Journal of Freshwater Ecology

ISSN: 0270-5060 (Print) 2156-6941 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjfe20

Application of AQUATOX, a Process-Based Model

for Ecological Assessment, to Contentnea Creek in
North Carolina

Brenda Rashleigh

To cite this article: Brenda Rashleigh (2003) Application of AQUATOX, a Process-Based Model
for Ecological Assessment, to Contentnea Creek in North Carolina, Journal of Freshwater Ecology,
18:4, 515-522, DOI: 10.1080/02705060.2003.9663992

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02705060.2003.9663992

Published online: 06 Jan 2011.

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 Application of AQUATOX, a Process-Based Model for Ecological
Assessment, to Contentnea Creek in North Carolina
Brenda Rashleigh
US Envimmenta/Pmtecfion Agency
Ofice of Reseamh and Development
National Exposure Reseamh Laboratoy
960 Co//egeStation Road: Athens, GA 30605 USA

ABSTRACT
The aquatic ecosystem simulation model AQUATOX was parameterized and
applied to Contentnea Creek in the coastal plain of North Carolina to determine
the response of fish to moderate levels of physical and chemical habitat
alterations. Biomass of four fish groups was most sensitive to changes in
temperature and detritus, but showed little sensitivity to changes in nutrients,
sediment, pH, or dissolved oxygen. The model appears useful for assessment of
stream ecosystem response to certain types of stressors; its utility should be
determined further by model applications in other study areas and ecoregions.

INTRODUCTION
Physical and chemical nonpoint source pollution and the resulting habitat
degradation are the primary stressors to the eastern stream fishes (e.g.. Richter
et al. 1997). The impact of these anthropogenic stressors on stream ecosystems
is generally reflected in the diversity and composition of fish assemblages (e.g.,
Karr 1981). The complexity of the response of ecological populations and
communities to anthropogenic stressors makes prediction of this response
dimcult. Process-based models can be useful for ecological assessment of such
complex systems.
This analysis uses a process-based model, AQUATOX (ver. 1.69, release 1).
to assess the effect of nonpoint source pollutants on aquatic biota. AQUATOX
is a model for ecological risk assessment that can represent the effects of toxic
chemicals and conventional pollutants on the aquatic ecosystem (Park 2000a).
The model uses a daily timestep to simulate the physical environment (e.g..
flow, light, and sediment) and the chemical environment (e.g., nutrients.
oxygen, carbon, and pH). The dynamics of biotic components of detritus, algae,
benthic invertebrates and fish can be simulated. Although the model has been
applied to assess fish communities in lake settings (Park 2000b). no examples
of stream applications including fish have been published.
Here. the AQUATOX model is applied to a southeastern coastal plain
stream site, the Contentnea Creek in North Carolina. The model is used to
assess sensitivity of the four fish groups to six habitat factors -- temperature.
nutrients, sediment, dissolved oxygen, detrital loading, and pH. This analysis
allows u s to evaluate the utility of the AQUATOX model for assessment of a
stream ecosystem.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The model was applied to Contentnea Creek at the site of the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS)gage at Hookerton in the coastal plain ecoregion of
east-central North Carolina. The length of the site is 200 m, which is the
standard sampling site length used by the state of North Carolina. Values for
latitude (35.4423). channel slope (0.00012),mean stream width (31.4 m).
inflow pH (6.5), and oxygen concentration (6.8 mg/L) were taken from the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reach file 1 database (US EPA 1998).
Light mean (378 Ly/d) and range (447 Ly/d) were taken from the U.S.

Journal of Freshwater Ecology. Volume 18, Number 4 - December 2003

Department of Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory solar radiation
database for Raleigh. NC. Mean evaporation was set to zero, which is
appropriate for stream applications jparka, pers. comm.). Carbon dioxide was
set at a constant default loading of 0.7 mg/L. Detrital input was specified at a
constant loading of 28 mg/L organic matter, of which 5% was assumed to be
particulate and 60% was estimated to be refractory (Cuffney 1988).The default
remineralization parameters are considered widely applicable (Park 2000a), so
they were not changed for this site. In AQUATOX, Manning's equation for
natural streams was selected a s the method to calculate dynamic mean depth
(m) from the input flow data.
Daily values of flow (m3/d),water temperature (" C), and sediment (rng/L)
were read in directly to AQUATOX from output of the HSPF watershed model
(Bicknell et al., 2001). which was applied to the watershed and calibrated
primarily with daily flow data from the USGS gage at the site. Three size
fractions of sediment were used: sand (mean=52.6, std=99.5), silt (mean=7.4,
std=162.7), and clay [mean=11.7, std=206.5). Sediment loading was highly
variable and increased with increasing flow. The application and calibration of
the HSPF model to Contentnea Creek is described in detail by Barber et al.
(2002). Median values of nutrient data from the USGS from 1990-2002 were
used a s constant loading values for the AQUATOX model ( ~ a r n e dpers.
~ , comm.).
Three components of nutrients were used: nitrate (0.64 mg/L), phosphate (0.07
mg/L), and ammonia I0.06 mg/L).
Two groups of algae and three groups of benthic invertebrates were
included in the AQUATOX model (Figure 1). Default parameter sets in
AQUATOX were used for the algae and a constant input of 0.005 g/m2 of each
algae type was assumed (all biomass measurements were in wet weight). The
benthic invertebrate groups correspond to invertebrate communities reported
for the coastal plain (Smock and Gillinse 1992). Default parameter sets for
representative benthic invertebrates were used to characterize invertebrate
groups: chironomid for gathering invertebrates, mayfly for filtering
invertebrates, and stonefly for predatory invertebrates. The only exception was
that the optimum temperatures for mayfly and stonefly were adjusted down to
10°C.
Four fish groups identified by Paller (1994) for the coastal plain ecoregion
were included in the AQUATOX model (Figure 1). Default values were used for
the excretion:respiration ratio (0.05). the gametes:biomass ratio (0.09), and the
minimum prey for feeding (0.2);all of these parameters were the same for all
species. Biomass of the fish groups showed less than a 1% change in response
to an order of magnitude increase in canying capacity parameters, which are
used only during spawning, so AQUATOX default values for carrying capacity
were used.
Parameters for temperature response slope, optimum temperature,
maximum temperature, and specific dynamic action for fishes were taken from
the Wisconsin Bioenergetics model (Hanson et al. 1997. Appendix A), where
dace values were used for both surface-water and benthic insectivores, bluegill-
adult values were used for generalized insectivores, and largemouth bass
values were used for insectivore-piscivores (Table 1).The minimum adaptation
temperature was taken a s lower lethal temperature from Leidy and Jenkins
(1977. Table 13) using minnow values for surface-water and benthic insectivore
groups, sunfish values for the generalized insectivores fish group. and black
bass values for insectivore-piscivores (Table 1).

a R.A.Park. Eco Modeling. Diamondhead, Missouri. USA.

D.A. Hamed. US Geological Survey, Raleigh. North Carolina, USA.
 Bluegill and largemouth bass mortality rates from Leidy and Jenkins (1977)
were used to parameterize the generalized insectivore and insectivore-piscivore
fish groups, respectively (Table 1). Mortality rates for surface-water and benthic
insectivores were assumed to be an order of magnitudegreater. Respiration
parameters were taken from the EPA OXYREF database [www.epa.gov/
ceampubl/oxyref.htm). Half-saturation parameters and maximum
consumption parameters were adjusted in calibration (Table 1).
Feeding interactions among biota are represented in the AQUATOX model
with preference values (Figure 1). These relationships were specified based on
information from Smock and Gilinsky (1992). Carlander (1977). and Benke et
al. (2001). Constant values were used for the egestion fraction of algae and
detritus by invertebrates (0.5). invertebrates by invertebrates and fish (0.15).
and fish by fish (0.05).
The model was run with time series data for a six-year period 1989- 1995.
Algae groups
- - were initialized at their carrying capacities, benthic invertebrate
groups were initialized at 10 mg/L, and fish groups were initialized at 5 mg/L.
A sensitivity analysis to temperature, nutrients, sediment. oxygen. pH, and
detrital loading, was conducted, where each of these driving variables was
sequentially either increased or decreased by 10°/o and the change in biomass
dynamics of the fish groups was assessed.

Surface water Benthic

insectivore insectivore

\
\
I "redatory
:brate

Filtering V+ - -- -- \
\
\ Gathering
Invertebrate

I
*\ -* - Invertebrate

1 Detritus (
I

I Green Algae 1
Figure 1. Diagram of feeding relationships. Solid arrows represent strong
( > 0.3) feeding preferences and dotted lines represent weak ( < 0.3 )
preferences.

RESULTS AND DlSCUSSION

The total fish biomass from the calibrated simulation was within the range
reported for coastal plain streams. 5-37 g/m2 (Sheldon and Meffe 1995).
Percentage occurrences of the different fish groups were consistent with those
reported by Paller (1994).Total biomass of invertebrates was similar to that
reported by Smock et al. (1989) for a coastal plain stream in Virginia: they
noted that these results were applicable to other streams in the ecoregion. It
was not possible to verify the seasonal patterns produced by the model because
fish sampling data were not available at such a frequency.
Fish groug3 in the model appeared most sensitive to temperature (Figure
2a). Because the model specified that all physiological processes are corrected
for suboptimal temperature in the same way, a n increase in temperature does
not affect the daily growth rate. However, a s water temperature approaches the
fishes' optimum temperatures, their consumption rate increases, and the food
resource becomes depleted more quickly, which leads to slower growth over
time. The insectivore-piscivore fish group was most affected by the increase in
temperature, because the effect of reduced growth propagated through the food
web.
Biomass of all fish groups showed low sensitivity to nutrients: 10%
increases in nutrients resulted in less than 1% changes in the biomass of the
fish groups (Figure 2b). The role of nutrients in the model is to support
photosynthesis. The model uses a multiple-limitation concept for algae, so this
result indicates that nutrients were not limiting for this study site. Algae may
be more limited by light and stable substrate than by nutrients in the coastal
plain (Smock and G i l i n s e 1992).
Biomass of all fish groups also showed low sensitivity to sediment (Figure
2c). Low sensitivity of fish groups to sediment is most likely due to the lack of
direct effects of sediment on higher taxa in the AQUATOX model. The model
includes two effects of sediment on the aquatic ecosystem: increased shading.
which can reduce light input and affect algal production; and increased
sedimentation of detritus, which can lead to increased burial and therefore
unavailability of detritus. The model result indicates that fishes were not
sensitive to these two effects at this site. However, certain known direct effects
of sediment on fishes and invertebrates, such a s interference with feeding or
spawning (Newcombe and MacDonald 1991). are not represented in the
AQUATOX model.

Table 1. Selected input parameters for fish groups used in model.

Fish groups
Parameter (units) Surface- Benthic
Generalized Insectivore-
water insectivores insectivores piscivores
insectivores
Maximum 0.36 0.25 0.10 0.03
consumption (g/g/d)
Respiration rate (l/d) 0.015 0.009 0.006 0.006

Temperature 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.65

Response Slope
Optimum 26 26 27 27.5
temperature (" C)
Maximum 29 29 36 37
temperature (" C)
Minimum adaptation 0 0 2.5 1.6
temperature (" C)
Mortality rate (1/d) 0.01 0.01 0.002 0.001
 Biomass of the four fish groups also showed a low sensitivity to a 10%
decrease in dissolved oxygen (Figure 3a). In the model.,dissolved oxygen does
not affect biota directly until the concentration is less than 1.0 mg/L, a t which
time total mortality occurs. Indirect effect of dissolved oxygen on detrital
decomposition occurs at levels of less than 4 mg/L, but these levels did not
occur in this analysis.
The fish groups showed moderate sensitivity to a 10Vo decrease in detritus
loading (Figure 3b). Initially, the fish groups that feed on insects that feed on
detritus showed a decline. Subsequently, biomass of insectivore-piscivore
group declined, a s a result of the decline in the biomass of its prey fish.
Biomass of the four fish groups showed a low sensitivity (c1Yo)to a 10%
decrease in pH (Figure 3c). In this analysis, the pH stayed within the range 5-
8.5; in the model pH does not affect decomposition within this range. The pH
can affect nitrification in the model, but levels of ammonia in this simulation
were relatively low so this effect did not occur.

c)
5-1 - Benthic Ins
........ Surface Ins.
-.-.- Generalized Ins.
---- Piscivore

-51' I
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
Years

Figure 2. Response of biomass of the four fish groups to a 10% increase in (a)
temperature, (b)nutrients, and (c) sediment.
 The AQUATOX model provides a good representation of the aquatic
ecosystem. Detrital and nutrient processes appear to be well-represented. It is
easy to use the AQUATOX model, and also to use time geries outputs from a
watershed model a s driving variables. The model, however, does not represent
interactions between the stream ecosystem and the flood plain, which are
particularly important in the coastal plain ecosystem (Cuffney 1988).Also, it
was difficult to ve~lfyseasonal patterns in the model results, since data were
not collected in a temporal fashion a t the study site. Certain limitations such
a s lack of multiple age classes and spatial dimension will be addressed in
future versions of AQUATOX (Park, pers. comm.). Currently, the model is
useful for assessing the response of the fish groups to certain types of
stressors. Its utility should be determined further by model applications in
other study areas and ecoregions.

c)
57 - Benthic Ins
........ Surface Ins.
-.-.- Generalized Ins.
---- Piscivore

-5L I
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
Years

Figure 3. Response of biomass of the four fish groups to a 10% decrease in (a)
oxygen. (b) detrital loading, and (c) pH.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author thanks John Johnston for providing the time series inputs
from the HSPF model, and also thanks Richard Park and Marjorie Wellrnan for
technical support with the AQUATOX model. Special thanks to Craig Barber for
his review and assistance. This paper has been reviewed in accordance with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's peer and administrative review
policies and approved for publication.

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Received: 29 January 2002 Accepted: 12 March 2002