Digital Systems I

EC 381

Lecture 4
Mohamed Elgalhud

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 Arithmetic Addition
 The signed‐magnitude system is used in ordinary
arithmetic, but is awkward when employed in computer
arithmetic because of the separate handling of the sign and
the magnitude. It needs signs comparison and then
performing either addition or subtraction
  the signed‐complement system is normally used.
 The addition of two signed binary numbers with negative
numbers represented in signed‐2’s-complement form is
obtained from the addition of the two numbers, including
their sign bits. A carry out of the sign‐bit position is
discarded.

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Sign addition in 2’s complement
 Example:

 In each of the four cases, the operation performed is always

addition, including the sign bits.
 Only one rule for addition, no separate treatment of subtraction.
Negative numbers are always represented in 2’s complement.

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Arithmetic Addition
 In order to obtain a correct answer, we must ensure that the
result has a sufficient number of bits to accommodate the sum.
 When we add two n-bit numbers and end carry occurs:
 if the two numbers have different signs, just discard the carry.
 If the two numbers have the same sign and the result has the same
sign, just discard the carry.
 If the two numbers have the same sign and the result has a different
sign, it is an overflow.
 When one performs the addition with paper and pencil, an
overflow is not a problem
 Overflow is a problem in computers because the number of bits
that hold a number is finite, and a result that exceeds the finite
value by 1 cannot be accommodated.
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Binary Codes
 How to represent characters, colors, etc?
 Define the set of all represented elements
 Assign a unique binary code to each element of the set
 Given n bits, a binary code is a mapping from the set of
elements to a subset of the 2n binary numbers
 Coding Numeric Data (example: coding decimal digits)
 Coding must simplify common arithmetic operations
 Tight relation to binary numbers
 Coding Non-Numeric Data (example: coding colors)
 More flexible codes since arithmetic operations are not applied

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Example of Coding Non-Numeric Data
 Suppose we want to code 7 colors of the rainbow

 As a minimum, we need 3 bits to define 7 unique values

 3 bits define 8 possible combinations Color 3-bit code

Red 000
 Only 7 combinations are needed Orange 001
Yellow 010
 Code 111 is not used Green 011
Blue 100
 Other assignments are also possible Indigo 101
Violet 110
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Minimum Number of Bits Required
 Given a set of M elements to be represented by a binary
code, the minimum number of bits, n, should satisfy:

2(n - 1) < M ≤ 2n

n = log2 M where x , called the ceiling function, is the

integer greater than or equal to x

 How many bits are required to represent decimal digits

with a binary code?

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Decimal Codes
 Binary number system is most natural for computers
 But people are used to the decimal system
 Must convert decimal numbers to binary, do arithmetic on
binary numbers, then convert back to decimal
 To simplify conversions, decimal codes can be used
 Define a binary code for each decimal digit
 Since 10 decimal digits exit, a 4-bit code is used
 But a 4-bit code gives 16 unique combinations
 10 combinations are used and 6 will be unused
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Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
 Simplest binary code for decimal digits
Decimal BCD
 Only encodes ten digits from 0 to 9 0 0000
 BCD is a weighted code 1 0001
2 0010
 The weights are 8,4,2,1
3 0011
 Same weights as a binary number 4 0100
 There are six invalid code words 5 0101
6 0110
1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111
7 0111
 Example on BCD coding: 8 1000
13  (0001 0011)BCD 9 1001
 It is important to realize that BCD numbers are decimal numbers
and not binary numbers, although they use bits in their
representation.
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Binary Codes for Decimal Digits
 Any discrete element of information that is distinct among a
group of quantities can be represented with a binary code
 These codes represent some type of coded information rather
than binary numbers
Decimal 8,4,2,1 Excess3 8,4,-2,-1 Gray
0 0000 0011 0000 0000
1 0001 0100 0111 0100
2 0010 0101 0110 0101
3 0011 0110 0101 0111
4 0100 0111 0100 0110
5 0101 1000 1011 0010
6 0110 1001 1010 0011
7 0111 1010 1001 0001
8 1000 1011 1000 1001
9 1001 1100 1111 1000
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BCD Arithmetic
 If the binary sum is greater than or equal to 1010, we add
0110 to obtain the correct BCD sum and a carry
 Examples

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 BCD Arithmetic
8 1000
+5 +0101
13 1101 is 13 (> 9)
 Note that the result is MORE THAN 9, so must be
represented by two digits!
 To correct the digit, add 6 (0110)
8 1000
+5 +0101
13 1101 is 13 (> 9)
+0110 so add 6
carry = 1 0011 leaving 3 + cy
0001 | 0011 Final answer (two digits)
 If the digit sum is > 9, add one to the next significant digit
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Gray Code
 Gray code represents digital data
that have been converted from
analog data.
 As we “counts” up or down in
decimal, the code word for the
Gray code changes in only one bit
position as we go from decimal
digit to digit including from 9 to 0.
  eliminates errors during the
transition from one number to the
next

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Warning: Conversion or Coding?
 Do NOT mix up conversion of a decimal number to a
binary number with coding a decimal number with a
BINARY CODE.

 1310 = 11012 (This is conversion)

 13  0001|0011 (This is coding)

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Character Codes
 ASCII
 Stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange
 Represents characters or symbols, such as the letters of the
alphabet
 Only 7 bits defined  codes 128 characters

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Printable ASCII Codes
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
2 space ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . /
3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ?
4 @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
5 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _
6 ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
7 p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~ DEL

 Examples:
 ASCII code for space character = 20 (hex) = 32 (decimal)
 ASCII code for 'L' = 4C (hex) = 76 (decimal)
 ASCII code for 'a' = 61 (hex) = 97 (decimal)
Control Characters
 The first 32 characters of ASCII table are used for control
 Control character codes = 00 to 1F (hexadecimal)
 Not shown in previous slide
 Examples of Control Characters
 Character 0 is the NULL character (‘\0’)  used to terminate a string
 Character 9 is the Horizontal Tab (HT) character (‘\t’)
 Character 0A (hex) = 10 (decimal) is the Line Feed (LF) (‘\n’)
 Character 0D (hex) = 13 (decimal) is the Carriage Return (CR) (‘\r’)
 One control character appears at end of ASCII table
 Character 7F (hex) is the Delete (DEL) character
Error-Detecting code
 To detect errors in data communication and processing, an
eighth bit is sometimes added to the ASCII character to
indicate its parity.
 A parity bit is an extra bit included with a message to
make the total number of 1’s either even or odd.

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Even Parity

 Even parity – set bit to make number of 1’s even

 Examples
A (1000001) with even parity is 01000001
C (1000011) with even parity is 11000011

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Odd Parity
 Similar except make the number of 1’s odd
 Examples
A (1000001) with odd parity is 11000001
C (1000011) with odd parity is 01000011

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Detecting Errors
7-bit ASCII character + 1 Parity bit
Sender Receiver
Sent ‘A’ = 01000001, Received ‘A’ = 01000101

 Suppose we are transmitting 7-bit ASCII characters

 A parity bit is added to each character to make it 8 bits
 Parity can detect all single-bit errors
 If even parity is used and a single bit changes, it will change the
parity to odd, which will be detected at the receiver end
 The receiver end can detect the error, but cannot correct it
because it does not know which bit is erroneous
 Can also detect some multiple-bit errors
 Error in an odd number of bits
Reading
 Read Chapter 1
 Make sure you’re comfortable with material
 Check the lecture notes from the Web site.

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