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Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1310–1317

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Photovoltaic solar system connected to the electric power grid

operating as active power generator and reactive power compensator
Fabio L. Albuquerque *, Adélio J. Moraes, Geraldo C. Guimarães,
Sérgio M.R. Sanhueza, Alexandre R. Vaz
Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia-MG, CEP 38400-902, Brazil

Received 14 July 2009; received in revised form 3 April 2010; accepted 15 April 2010
Available online 12 May 2010

Communicated by: Associate Editor Igor Tyukhov

Abstract

In the case of photovoltaic (PV) systems acting as distributed generation (DG) systems, the DC energy that is produced is fed to the
grid through the power-conditioning unit (inverter). The majority of contemporary inverters used in DG systems are current source
inverters (CSI) operating at unity power factor. If, however, we assume that voltage source inverters (VSI) can replace CSIs, we can gen-
erate reactive power proportionally to the remaining unused capacity at any given time. According to the theory of instantaneous power,
the inverter reactive power can be regulated by changing the amplitude of its output voltage. In addition, the inverter active power can be
adjusted by modifying the phase angle of its output voltage. Based on such theory, both the active power supply and the reactive power
compensation (RPC) can be carried out simultaneously. When the insolation is weak or the PV modules are inoperative at night, the
RPC feature of a PV system can still be used to improve the inverter utilisation factor. Some MATLAB simulation results are included
here to show the feasibility of the method.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Photovoltaic solar systems; Distributed generation; Reactive power; Active power

1. Introduction
At present, a photovoltaic (PV) system or plant PV is
commonly connected to the electrical grid as a distributed
generation (DG) system, especially in developed regions
such as, for example, Japan, the USA, and Europe (Erge
et al., 2001; Schoen, 2001; Wiemken et al., 2001). Nor-
mally, this PV system is strategically placed near consump-
tion points where the delivery of electrical energy is needed,
which can relieve generation, transmission and distribution
systems. Consequently, such a strategic location can delay
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 3239 4166.
E-mail addresses: fabiolima@etfto.gov.br (F.L. Albuquerque), ajmor-
aes@ufu.br (A.J. Moraes), gcaixeta@ufu.br (G.C. Guimarães), sergior-
ivera@etfto.gov.br (S.M.R. Sanhueza), alexandrevaz@hotmail.com (A.R.
Vaz).
the need for new investments and improve the load curve
and voltage profile of the feeder, reducing the level of grid
and transformer loadings and reduction electrical losses
(Hoff et al., 1996; Ackermann, 2001; Salmam, 2001; Hoff
and Shugar, 1995; Conti et al., 2003), as well as bring envi-
ronmental benefits by avoiding the emission of pollution
(Krauter and Ruther, 2004; Spiegel et al., 2000). Special
attention should be paid to Germany, where there are pro-
grams that aim to install 100,000 solar roofs and PV sys-
tems in schools. These programs are supported by the
federal government and by local energy companies (Erge
et al., 2001; Decker and Jahn, 1997).
Utilisation of an inverter is needed to operate a PV sys-
tem connected to the electrical grid for the conversion of
direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). It is impor-
tant to mention that the majority of inverters that are cur-
rently used to connect the PV system to the electrical power

0038-092X/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2010.04.011
 F.L. Albuquerque et al. / Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1310–1317
grid are current source inverters (CSI) operating with a unity
power factor, which implies that they are capable of provid-
ing only active power to the grid system. Thus, the reactive
power required by the local loads will continue to be supplied
by a capacitor bank connected to the primary distribution
system or to the substation. Therefore, when the insolation
is weak or during the night, such PVs systems lose their
power-generating capacities and become useless; all loads
must be fed directly by the electrical grid.
However, if the voltage source inverter (VSI) is used
instead of the CSI, reactive power can be generated and
absorbed using the available capacity of the inverter at a
specific moment in accordance with the demand of the elec-
trical grid (Begović et al., 2001; Hassaine et al., 2009;
Mekhilef and Rahim, 2004; Yu et al., 2005). Thus, in this
work, the inverter connected to the electrical grid simulta-
neously supplies the active power generated by the PV sys-
tem and feeds or consumes the reactive power in
accordance with the necessity of the distribution grid and
the availability of the PV power. When the insolation is
weak or the PV system is turned off during the night, the
reactive power compensation (RPC) function is used. This
extra function increases the availability of and improves
the energy quality of the grid because there is local power
compensation control. Some theoretical analysis and simu-
lation results using a VSI inverter will follow to confirm the
methodology proposed here.
2. Operation principles
When talking about power generation and consump-
tion, the analysis of an inverter can be performed analo-
gous to that of a synchronous machine connected to an
infinity bus, but the inverter dynamics are faster due to
the absence of rotor inertia. Conversely, the necessity of
imposing on the inverter a behaviour comparable to the
synchronous machine, it makes the inverter control depen-
dent on the feedback signal from the grid voltage. Fig. 1
shows the single-phase inverter connected to the grid.
In contrast with synchronous machines, there is a rela-
tionship between neither the phase shifts of generator volt-
ages and the active power nor between the output voltage
Fig. 1. General single-phase inverter system connected to the electrical power grid.
1311
amplitude and the reactive power of power inverters. Thus,
to connect an inverter to an infinity bus, it is necessary that
these linkages be created by the control system so that sta-
ble operation can be achieved.
The active power P and reactive power Q carried by the
electrical grid can be calculated through Eqs. (1) and (2)
(Stevenson, 1982).
V iV s
P¼ sin d ¼ P MAX sin d ð1Þ
2pfLC
V 2i V iV s
Q¼  cos d ð2Þ
2pfLC 2pfLC
where Vi = voltage on the terminals of the inverters,
Vs = voltage of the electrical grid, LC = inductance of the
coupling inductor, d = phase difference between voltages
Vi and Vs, f = frequency of the system.
To have reactive energy transfer between the inverter
and the electrical grid, it is necessary to provide an ampli-
tude difference between their voltages. If the inverter volt-
age Vi is greater than the electrical grid voltage Vs, but
they are in phase, the inverter supplies only reactive power
to the grid (capacitive mode). Conversely, if voltage Vi is
smaller than voltage Vs but still in phase, the inverter
absorbs reactive power from the grid (inductive mode).
If the inverter has energy storage equipment (battery,
fuel cell, or PV system) on the DC side, it can carry out
active power exchange between the inverter and the electri-
cal grid. The active power exchange can be controlled by
the phase shift between voltages Vi and Vs. If it is thus
desirable to absorb active power from the grid, the output
voltage is generated with a delay and with the same magni-
tude as the grid voltage. This defines the direction of active
power flow as being from the grid to the inverter. The
inverter can also provide active power to the grid if the
inverter output voltage has the same magnitude as the grid
voltage but is advanced in phase. This operation is possible
because there is a suitable energy storage apparatus on the
DC side. So, when the voltage Vi is delayed or advanced
relative to Vs (by an angle smaller than 90°), and with
the same voltage magnitude, it provides active power
absorption or generation, respectively. The analysis is
1312 F.L. Albuquerque et al. / Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1310–1317

based on the inductive coupling between the inverter and

the grid. Fig. 2 shows the phaser diagram of the inverter
operation under four working conditions.
All functions described previously, absorption or gener-
ation of active and reactive power, can be controlled inde-
pendently. Thus, any combination of active power and
reactive power is possible. The active power generated by
a storage system on the DC side can be supplied from
the inverter to the grid. The reactive power is provided
by the internal characteristics of the inverter as a function
of the commutation operation of the switches.
The active power of the inverter is determined by the
value of the power supplied by the PV system and by the
performance of the inverter. At a specific value of the active
power, the reactive power supplied or absorbed by the
inverter is limited by the nominal apparent power S, as
shown in Fig. 3. The power of the inverter is commonly
determined by the maximum active power that can be sup-
plied by the PV system. Fig. 3. Operational modes of the inverter.

3. Control technique and power circuit
The basic idea of the control technique is to apply a
pulse with modulation (PWM) pattern to a constant DC
bus voltage with the main objective of setting the power
angle in accordance with the energy supplied by the photo-
voltaic system. This objective is achieved by fixing the value
of the voltage Vdc of the DC bus capacitor where the PV is
connected. Thus, the PV supplies more or less active power
to the electrical grid in accordance with the variation of the
generated energy that changes with insolation level. Fur-
thermore, this system has the objective of changing the
magnitude of the voltage vector at the inverter terminals,
so that the inverters generate or absorb reactive power to
or from the grid, in accordance with the necessity of the
grid. When there is little or no energy generation by the
PV system, due to cloudy weather or at night, the idleness
of the grid is used. This aim can be achieved by changing
the active and reactive power flow between the equipment
and the electrical grid, through the active and reactive com-
ponents of the current vector I, Ip and Iq, respectively, as
shown in Fig. 2.
Considering Eqs. (1) and (2), and in accordance with the
analysis carried out, the statements of Table 1 can be given:
As shown in Fig. 2, the inverter control of active and
reactive power flows is accomplished by acting on the cur-
rent components Ip and Iq, respectively. Such components
can be altered by working properly with the inverter, so that
voltage Vi is supplied at its terminals and currents Ip and Iq
are set in suitable values to the desired compensation.

Fig. 2. Phaser diagram of VSI inverter operation.

 F.L. Albuquerque et al. / Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1310–1317
Table 1
Inverter operation.
Cases Inverter
P>0 Supplying active power
P<0 Absorbing active power
Q>0 Supplying reactive power
Q<0 Absorbing reactive power
The voltage Vi can be expressed as a function of ampli-
tude modulation index, ma, when a PWM inverter is used.
Eq. (3) shows the relationship between Vi and Vdc.
V i ¼ ma  V dc ð3Þ
The full system is comprised of the PV, a DC/DC boost
converter, a capacitor on the DC side (Cdc), a full bridge
inverter with PWM control of the switching frequency fs,
a filter (Lf and Cf), a coupling inductor on the AC side
(LC), voltage and current sensors, and a control. The struc-
ture of this system is shown in Fig. 4. Measured variables
of the inverter circuit are: the capacitor DC voltage (Vdc),
the electrical grid voltage (Vs) and the PV current (Ipv).
The boost circuit is used to realise the maximum power
point tracking (MPPT) for the PV array output. The incre-
mental conductance method for MPPT is used here (Hua
and Shen, 1998).
The closed loop control of the DC link voltage is needed
because the output power of the PV array varies with the
insolation level and the cells’ temperature, and it is neces-
sary to maintain the DC bus voltage Vdc constant. The
error between the measured DC link voltage Vdc and the
reference DC link voltage V 0dc is obtained. A proportional
integral (PI) regulator is added to regulate this error. The
output of the PI regulator is used to control the output
active current of the inverter. Let the reference DC link
voltage be the negative input and the measured voltage
be the positive input. When the measured DC value is
higher than the reference DC value, the error is positive,
Fig. 4. Power system and control of the PV connected to the electrical grid.
1313
and the inverter produces the active power. The greater
the error, the greater will be the output of the active power.
When the measured DC value is lower than the reference
DC value, the inverter’s delivery of active power decrease
or stops. The control flow chart of the supplied active
power is shown in Fig. 5a.
The control should also set the output voltage amplitude
of the inverter so that it increases or decreases relative to
the reference voltage amplitude, which is due to the
decrease of the PV current Ipv that is proportional to the
fall of the insolation level. The error between the reference
current I 0pv and the measured current Ipv is determined.
This error is used to control the output reactive power of
the inverter. Let the reference current I 0pv be the positive
input, and the measured current Ipv be the negative input.
When the inverter supplies nominal active power, the mea-
sured Ipv value is equal to I 0pv . In this case, the error is zero,
and the inverter will not supply or absorb the reactive
power. When the measured Ipv value is lower than I 0pv ,
the error is different from zero, and the inverter supplies
reactive power when the grid voltage (Vs) is smaller than
the nominal effective voltage of reference of the grid
(220 V); the inverter absorbs from the grid when its voltage
is larger than 220 V. The greater the error, the greater will
be the output of the reactive power. Tracking the needs of
the electrical grid, the reactive power supplied or absorbed
by the inverter will increase following the decrease or stop
of the inverter-supplied active power, avoiding inverter
idleness. However, the active and reactive power of the
inverter is limited by the nominal apparent power. The
control flow chart of the reactive power supplied or
absorbed by the inverter is shown in Fig. 5b.
4. Results and simulations
The software MATLAB was used in the simulations to
obtain the results for the active, reactive, and apparent
1314 F.L. Albuquerque et al. / Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1310–1317
Fig. 5. Inverter control flow chart: (a) active power and (b) reactive power.
powers that are supplied to the electrical grid from the
inverter. The computational simulations are performed to
analyse, under different generation conditions, the profile
of the active, reactive, and apparent powers. Regarding
the active power supply, the inverter is associated with
the PV modules that act as DC sources. In the development
of this work, the PV system model was used, where the DC
reference voltage in the capacitor Cdc of the inverter is set
to 390 Vdc in the simulation, while the nominal effective
voltage of reference of the grid is 220 Vac. Nominal features
of the PV system are: output power 3250 W, output voltage
390 Vdc, under conditions of maximum power, with an
insolation level of 1000 W/m2, and at a temperature of
25 °C. This system is connected to a distribution grid.
Reactive power needs to be absorbed by the grid when
its voltage is below the reference nominal voltage of
220 V. Conversely, if the grid voltage is above this value,
it has extra reactive power that needs to be absorbed from
the grid. So, the control sets the inverter to supply reactive
power to the grid when its voltage is smaller than 220 V
and to absorb reactive power from the grid when its volt-
age is larger than 220 V.
Parameters of the circuit used in the simulation are
shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Parameters of the power circuit.
fs (kHz) Vdc (V) Cdc (lF) Lf (mH) Cf (lF) LC (mH)
18.00 390 500 0.8 60 5
Results obtained for stable operation conditions are
illustrated in Figs. 6–13, which show the active, reactive
and apparent powers under the four operation conditions.
These figures are divided into two situations: from Figs. 6–
9, the grid voltage is less than the nominal reference value
(220 V), which triggers the inverter to supply reactive
power to the grid; and from Figs. 10–13, the voltage of
the grid is greater than the nominal reference value, which
triggers an absorption of reactive power from the grid.
These conditions of reactive power supply or absorption
should act considering the nominal power limit of the
inverter.
The nominal apparent power is S (VA), active power is
P (W) and reactive power is Q (VAr).
Figs. 6–9 show the active, reactive, and apparent powers
supplied from the inverter to the grid for the case of a grid
reactive power deficit (V < 220 V), taking into account four
insolation levels: Case 1 – for 0% insolation level (Fig. 6);
 F.L. Albuquerque et al. / Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1310–1317 1315

Fig. 6. Active, reactive and apparent powers supplied by the inverter. The Fig. 8. Active, reactive and apparent powers supplied by the inverter. The
PV system is generating 0% of its capacity, and the grid voltage is less than PV system is generating 75% of its capacity, and the grid voltage is less
the nominal reference value (220 V). than the nominal reference value (220 V).

Case 2 – for 25% (Fig. 7); Case 3 – for 75% (Fig. 8); and
Case 4 – for 100% (Fig. 9). The active power supplied by
the PV system to the grid increases as the insolation level
increases. The control performs well because the active
power stabilises after a few transient oscillations. The con-
trol also works properly because the reactive power from
the inverter to the grid decreases as the active power
increases when the insolation level goes up and vice versa.
This fact shows that the system does not become inactive
because the reactive power is compensated even when there
is little active power generated.
It can be verified that the PV active power generation
dominates when the insolation level is high. Conversely,
PV reactive power generation prevails when the insolation
level is low or during the night. The apparent power Fig. 9. Active, reactive and apparent powers supplied by the inverter. The
PV system is generating 100% of its capacity, and the grid voltage is less
remains near the nominal inverter value, even with the than the nominal reference value (220 V).
decrease of the insolation level to zero during the night.
This is an advantage of the control model of PV systems
using VSI inverters compared to those that use CSI invert-
ers, which are currently used.
Figs. 10–13 show the active, reactive, and apparent pow-
ers supplied for the case of a grid reactive power excess

Fig. 10. Active, reactive and apparent powers supplied by the inverter.
The PV system is generating 0% of its capacity, and the grid voltage is
greater than the nominal reference value (220 V).

Fig. 7. Active, reactive and apparent powers supplied by the inverter. The (V > 220 V) for the same four conditions of insolation lev-
PV system is generating 25% of its capacity, and the grid voltage is less els: Case 1 – for 0% insolation level (Fig. 10); Case 2 – for
than the nominal reference value (220 V). 25% (Fig. 11); Case 3 – for 75% (Fig. 12); and Case 4 – for
1316 F.L. Albuquerque et al. / Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1310–1317
Fig. 11. Active, reactive and apparent powers supplied by the inverter.
The PV system is generating 25% of its capacity, and the grid voltage is
greater than the nominal reference value (220 V).
Fig. 12. Active, reactive and apparent powers supplied by the inverter.
The PV system is generating 75% of its capacity, and the grid voltage is
greater than the nominal reference value (220 V).
Fig. 13. Active, reactive and apparent powers supplied by the inverter.
The PV system is generating 100% of its capacity, and the grid voltage is
greater than the nominal reference value (220 V).
100% (Fig. 13). However, because the inverter must absorb
reactive power, its signal is negative, indicating a flow
direction inversion. All of these results are stabilised after
some transient oscillations showing that the control system
also works properly in such situations.
5. Conclusions
The simulation results have shown how the presented
control system adjusted the power angle and the amplitude
of the voltage at the point of common coupling with the grid
system and, consequently, controlled the active and reactive
powers supplied to or absorbed from the grid. The results
also confirmed that the control system performed well for
the analysed photovoltaic system. Through control of the
supply or absorption of reactive power, the power factor
of the grid is improved, avoiding overloads in transformers
and cables, decreasing losses and giving support to the local
voltage. The use of the proposed set at the interface of the
photovoltaic system allows the user to obtain a better
cost-benefit ratio in the implementation of this kind of alter-
native energy generation. It becomes possible to operate a
photovoltaic system in many different conditions, indepen-
dent of the insolation level, by supplying both active and
reactive power in accordance with the availability of solar
radiation and necessities of the electrical grid. The VSI
inverter has the capacity to absorb energy from a generating
appliance or of storing energy in a photovoltaic system, fuel
cell, or battery to provide to the grid. Thus, the capacity of
the VSI inverter to supply active power to the electrical grid
provides beneficial support to electrical systems, allowing
improvements to global efficiency. Furthermore, in combi-
nation with fast control of reactive power, this toll becomes
quite suitable for improving the transient and dynamic sta-
bility of a power electric system.
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