl dissolves in water. Recall that
water molecules are highly polar, with negative charge on the
oxygen side of the molecule, and positive charge on the hydrogen
side. The water molecules can surround the Na and Cl ions, as
shown in Figure 8-1. The attractions between the water molecules
and the ions are strong enough to permit the ions to separate,
and form a solution. The ions shown in Figure 8-1 are said to be
hydrated—surrounded by water molecules—and are often repre-
sented with the symbols Na(aq) and Cl(aq). Water is the only

H
O
H H
H
H O H O
O Na+ O H H CI– H H
H O H O
H
H H
O
H

Figure 8-1 Hydrated sodium and chloride ions

286 | Chapter 8: Solutions

commonly used solvent that is polar enough to permit ionic
solids to dissolve in it.
Sugar, while not ionic, contains molecules which, like water
molecules, are highly polar. The negative side of a sugar molecule
is attracted by the hydrogen on the water, while the positive side
is attracted by the oxygen. Like many polar substances, sugar is
very soluble in water.
Solid iodine, I2, is a nonpolar molecule. It is only slightly solu-
ble in water, because the attractions within the water (hydrogen
bonds) are much stronger than the attractions between the water
and the iodine. However, iodine is extremely soluble in carbon
tetrachloride, CCl4. Carbon tetrachloride is a nonpolar molecule.
The weak intermolecular attractions within the carbon tetrachlo-
ride permit other nonpolar molecules to dissolve.
Chemists often predict solubility by using a simple rule: like
dissolves like. This means that nonpolar materials generally dis-
solve best in nonpolar solvents. Ionic and polar substances gener-
ally dissolve best in polar solvents.

Liquid in Liquid Solutions

When water and ethanol (alcohol) are mixed in any quantity
they form a homogeneous mixture. Liquids that are completely
soluble in one another are called miscible liquids. The nonpolar
liquid benzene, C6H6, is miscible with carbon tetrachloride, CCl4.
However, when water is mixed with carbon tetrachloride, the liq-
uids form two distinct layers (see Figure 8-2). Such liquids are said
to be immiscible. Water is also immiscible with benzene, as shown
in Figure 8-2. In each case, the top layer contains the liquid with
the lower density.

H2 O C6H6

CCI4 H2O

C6H6 + CCI4 H2O + CCI4 H2O + C6H6

Miscible Immiscible Immiscible

Figure 8-2 Miscible and immiscible liquids

The Nature of the Dissolving Process | 287

 Since water is highly polar, it tends to be miscible only with
liquids that also are highly polar. It is immiscible with nonpolar
liquids, such as benzene, carbon tetrachloride, and gasoline. Once
again, in general, like dissolves like.

PRACTICE
8.1 When iodine crystals, I2, are added to carbon tetrachlo-
ride, CCl4, they dissolve readily to form a deep purple
solution. When I2 is added to water, it dissolves only
slightly, producing a pale, yellow-brown mixture. If these
two solutions are mixed together in a test tube and shak-
en, the result is shown below.

Colorless

Purple

(a) Why is iodine more soluble in CCl4 than it is in water?

(b) Why is the top layer of the mixture shown in the dia-
gram colorless?
(c) Why are two separate layers formed in this mixture?
(d) Why is the water the top layer?
(e) If the experiment is repeated using benzene instead of
CCl4, how will the results be different?

Solutions of Gases in Liquids

Our method of predicting solubility works well for solutions
of gases in liquids as well. Which should be more soluble in
water, O2 or NH3? Since ammonia is polar, and oxygen is nonpo-
lar, we would predict that ammonia should be more soluble in
water, a polar solvent. In fact, under the same conditions ammo-
nia is more than 10,000 times more soluble in water than is O2.

288 | Chapter 8: Solutions

PRACTICE
8.2 The following mixtures are prepared:
(1) sulfur and water
(2) iodine and benzene
(3) benzene and carbon tetrachloride
(4) water and gasoline
(a) Which is a mixture of immiscible liquids?
(b) Which is a mixture of miscible liquids?
(c) Which mixture contains an insoluble solid?
8.3 State whether each of the following is more soluble in (1)
water or (2) carbon tetrachloride, and briefly explain your
answer.
(a) HCl gas
(b) Br2 liquid
(c) NiNO3 solid

Expressing Solubility
Sometimes you will see a compound described as “soluble,”
“slightly soluble,” or “insoluble.” Solubility expressed in these
terms is sometimes too vague to be useful. It is preferable to
express how much solute dissolves in a given amount of solvent
at a specific temperature. This information can be determined
experimentally or found in a reference table. In either case, solu-
bility refers to the maximum amount of solute that can be dis-
solved in a given amount of solvent at some specific temperature.
As you will soon learn, this information tells you about solubility
in terms of saturated solutions.
Solubility can be expressed precisely in various ways, depend-
ing on the units that are most convenient to use. Following are
some examples:
grams of solid solute per 100 grams of liquid solvent
grams of gaseous solute per 1000 mL of liquid solvent
milliliters of liquid solute per liter of liquid solvent
molarity or molality (These terms are defined on pages 299
and 304.)
parts per million

The Nature of the Dissolving Process | 289

 140
KI
130

120
NaNO3
110

100
Grams of solute/100g H2O

KNO3
90

80
HCI
70
NH4CI
60
KCI
50

40 NaCI

30

20
KCIO3 NH3
10
SO2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (°C)

Figure 8-3 Solubility curves for some compounds

Solubility information can be shown graphically, as in

Figure 8-3. Each curve shows the mass of solute that will dis-
solve in 100 grams of water at different temperatures.
Look at the solubility of NaNO3 in 100 grams of water
at 10°C. According to the graph, 79 grams of NaNO3 can dissolve
at this temperature. Suppose 1 additional gram of NaNO3 solid
were added to this solution (80 grams of NaNO3 in 100 grams of
water) while the temperature was kept at 10°C. What would you
observe? The excess solid would settle to the bottom of the con-
tainer. If this solid were separated from the solution by filtering,
then dried and massed, it would have a mass of 1 gram.
At 10°C, 100 grams of water can dissolve only 79 grams of
NaNO3. At this temperature, the solution is saturated. In other
words, the solution contains the maximum amount of that
solute that can be dissolved at this temperature. At 40°C, an

290 | Chapter 8: Solutions

additional 25 grams of NaNO3, or a total of 105 grams, are
needed to saturate 100 grams of water.
If a saturated solution is cooled, the excess solute generally
crystallizes. For example, at 30°C, the solubility of NaNO3 is
95 g/100 g of H2O. At 20°C, the solubility is 87 g/100 g of H2O. If
a saturated solution of NaNO3 in 100 g of H2O is cooled from
30°C to 20°C, 8 grams of solute crystallize out.
When saturated solutions of solids in water are cooled, and
the solid substance becomes less soluble, crystallization normally
occurs. However, under special conditions and with specific
solutes (such as sodium acetate), cooling a saturated solution may
not cause the excess solute to crystallize. The cooled solution
then contains more solute than it normally should under the new
conditions. Solutions that contain more of a given dissolved
solute than will normally dissolve at a given temperature are said
to be supersaturated. Supersaturated solutions are very unstable.
The addition of one tiny solute crystal will destroy a supersat-
urated solution, and all of the excess solute will crystallize out.
Solutions that contain no undissolved material may be
saturated, unsaturated, or supersaturated. To determine which is the
case, you add one small additional solute crystal to the mixture. If
the solution is unsaturated, the crystal will dissolve. If the solution
is saturated, the crystal will remain undissolved. If the solution is
supersaturated, additional crystals will form as the supersaturation
is destroyed. The resulting solution will be saturated.
In summary, a saturated solution is a solution containing the
maximum solute that will normally dissolve at a given tempera-
ture and pressure. An unsaturated solution is a solution that can
dissolve more solute at a given temperature and pressure. A super-
saturated solution is a solution containing more than the maxi-
mum solute that will normally dissolve at a given temperature
and pressure.

Saturated Solutions
If you add sugar to water, at first it dissolves. However, if you
continue to add sugar, the solution eventually becomes saturated,
and will dissolve no more sugar at that temperature. Why does
this happen? A common misconception is that the water has
become full, and has no more room for additional solute. You can
test this idea easily at home. Add a large quantity of sugar to a

The Nature of the Dissolving Process | 291

small glass of water, and stir thoroughly for a few minutes. The
solution is now saturated with sugar, and has undissolved crystals
sitting on the bottom. Add some unsweetened instant iced tea
mix to the mixture, and stir. The tea dissolves readily. Obviously,
the saturated sugar solution still has room for the tea. (Or for any
other soluble material you might wish to try.) A saturated sugar
solution is saturated only for sugar.
A saturated solution is actually at equilibrium. The rate of dis-
solving has become equal to the rate of crystallization, so no
observable change occurs. As sugar is added to water, at first the
rate of dissolving is much greater than the rate of crystallization,
so only dissolving is observed. As more and more sugar goes into
solution, the rate of crystallization increases, since sugar molecules
can “find” one another more easily. Eventually, the rate of crystal-
lization becomes equal to the rate of dissolving. For every sugar
molecule that dissolves, one crystallizes, so that no change in the
solution is observable. The solution has reached equilibrium and
is now saturated. No additional sugar will dissolve, but any other
soluble material will! If a saturated sugar solution is cooled, the
rate of dissolving decreases, so that it becomes slower than the rate
of crystallization. Crystals of sugar form in the solution.

PRACTICE
8.4 A single crystal of sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3, is added to
a clear solution of that substance. The crystal grows larger,
and then a large number of additional crystals form. A
considerable amount of heat is released during the crystal-
lization process.
(a) Was the original solution saturated, unsaturated or
supersaturated? How do you know?
(b) Is the dissolving of sodium thiosulfate in water
endothermic or exothermic? How do you know?

Using Solubility Curves

Refer to the solubility curves on page 290. Each curve shows the
quantity of solute that will saturate 100 grams of water at a given

292 | Chapter 8: Solutions

temperature. Although the chart expresses the solubility in grams
per 100 grams of water, it can be used to find the solubility of a
solute in any quantity of water, by setting up a simple proportion.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
How many grams of KClO3 are needed to saturate 250 g of
water at 48°C?

SOLUTION
Using the chart, you can see that at 48°C, the solubility
of KClO3 in 100 g of water is 20 g. If 20 g of solute saturates
100 g of water, then how much will saturate 250 g? Set up
the proportion:
20 g KClO3 x g KClO3

100 g H2O 250 g H2O
Solving the equation, you see that x  50 g of KClO3.

PRACTICE
8.5 At what temperature will 90 g of NaNO3 exactly saturate
100 g of water?
8.6 A solution is made by adding 60 g of NH4Cl to 100 g of
water at 80°C. Is the solution saturated, unsaturated, or
supersaturated?
8.7 A saturated solution of KClO3 is prepared in 100 g of water
at 70°C. The solution is then cooled to 30°C. How many
grams of KClO3 crystallize out? (The solution does not
become supersaturated.)
8.8 How many grams of NaCl are needed to form a saturated
solution in 25 g of water at 100°C?
8.9 (For experts) A solution was made by adding 80 g of
NaNO3 to 100 g of water at a temperature of 24°C. The
solution was kept in an open container at that tempera-
ture, until crystals began to form.

The Nature of the Dissolving Process | 293

 (a) Why did crystals form?
(b) How many grams of water remained in the container
when the crystals first began to form?

Factors That Influence Solubility

A ball rolls unaided down a smooth hill, losing potential energy.
This is called a spontaneous change because, once the change—
rolling—begins, no additional energy is needed to keep it going.
The ball at the bottom of the hill has less potential energy than it
had before reaching the bottom. The ball is therefore more stable
at the bottom of the hill.
In a similar way, potential energy in the form of heat is
released in an exothermic change. Thus exothermic changes
should proceed spontaneously. For example, a dissolving process
that is exothermic is like a ball rolling downhill—it should pro-
ceed spontaneously. Conversely, a dissolving process that is
endothermic is like a ball trying to roll uphill—it should not
proceed spontaneously. Experiments have shown, however, that
both exothermic and endothermic processes may occur sponta-
neously. This fact raises a question: Is the dissolving of a solid in
water, or any other change, governed by energy factors alone?

Energy and Randomness

To resolve the conflict between what we think should happen
and what actually happens, let us assume that energy is not the
only factor that influences solubility. The dissolving of a solid in
water is, in fact, governed by another factor, in addition to the
energy factor. This new factor, it turns out, is one of the most
important in nature—randomness. Randomness is the tendency of
matter to spread out, or to become as disordered as possible.
What does this mean?
A scientist naming the state of a substance—solid, liquid, or
gas—is describing the degree to which the particles of the sub-
stance are ordered. The opposite description, that is, the degree of
disorder, or randomness, of the particles, can also be used.
Substances are most ordered in the solid state, less ordered in
the liquid state, and least ordered in the gaseous state. This is
because the attractive forces are greatest in a solid and least in a

294 | Chapter 8: Solutions

gas. Thus the particles in a solid have the least degree of ran-
domness, and the particles in a gas have the maximum degree of
randomness.
The term entropy, which is symbolized by S, is used to
describe randomness. A gas has greater entropy than has a solid.
When a solid dissolves, the attractive forces are weakened,
and randomness increases. The crystal lattice breaks up and the
particles become more mobile—more randomly arranged. If the
solution process is endothermic, the solution cools as the process
goes on. The solution has higher potential energy and lower sta-
bility than have the solute and the solvent. The dissolving process
should therefore not occur spontaneously. However, during the
dissolving process, randomness increases. If randomness increases
enough, it outweighs the opposite effect of the energy change,
and the process of solution proceeds spontaneously.
The changes in randomness and energy that occur during dis-
solving can be combined quantitatively, and used to accurately
predict solubility. As we will see in Chapter 11, the course of most
physical and chemical changes can be analyzed through calcula-
tions involving energy and entropy change.

Temperature
Look at the solubility curves in Figure 8-3 on page 290 again.
Each curve describes the composition of a particular saturated
solution at any specific temperature. For six of the ten solutes
shown (KI, NaNO3, KNO3, NH4Cl, KCl, and KClO3), the curves
rise. This indicates that the solubilities of the solids in water
increase with an increase in temperature. For solid NaCl, the
curve is nearly horizontal. This shows that little change in solu-
bility takes place with increasing temperature. In other words,
NaCl is just as soluble in hot water as it is in cold water. The
curves for the gases NH3, HCl, and SO2 show a decrease in solu-
bility with increasing temperature. This is typical of gases.
The effect of an increase in temperature on a physical or chem-
ical change depends on whether the change is endothermic or
exothermic. An increase in temperature will promote any change
that is endothermic, and will inhibit any change that is exother-
mic. (This concept is more fully discussed in Chapter 10.) The dis-
solving of a solid in a liquid is usually endothermic, because more
energy is absorbed in breaking the bonds within the solid, than is

Factors That Influence Solubility | 295

released when the solid interacts with the liquid solvent. The
endothermic dissolving process is favored by an increase in tem-
perature. Solids are usually most soluble at high temperatures.
Gases, however, have no crystal lattice energy. The dissolving
of a gas is generally exothermic, and favored at low temperatures.
The three gases, graphed in Figure 8-3 on page 290, are all most
soluble at low temperatures.

Pressure
Liquids and solids are virtually incompressible. Thus an
increase in pressure has little effect on the solubility of liquids
and solids.
Gases, on the other hand, can easily be compressed. The solu-
bility of a gas in water at constant temperature is proportional to
the pressure of the gas. More gas will dissolve in water as the pres-
sure of the gas is increased. In the manufacture of carbonated
beverages, for example, the solubility of carbon dioxide in water
is greatly increased by increasing the pressure on the gas.
The effect of pressure on the solubility of gases is demonstrated
every time you open a bottle of carbonated beverage. Before you
open the bottle, you observe that there are no bubbles forming in
the liquid. The dissolved carbon dioxide has reached equilibrium
at high pressure. When you open the bottle, you decrease the pres-
sure, and the carbon dioxide becomes less soluble and begins to
bubble out of the liquid. Eventually, the system will reach equilib-
rium at its new pressure and stop bubbling. The beverage has
become “flat.” By keeping the beverage cold and the bottle sealed,
you are maintaining the conditions which maximize the solubility
of a gas in a liquid—low temperature and high pressure.

PRACTICE
8.10 What is the usual effect of an increase in temperature on
the solubility of solids in liquids?
8.11 What is the usual effect of an increase in temperature on
the solubility of gases in liquids?
8.12 A sealed container holds carbon dioxide gas and water.
What effect would decreasing the volume of the container

296 | Chapter 8: Solutions

 have on the solubility of the carbon dioxide? Explain your
answer.
8.13 Recently, when some miners were rescued from a deep
mine, one of them developed the bends—a condition that
occurs when nitrogen gas becomes less soluble in the
blood, and begins to bubble out of solution. Why did the
gas become less soluble when the miner was brought to
the surface?

The Quantitative Composition

of Solutions
Different quantities of solvent and solute can be used to make
solutions. The solutions then have different concentrations—that
is, the solutions have different compositions. The term concentra-
tion refers to the quantity of dissolved matter contained in a unit
(of volume or of mass) of solvent or solution.
Several methods are used to express the concentration of a
solution. The terms dilute and concentrated are used to give an
approximate description of the concentration of a solution. The
terms do not have precise meanings, but the following general
statements about them can be made. A dilute solution contains a
much smaller proportion of solute than of solvent. A concen-
trated solution contains a relatively high proportion of solute. If
you like your tea stronger, you could dissolve a greater quantity of
the solute, tea, in your cup of water. To make the tea weaker, you
could use less tea, or more water. Thus the terms “strong” and
“weak” used in describing tea correspond to the terms “concen-
trated” and “dilute” used in describing solutions. More precise
methods of expressing the concentration of a solution involve
the concepts of percentage, parts per million, molarity, and molality.

Percentage Concentration
The percentage concentration of a solution can be expressed
as the parts by mass of solute per 100 parts by mass of total solu-
tion. A 10-percent salt solution by mass contains 10 grams of salt
dissolved in 90 grams of water—that is, 10 grams of salt in 100
grams of solution.

The Quantitative Composition of Solutions | 297

 The equation used to find the percent concentration by mass
is
grams of solute
% by mass   100%
grams of solution

Parts per Million

Solutions that are extremely dilute often have their concentra-
tions expressed in parts per million by mass (ppm). Parts per
million expresses concentration as parts by mass of solute per
one million parts by mass of total solution. The equation used to
find concentration in ppm is
grams of solute
parts per million   1,000,000
grams of solution

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
A sample of tap water with a mass of 200. grams is found to
contain 0.040 gram of Ca2 ion.
(a) What is the concentration of Ca2 ion in the solution
in percent by mass?
(b) What is the concentration of Ca2 ion in the solution
in parts per million?

SOLUTION
(a) To find the percent of Ca2 by mass, use the equation

grams of solute
% by mass   100
grams of solution

0.040 gram
% by mass   100  0.020%
200 grams

(b) To find the concentration in parts per million, use the

equation

298 | Chapter 8: Solutions

 grams of solute
parts per million   1,000,000
grams of solution

0.040 gram
ppm   1,000,000  200 ppm
200 grams

PRACTICE
8.14 Find the concentration of solute in each of the following
solutions in parts per million.
(a) 0.0040 gram of sodium chloride in 1000. grams of
solution
(b) 0.035 gram of sodium in 250 grams of soda.
8.15 According to the label, a certain brand of cola soda con-
tains 27 grams of sugar per 250 grams of soda. What is the
percent of sugar, by mass, in that soda?
8.16 The concentration of sodium ions in a certain brand of
mineral water is 40. parts per million. If a bottle of this
water contains 250. grams of the mineral water, what is
the total mass of the sodium ions in the bottle?

Molarity
Chemical reactions result from the collisions of particles.
Chemists therefore often need to know how many particles of
solute are dissolved in a given volume of solution. Calculations
that involve molar concentration, or molarity, are useful in these
situations. A 1-molar (1 M ) solution contains 1 mole (molar
mass) of solute dissolved in 1 liter of solution. Expressed as a for-
mula,
moles of solute moles
molarity  or M
liters of solution L
If you know two of the variables in the formula, you can calculate
the third.

The Quantitative Composition of Solutions | 299

 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. If 2.0 g of NaOH are dissolved in enough water to make
200. mL of solution, what is the molarity of the solu-
tion?

SOLUTION
Mass and volume are given; molarity is required. To calculate
molarity according to the formula, you must first convert
grams of solute to moles and milliliters of solution to liters.
2g
moles of solute   0.050 mole
40 g>mole
200. mL
liters of solution   0.200 L
1000. mL>L
0.050 mole
molarity   0.25 M
0.200 L

PROBLEM
2. How many moles of NaOH are contained in 200 mL of
0.25 M NaOH?

SOLUTION
Molarity and volume are given; moles are required. After
converting milliliters to liters, as in Sample Problem 1, you
can solve the molarity formula.
moles
M
L
x mole
0.25 M 
0.2 L
x  0.05 mole

PROBLEM
3. How many milliliters of 0.25 M NaOH must be taken
from a stock bottle to obtain 2.0 g of NaOH?

300 | Chapter 8: Solutions

SOLUTION
Molarity and mass are given; volume is required. After con-
verting grams of solute to moles, you can solve for liters of
solvent. Then, you can convert liters of solvent to milliliters.
2g
moles of NaOH   0.05 mole
40 g>mole
0.05 mole
0.25 M 
xL
x  0.2 L
1000 mL
0.2 L 3  200 mL
L

PROBLEM
4. How do you prepare 200 mL of 0.25 M NaOH solution?

SOLUTION
Find the number of moles of solute you need, and then con-
vert to grams.

Let x  moles of solute required.

x mole
0.25 M 
0.2 L
x  0.05 mole
Grams of solute  0.05 mole 3 40g/mole  2 g
To prepare the solution, weigh out 2 grams of NaOH and
dissolve in enough water to make a final volume of 200 milli-
liters. (If you were actually to do this, you would first dis-
solve the solid in a volume less than 200 mL—in, say, 150
mL. Then you would add enough water to bring the final
volume to exactly 200 mL.)

PROBLEM
5. A chemist is sometimes interested in the molar concen-
tration of a specific ion. For example, what is the con-
centration of Cl in a solution labeled 0.2 M CaCl2?

The Quantitative Composition of Solutions | 301

 SOLUTION
CaCl2 dissolves in water according to the equation
H2O
CaCl2 (s) h Ca2(aq)  2 Cl(aq)
For each unit of CaCl2(s) that dissolves, 2 Cl ions are in
solution. If 1 mole of CaCl2(s) were dissolved to make 1 liter
of solution, the solution would contain 1 mole of Ca2 ions
and 2 moles of Cl ions.
If 0.2 mole of CaCl2(s) is dissolved to make 1 liter of solu-
tion, the concentration of Ca2 is 0.2 M and the concentra-
tion of Cl is 0.4 M.

PRACTICE
8.17 Find the molarity of the following aqueous solutions.
(a) 2.0 moles of HCl in a volume of 500 mL
(b) 20.0 g of NaOH in a volume of 2.0 L
(c) 23 g of C2H5OH in a volume of 500 mL
8.18 How many grams of solute are needed to make each of the
following aqueous solutions?
(a) 4.00 L of 2.00 M HNO3
(b) 200. mL of 4.00 M glucose (Molar mass of glucose 
180 g/mole.)
8.19 What is the molarity of sodium ion, Na, in 50.0 mL of a
solution containing 10.6 g of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3?

Dilution Problems
We have used the relationship,
moles moles solute
M , or molarity 
L liters of solution
If we are solving for moles, this equation becomes
moles  M  L, or moles  molarity  liters.
When we dilute a solution by adding additional solvent, we do
not change the number of moles of solute. Therefore, the molar-
ity  liters in the original solution is the same as the molarity

302 | Chapter 8: Solutions

times liters in the diluted solution. This relationship is expressed
in the dilution equation
Mo  Vo  Mf  Vf
where Mo and Vo are the original molarity and volume, and Mf and
Vf are the final molarity and volume.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. How much water must be added to 100 mL of a 0.2 M
solution to obtain a 0.10 M solution?

SOLUTION
In this problem, the original solution is being diluted with
water. You can use the dilution equation in which Mo and Vo
are the original molarity and volume, and Mf and Vf are the
final molarity and volume. Original volume, the original
molarity and final molarity are given; final volume is
required.
Mo  Vo  Mf  Vf
0.2 M  100 mL  0.1 M  x mL
x  200 mL
The final volume of the solution must be 200 mL. However,
on careful reading of the question, you find that you are
asked for the amount of water to be added. Since the original
volume was 100 mL, and the final volume is 200 mL, you
need to add 100 mL of water.

PROBLEM
2. If 400 mL of H2O are added to 200 mL of 0.6 M NaOH,
what is the molarity of the new solution?

SOLUTION
Once again, you can use the dilution equation. The original
volume, the original molarity, and the amount of water

The Quantitative Composition of Solutions | 303

 added are given; the final volume and the final molarity are
required. The final volume is 600 mL, because 400 mL of
water was added to 200 mL of solution.
Mo  Vo  Mf  Vf
0.6 M  200 mL  x M  600 mL
x  0.2 M

PRACTICE
8.20 A chemist has 40. mL of 6.0 M NaOH that he wishes to
dilute to a concentration of 0.50 M. What should be the
final volume of his solution?
8.21 A chemist carefully pours 50. mL of 4.0 M sulfuric acid
into a beaker of water. The total, final volume in the
beaker is 200. mL. What is the new concentration of the
acid?
8.22 A student added 50.0 mL of 2.0 M aqueous HCl to 450 mL
of water. What is the molarity of the new solution?
8.23 (For experts) A chemist mixed 50.0 mL of 2.0 M HCl with
100. mL of 3.0 M HCl, and then added an additional 100.
mL of water. What is the molarity of HCl in the resulting
solution?

Molality
Calculations involving molar concentration, or molarity, are
used when chemists have to know how many particles of solute
are dissolved in a given volume of solution. Sometimes they must
know how many particles of solvent are in a solution, or they need
to know the total number of particles (solute and solvent) in a solu-
tion. In these cases, their calculations involve molal concentration,
or molality.
A 1-molal solution (1 m) contains 1 mole of solute dissolved
in 1000 grams, or 1 kg, of solvent. When the solvent is water,
since 1 kg of water has a volume of 1 liter, the molarities and

304 | Chapter 8: Solutions

molalities of dilute solutions are approximately the same. In more
concentrated aqueous solutions, the solute occupies a significant
portion of the volume, so that 1 liter of solution contains signifi-
cantly less than 1 kg of water. In such cases, a 1.0 M solution is
more concentrated than a 1.0 m solution.
You can solve problems involving molality with an equation
very similar to the one used for molarity problems.
moles of solute moles
molality  or m
kilograms of solvent kg

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. If 1.80 g of glucose, C6H12O6, are dissolved in 50 g of
H2O, what is the molality of the solution?

SOLUTION
First, find the moles of glucose.

1.80 g
moles of solute   0.010 mole
180 g>mole

Then, convert grams of solvent to kilograms.

50 g
kilograms of solvent   0.05 kg
1000 g>kg

Now, use the formula to find the molality of the solution.

0.010 mole
molality   0.20 m
0.05 kg

PROBLEM
2. If 0.050 mole of sulfur is dissolved in 100. mL of ben-
zene, C6H6, what is the molality of the solution? The
density of benzene is 0.88 gram/milliliter.

The Quantitative Composition of Solutions | 305

 SOLUTION
Begin by finding the kilograms of benzene.

kilograms of solvent  100. mL 3 0.88 g/mL

 88 g  0.088 kg
Now, use the formula to find the molality.

0.050 mole
molality   0.57 m
0.088 kg

PRACTICE
8.24 Find the molality of a solution that is made up of 34.2 g of
sucrose (C12H22O11) dissolved in 250 g of water.
8.25 If 0.0750 mole of iodine is dissolved in 300. mL of benzene
(density  0.880 g/mL), what is the molality of the solution?

Some Properties of Solutions

Some solutions conduct electricity, and others do not. Solutions
boil at higher temperatures and freeze at lower temperatures than
do the pure solvents. The number of particles in solution
accounts for these properties of solutions. Let us see how.

Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes

For a substance to conduct electricity, carriers of charge must
be present. These charge carriers may be electrons, or they may be
ions that are free to move about. Free electrons are present only
in the lattices of metals. All other conductors of electricity must
contain mobile ions.
The ability of various kinds of matter to conduct electricity
can be determined with a setup such as the one shown in Figure
8-4. When the switch is closed and the electrodes are connected
by something that conducts electricity, the circuit is complete

306 | Chapter 8: Solutions

 – +

Switch Source of
direct voltage

Graphite Bulb
electrodes

Liquid to
be tested

Figure 8-4 Apparatus for testing conductivity

and the bulb lights. Suppose that the electrodes are surrounded
only by air. Can the air alone act as a conductor between the elec-
trodes? No. The bulb does not light when the switch is closed. Air
is a poor conductor of electricity. Now suppose that a piece of
metal is placed across the electrodes. This time, when the switch
is closed, the bulb glows brightly. The metal is a good conductor
of electricity. Next, place the electrodes in a water solution of an
ionic compound. What happens this time? The bulb lights, just as
it did when the electrodes were connected by a strip of metal. The
brightness of the bulb is a fairly good measure of the number of
charge carriers in the solution. The solution, like the strip of
metal, is a good conductor of electricity.
Compounds that conduct electricity in solution are called
electrolytes. Electrolytes contain mobile, charged particles (ions)
in the solution. Some electrolytes form large numbers of ions in
solution and cause the bulb to glow brightly. Such electrolytes are
called strong electrolytes. Other compounds, such as acetic acid
(CH3COOH) and ammonia (NH3), are poor conductors in solu-
tion and are called weak electrolytes. The bulb just barely lights
in these solutions. Some other compounds, such as sugar and
glycerine, do not conduct electricity in solution. The bulb does
not light at all in these solutions. Such compounds are called
nonelectrolytes.
When an ionic solid dissolves, the ions separate and move
about freely in the solution. (When an ionic solid melts, mobile

Some Properties of Solutions | 307

ions also are formed as the crystal lattice breaks up.) These
mobile ions are the charge carriers.
NaCl(s) → Na(aq)  Cl (aq)
Cu(NO3)2 (s) → Cu2(aq)  2 NO3 (aq)
(NH4)2SO4 (s) → 2 NH4(aq)  SO42 (aq)
KOH(s) → K(aq)  OH (aq)
Ca(OH)2 (s) → Ca2(aq)  2 OH (aq)
Covalent compounds, such as sugar or glycerine, form hydro-
gen-bonded molecules when they dissolve. These molecules do not
carry a charge, and the compounds are nonelectrolytes. Other
covalent compounds react with molecules of the solvent and form
ions. These ions are charge carriers. The following equations show
the ions formed when certain covalent molecules dissolve in water:
HCl (g)  H2O → H3O  Cl (aq)
CO2 (g)  2 H2O → H3O  HCO3 (aq)
Boiling Points and Freezing Points
Water solutions containing a solute that does not vaporize
easily (a nonvolatile solute), such as NaCl, boil at temperatures
higher than the boiling point of pure water. The solutions freeze
at temperatures lower than the freezing point of pure water. The
elevation of the boiling point and the depression of the freezing
point depend on the nature of the solute and on the concentra-
tion of the solution.
The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pres-
sure of a liquid equals the pressure of the gas acting on the liquid.
When water contains dissolved matter, the tendency of water
molecules to leave the surface of the water is decreased. This is
the same as saying that the vapor pressure of a solution is lower
than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent. As a result, the tem-
perature at which a solution boils is somewhat higher than the
temperature at which the pure solvent boils. When the vapor
pressure of a solvent has been increased enough to equal the pres-
sure of the gas acting on it—that is, when the temperature has
increased enough—the solution boils.
The freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which the
liquid and its solid form have the same vapor pressure. The vapor

308 | Chapter 8: Solutions

pressure of a solution is lower than the vapor pressure of pure
water. It follows, then, that the freezing point of the solution will
be somewhat lower than the freezing point of pure water.
Elevation of the boiling point and depression of the freezing
point depend on the composition of the solution and on the con-
centration of the solution. For nonelectrolytes, the boiling point
and the freezing point are proportional to the molal concentra-
tion of the solution.
The elevation of the boiling point per mole of solute is higher
for electrolytes than it is for nonelectrolytes. For electrolytes, the
elevation of the boiling point is roughly proportional to the
molal concentration of the solute multiplied by the number of
moles of ions formed from one mole of the solute. Similarly, the
depression of the freezing point is roughly proportional to the
molal concentration of the solute multiplied by the number of
moles of ions formed from one mole of solute.
For approximate calculations, each mole of dissolved particles
(molecules or ions) in 1000 grams of water will raise the boiling
point of water 0.52°C and depress the freezing point 1.86°C. In
liquid benzene, one mole of solute particles per 1000 grams of
the liquid benzene raises the boiling point 2.53°C. This is almost
five times the corresponding effect in pure water.
The effect of particles in solution on the freezing point is the
basis for the use of antifreeze in automobile radiators. A com-
pound such as ethylene glycol

is added to the water in the radiator. The two OH groups on the

molecule permit the ethylene glycol to form hydrogen bonds with
the water; these strong attractions make the two liquids completely
miscible. A high enough concentration of antifreeze in the water
will prevent the liquid from freezing even in the coldest weather.
Compounds that form ions when dissolved in water are not
used as antifreeze. The conductivity of such solutions would has-
ten the corrosion of the metallic parts of the radiator.
The effects of dissolved particles on the boiling and freezing
points of solutions can be summarized as follows:

Some Properties of Solutions | 309

 1. The vapor pressure of a solution is lower than that of the
pure solvent.
2. The boiling-point temperature of a solution is higher than
that of the pure solvent.
3. The freezing-point temperature is lower than that of the pure
solvent.

Colligative Properties
Properties of solutions, such as vapor pressure, boiling point,
and freezing point, are called colligative, or additive, properties.
Colligative properties depend on the number of particles of
solute in a solution, not on the chemical nature of the particles.
Colligative properties, since they are additive, become more pro-
nounced with increased concentration.
If the concentration of the solution is known, the new freez-
ing point and boiling point of the solution can be calculated
by using certain constants, which are characteristic of each
solvent. These constants are called the molal freezing point
depression constant, and the molal boiling point elevation constant.
For water, the molal freezing point depression constant is
1.86°C/m and the molal boiling point elevation constant is
0.52°C/m. To find the change in boiling or freezing point in an
aqueous solution of a nonelectrolyte, multiply the constant by
the molality.
The freezing point change  tf  1.86°C  m.
The boiling point change  tb  0.52°C  m.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. A student dissolved 1.0 mole of sugar in 250 g of H2O.
At what temperature will this solution boil, and at
what temperature will it freeze?

SOLUTION
To calculate the change in boiling or freezing point we must
first know the molality of the solution.

310 | Chapter 8: Solutions

 moles solute
m
kg solvent
250 g  0.25 kg of solvent
1.0 mole
 4.0 m
0.25 kg
Now using the equation for freezing point depression,
 tf  m  1.86°C
 tf  4.0  1.86°C  7.4°C.
The change in the freezing point is 7.4°C. Since the freezing
point goes down, and the normal freezing point of water is
0°C, the new freezing point is 7.4°C. You find the new boil-
ing point in much the same way. Recall the solution is 4.0 m.
 tb  m  0.52°C
4.0  0.52  2.1°C
The boiling point changes by 2.1°C. Since the boiling point
goes up, and the normal boiling point of water is 100°C, the
new boiling point is 102.1°C.

PROBLEM
2. If 16 g of methanol, CH3OH, are dissolved in 250 g of
H2O, at what temperature will this solution freeze?

SOLUTION
First, calculate the molality of the solution. Since molality is
moles of solute per kilogram of solvent, you will need to
express the quantities of solute and solvent in those units.
The 16 g of CH3OH, which has a molar mass of 32 g, is
16 g
or 0.50 mole.
32 g>mole
The 250 g of water is 0.25 kg of water. The molality of the
solution is
0.50 mole
m or 2.0 m.
0.25 kg

Some Properties of Solutions | 311

 The change in the freezing point is 2.0 m  1.86°C/m  3.7°C.
Therefore, the freezing point of the solution is 3.7°C.

Solutions of Electrolytes
Ionic substances break up into their component ions when
they dissolve. This process is called dissociation. The dissolving of
NaCl, for example, can be represented by the equation
H2O
NaCl (s) h Na (aq)  Cl (aq)
The formation of mobile ions causes these solutions to conduct
electricity. One mole of NaCl will produce one mole of sodium
ions and one mole of chloride ions. In dilute solutions, these ions
behave as independent particles in changing the freezing and
boiling points. One mole of NaCl in water thus produces two
moles of particles, since each NaCl breaks into two ions. The boil-
ing and freezing points are changed twice as much as would be
the case for a nonelectrolyte.
To calculate the freezing point of electrolytes, we introduce a
new term to our equation, which becomes
 tf  1.86°C  m  i
The new term, i, is the number of ions produced when the sub-
stance dissociates. For NaCl, i  2. For BaCl2, i  3, since BaCl2
dissociates to produce one Ba2 ion and two Cl ions. For sodium
sulfate, Na2SO4, i  3. Sodium sulfate forms two sodium ions and
one sulfate ion. Note that polyatomic ions, such as the sulfate, do
not break up when dissolved. Boiling point problems are solved
similarly, using the equation
 tb  0.52°C  m  i

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
At what temperature will a 0.20 m solution of CaCl2 freeze?

SOLUTION
CaCl2 is an ionic substance; therefore, it is an electrolyte. To
find the freezing point we need to consider the number of

312 | Chapter 8: Solutions

 ions formed when CaCl2 dissolves. For CaCl2, the number of
ions formed, i, is 3. Using the equation
 tf  1.86°C  m  i
 tf  1.86°C  0.20  3  1.1°C
The freezing point of the solution is therefore 1.1°C.

PRACTICE
8.26 What is the freezing point of a solution containing 5.8 g of
NaCl dissolved in 500 g of water?
8.27 Arrange the following solutions from highest freezing
point to lowest:
(a) 2.0 m BaCl2
(b) 2.0 m NaNO3
(c) 3.0 m C6H12O6
(d) 1.5 m K2SO4

TAKING A CLOSER LOOK

Raoult’s Law
You have already seen that the vapor pressure of the solvent
is decreased as solute dissolves in it. As was the case with freez-
ing and boiling points, the vapor pressure of the solvent can be
found if the concentration of the solution is known.
The vapor pressure of the solvent can be found using the
relationship known as Raoult’s law. This law is based on a sim-
ple assumption. Suppose a nonvolatile solute is added to water
until it comprises one tenth of the total molecules in the solu-
tion. Then nine tenths of the molecules are water. Raoult’s law
assumes that if nine tenths of the molecules are water, then
only nine tenths of the molecules can evaporate, and the vapor
pressure is therefore reduced to nine tenths of the original
vapor pressure. To use Raoult’s law you need a new unit of con-

Taking a Closer Look | 313

centration, called the mole fraction. The mole fraction of sub-
stance A, usually abbreviated XA, is defined as the moles of sub-
stance A divided by the total moles of all components of the
solution.
moles A
XA 
total moles
For example, if one mole of sugar is dissolved in 19 moles of
water, the mole fraction of water is 19/20, or 0.95.
Raoult’s law states that the vapor pressure of the solvent, PA, is
equal to its original pressure, P°A, times its mole fraction. Again, if
the solvent is defined as substance A, Raoult’s law is
PA  P°A  XA.
(If the solute is an electrolyte, the total moles include the moles
of water plus the moles of each ion formed. This discussion will
be confined to nonelectrolytes.)

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
The vapor pressure of water at 25°C is 31.7 kPa. What is the
vapor pressure of a solution containing 36.0 g of glucose,
C6H12O6, in 86.4 g of water at 25°C?

SOLUTION
To use Raoult’s law you must first find the mole fraction of
solvent in the solution. Glucose has a molar mass of 180 g,
so 36.0 g of glucose is
36.0 g
 0.20 mole.
180 g>mole
Water has a molar mass of 18 g, so 86.4 g of water is
86.4 g
 4.8 moles.
18 g>mole
The total number of moles present is
4.8 moles  0.2 mole  5.0 moles.

314 | Chapter 8: Solutions

 Therefore the mole fraction of water,
XH2O, is 4.8/5.0  0.96.
Now substituting into Raoult’s law, the vapor pressure of the
water in the solution is equal to the mole fraction times the
original pressure, or 0.96  31.7 kPa. The resulting pressure is
30. kPa.

PRACTICE
8.28 Find the vapor pressure of water at 100°C in a solution
containing 1.00 mole of a nonvolatile solute dissolved in
1000. g of water.

Boiling Point, Freezing Point, and Vapor Pressure

The changes in boiling point and freezing point of a solution
are the direct result of the change in vapor pressure. Figure 8-5
shows the phase diagram of water, which was introduced in
Chapter 1. The dashed line in the diagram shows the decreased
vapor pressure, due to the presence of a solute. Note how this
vapor pressure decrease results in a lower freezing point and a
higher boiling point.

New Freezing New Boiling

Point Point
0 100
1 atm
Vapor pressure

I
s

0 100
Temperature (°C)

Figure 8-5 Effect of a solute on the vapor pressure, freezing point, and
boiling point of water

Taking a Closer Look | 315

 Semipermeable
membrane

Concentrated solution Dilute solution

(lower vapor pressure) (higher vapor pressure)

Figure 8-6 Osmosis

Osmosis
Osmosis is the process by which a liquid solvent passes
through a semipermeable membrane. A semipermeable membrane
allows the passage of solvent molecules, but not solute molecules.
The membranes of animal cells are semipermeable; therefore,
osmosis is an important biological process.
Osmosis may be explained on the basis of differences in vapor
pressure. Suppose you have two aqueous solutions of different
concentrations, separated by a semipermeable membrane. The
more concentrated solution has a lower vapor pressure than the
more dilute solution. Therefore water molecules will escape from
the concentrated solution more slowly than they will escape the
dilute solution. Since more water molecules escape from the
dilute solution to the concentrated solution than vice versa, there
is a net movement of water from the dilute solution to the con-
centrated solution. The net movement of solvent molecules in
osmosis is from the region of higher vapor pressure to the region
of lower vapor pressure (see Figure 8-6).

CHAPTER REVIEW

The following questions will help you check your understanding of

the material presented in the chapter. All solutions are aqueous.
1. Which is a mixture? (1) CCl4 (l) (2) CaCl2(s) (3) HCl(g)
(4) NaCl (aq)

316 | Chapter 8: Solutions

 2. A solution in which equilibrium exists between dissolved and
undissolved solute must be (1) dilute (2) saturated (3) con-
centrated (4) unsaturated.
3. Liquid X is completely miscible with water, but immiscible
with liquid Y. It is most likely that (1) molecules of X and Y
are both nonpolar (2) molecules of X and Y are both polar
(3) molecules of X are polar, while those of Y are nonpolar
(4) molecules of Y are polar, while those of X are nonpolar.
4. According to the solubility curves on page 290, which satu-
rated solution is most dilute at 0°C? (1) KI (2) NaCl
(3) NaNO3 (4) KClO3
5. Find the molarity of a solution that contains 4 g of NaOH in
500 mL of solution. (Formula mass of NaOH  40.) (1) 0.01 M
(2) 0.2 M (3) 0.5 M (4) 2 M
6. NaOH is added to one beaker of distilled water, and C2H5OH
is added to another beaker of distilled water. Both of the solu-
tions that are formed will (1) be strong electrolytes (2) be
weak electrolytes (3) have a lower boiling point than pure
water (4) have a lower freezing point than pure water.
7. How many moles of KNO3 are required to make 0.50 L of a
2.0 M solution of KNO3? (1) 0.50 (2) 1.0 (3) 2.0 (4) 4.0
8. According to the solubility curves on page 290, a solution con-
taining 100 g of KNO3 per 100 g of H2O at 50°C is considered to
be (1) dilute and unsaturated (2) dilute and saturated (3) con-
centrated and unsaturated (4) concentrated and supersaturated.
9. A sample of water with a mass of 2000. grams is found to
contain 0.100 gram of lead. What is the concentration of the
lead in parts per million? (1) 5 ppm (2) 50 ppm (3) 200 ppm
(4) 500 ppm
10. In 500.0 mL of solution, there are 10.0 g of NaOH. The
molarity of this solution is (1) 1.0 M (2) 0.50 M (3) 0.25 M
(4) 0.10 M.
11. According to the solubility curves on page 290, as the tem-
perature increases from 30°C to 40°C, the solubility of potas-
sium nitrate in 100 g of water increases by approximately
(1) 5 g (2) 10 g (3) 17 g (4) 25 g.
12. At 23°C, 100 mL of a saturated solution of NaCl are in equi-
librium with 1 g of solid NaCl. The concentration of the solu-

Chapter Review | 317

 tion will be changed most when (1) 80 mL of water are
added to the solution (2) additional solid NaCl is added to
the solution (3) the pressure on the solution is increased
(4) the temperature of the solution is decreased 5°C.
13. How many moles of AgNO3 are dissolved in 10 mL of a 1 M
AgNO3 solution? (1) 1 (2) 0.1 (3) 0.01 (4) 0.001
14. How many moles of AgNO3 are in 500.0 mL of a 5-molar
solution of AgNO3? (1) 2.5 (2) 5.0 (3) 10.0 (4) 170.0
15. What is the molarity of a solution containing 20.0 g of NaOH
in 0.50 L of solution? (1) 0.50 (2) 1.0 (3) 2.0 (4) 10.
16. A sample of water is found to contain 0.0200 gram of calcium
ions. If the concentration of the calcium ions in the solution
is 500 ppm, what is the mass of the total sample? (1) 10.
grams (2) 20. grams (3) 40. grams (4) 400. grams
17. One hundred grams of water at 10°C contain 60 g of NaNO3.
According to the solubility curves on page 290, how many
additional grams of NaNO3 must be added to form a saturat-
ed solution at 10°C? (1) 19 (2) 39 (3) 60 (4) 79
18. Which gas is most soluble in water at STP? (1) O2 (2) CO2
(3) NH3 (4) N2
19. What is the total number of moles of CaCl2 needed to make
500 mL of 4 M CaCl2? (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 4 (4) 8
20. Two liters of a solution of sulfuric acid contain 98 g of H2SO4.
The molarity of this solution is (1) 0.50 (2) 1.0 (3) 1.5 (4) 2.0.
21. A solution with a total mass of 1.0 kilogram contains 10.
grams of HCl. The concentration of HCl in the solution could
correctly be expressed as (1) 1.0% (2) 100 ppm (3) 10 molar
(4) 10%.
22. The solution with the lowest freezing point will be produced
when 1.0 g of C6H12O6 is dissolved in (1) 18 g of H2O (2) 100
g of H2O (3) 180 g of H2O (4) 1000 g of H2O.
23. Which expression represents the molarity (M) of a solution?
moles of solvent moles of solvent
(1) (3)
1 kg of solution 1 L of solution
moles of solute moles of solute
(2) (4)
1 kg of solution 1 L of solution

318 | Chapter 8: Solutions

Base your answers to questions 24 through 27 on the diagram,
which represents the solubility curve of salt X. The four points on
the diagram represent four solutions of salt X.

Solubility (grams/100 mL H2O)

100
D

B
C
A

0 100
Temperature (°C)

24. Which point represents a supersaturated solution of salt X?

(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D
25. Which point represents the most concentrated solution of
salt X? (1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D
26. Which point represents a saturated solution of salt X? (1) A
(2) B (3) C (4) D
27. Which points represent unsaturated solutions of salt X?
(1) A, B (2) B, C (3) C, D (4) A, C
28. A 1-molal solution of MgCl2 has a higher boiling point than a
1-molal solution of (1) FeCl3 (2) CaCl2 (3) BaCl2 (4) NaCl.
29. Which 1-molal solution will have the highest boiling point?
(1) KNO3 (2) Mg(NO3)2 (3) Al(NO3)3 (4) NH4NO3
30. The freezing point of a kilogram of water will be lowered
most by adding one mole of (1) CaCO3 (2) CaSO4 (3) CaSO3
(4) CaCl2.

Dry Cleaning: How Dry Is It?

A comedian once said about dry cleaners and the clothes they
work on: “I know they’re getting them wet!” Flicking his finger
at an imaginary speck of food on his tie, he noted, “That’s dry
cleaning!”

Dry Cleaning: How Dry Is It? | 319

 All joking aside, there is some truth in those remarks. Dry
cleaners use a variety of liquid solvents to clean clothing that, for
one reason or another, should not be washed with water and
detergent. A shrewd dry cleaner has to know a bit of chemistry
to decide which solvent to use for a particular type of stain.
Although water is often called “the universal solvent” because
of its ability to dissolve many substances, water is a polar sub-
stance—its molecules have a slightly positively charged end and
a slightly negatively charged end, similar to a bar magnet.
Because of this, water is good at dissolving polar substances and
ionic compounds, such as salts, which are composed of oppo-
sitely charged ions.
However, water is not good at dissolving nonpolar sub-
stances. The positive and negative charges on these molecules
are more or less evenly distributed. Nonpolar substances, such as
lipids (fats and oils), are not water-soluble, and they cause some
of the most stubborn stains on clothing. Following the axiom
“like dissolves like,” dry cleaners rely on a number of nonpolar
solvents to clean clothing soiled by nonpolar substances such as
butter, wax, and grease.
Carbon tetrachloride, CCl4, is a nonpolar solvent that came
into widespread use early in the twentieth century. However, by
the 1950s, doctors realized that exposure to CCl4 was causing
serious illnesses among dry cleaners, such as liver disease and
central nervous system damage. By the 1960s, the solvent called
perchloroethylene, which was thought to be safer, largely
replaced CCl4. Perchloroethylene, or “perc” is a chlorinated
hydrocarbon compound derived from petroleum. However, it
was soon found that perc also has dangers. It is toxic in high
doses and chronic exposure to even small amounts is suspected
to cause cancer. When released into the environment, perc can
contaminate drinking-water supplies.
Nevertheless, perchloroethylene is still the solvent of choice
among dry cleaners. Advances in dry-cleaning machinery have
reduced (but not eliminated) the exposure of workers to perc
and the amount of perc being released into the environment.
Meanwhile, researchers are trying to develop safer and more
environmentally friendly cleaning solvents. One interesting possi-
bility is using liquid carbon dioxide as a dry cleaning solvent.

320 | Chapter 8: Solutions