Language Awareness
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Language awareness as
methodology: Implications for
teachers and teacher training
a
Simon Borg
a
Faculty of Education , University of Malta , Msida,
MSD06, Malta
Published online: 26 Apr 2010.
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LANGUAGE AWARENESS AS
METHODOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR
TEACHERS AND TEACHER TRAINING
Simon Borg
Introduction
This paper is concerned with language awareness (LA) as a methodology
in foreign language learning and analyses the implications of this interpreta-
tion of LA for teachers and, consequently, for teacher training.1 My interest in
this topic stems from my experience of implementing LA with learners and
teacher trainees, but I was prompted to further reflection during the Second
International Conference of the Association for Language Awareness held at
Plymouth in April 1994, where various aspects of LA as methodology were
discussed, such as appropriate learning materials and their effects on the
learners, but where little was said about the implications of this methodology
for teachers. This is a notable omission from any discussion of methodology,
and one which this paper attempts to redress by being explicitly teacher-cen-
tred in its analysis of LA.
An outline of the characteristics of LA as methodology, derived from the work
of Wright & Bolitho (1993), is first given, and this is followed by a discussion of
the demands which this methodology makes on language teachers. The
implications of these demands for LA-oriented teacher training are then
examined. A practical example of the approach to LA-oriented training which is
promoted in this paper is also provided and analysed.
0965-8416/94/02 0061-11 $1.80/0 ©1994 S. Borg
LANGUAGE AWARENESS Vol. 3, No. 2,1994
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62 LANGUAGE AWARENESS
(1) Learning about language is not the intemalisation of a definable body of knowledge
but the on-going investigation of a dynamic phenomenon. This view of language
and learning is fundamental in LA as methodology. It views language not as
so much subject matter to be studied, but as an organic phenomenon (Ruther-
ford, 1987) which learners develop an understanding of through processes
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of continual investigation.
(2) Learning a language should involve talking about the language. LA as methodo-
logy does not simply encourage learners to think about the language and to
express their conclusions through the written medium only. Learners are
actively encouraged to discuss the language analytically, to develop a
metalanguage for doing so, to share their beliefs about language with each
other and to discuss language learning tasks.
(3) Learning is most effective as a process of learner-centred exploration and discovery.
Learning about language has traditionally been perceived in a manner which
conflicts with notions of learner-centredness. LA eliminates this conflict by
approaching explicit language study through learner-centred discovery
activities which involve language exploration.
(4) Effective awareness-raising depends on engaging learners both affectively and cog-
nitively. As a methodology, LA does not assume that learners will be neces-
sarily motivated to participate in language study activities simply because
of the cognitive challenge they present.3 Importance is also given to engaging
learners affectively (e.g. referring to their personal beliefs, attitudes and
feelings) as a means of making them cognitively more receptive. This posi-
tion acknowledges the dependence in learning of the cognitive on the affec-
tive domain (Schumann, 1975).
(5) LA as methodology develops in learners both knowledge about language as well as
skills for continued autonomous learning. 'Learning to learn' has in recent years
become an area of interest in language learning circles. (Ellis & Sinclair, 1989;
Wenden, 1986). LA as methodology incorporates opportunities for learners
to think about, discuss and evaluate their own learning with a view to
increasing their understanding of how the learning process can be made
more effective.
respond to a range of demands related not just to their linguistic awareness but
also to beliefs, attitudes and skills relevant to the whole language teaching and
learning process. Several examples of these demands are discussed below,
together with the qualities teachers require to meet them.
(1) To start with the most obvious demand of LA, teachers themselves need to
be linguistically aware. Deficiency in this awareness will hinder the proper
planning, implementation and evaluation of LA by teachers.
(2) Teachers need to accept a fundamental tenet of LA in all its forms — that
language is a legitimate object of study. Not all teachers will immediately
accept this, especially those whose practice is based on extreme forms of
communicative language teaching where formal language study is ana-
thema.
(3) LA implies a critical, analytical view of language. Teachers need to develop
a disposition to look at language in this way, to constantly review their own
beliefs about language, and to be open to the possibility that these may
require modification. Teachers need to be ready to continue learning about
language rather than to consider as complete the knowledge about language
which they possess.
(4) LA promotes the interpretation of language by learners, and diversity in
learning outcomes is considered to be a positive phenomenon which pro-
vides the basis for the active discussion of learning experiences. Teachers
need to develop an understanding of the kinds of tasks which encourage
language exploration and interpretation, and to minimise the use of closed
exercises which provide little scope for such processes.
(5) The process-orientation of LA encourages learners to reflect on their own
learning and to discuss and evaluate their learning experiences with each
other. It seems logical to suggest that for teachers who adopt LA to feel at
ease working within such a learning environment, they themselves should
have personal experience and an understanding of the reflective processes
their practice aims to promote.
(6) LA is clearly a learner-centred methodology, and this implies a range of
possibly novel roles (e.g. facilitator) which teachers will need to adopt.
Teachers need to develop an understanding of these roles and of how they
64 LANGUAGE AWARENESS
Training content
Earlier on I illustrated the range of demands which LA as methodology makes
of teachers. An analysis of these demands provides the basis for identifying
content relevant to LA-oriented training, and in the box below I have identified
a number of issues arising from this analysis.
Awareness of Language Grammar
Phonology
Lexis
Discourse
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The variety of topics listed here reflects the variety of demands which LA, as
we have seen, makes of teachers, and suggests that James & Garrett's claim (1991:
21) that LA begins with teacher awareness needs to be interpreted in a broad
sense which includes not only awareness of language, but also what are referred
to in the box above as awareness of learning and awareness of teaching. Under
awareness of language one finds the expected topics — linguistically informed
language teachers will understand the language systems—grammar, phonology
and lexis, and their function in discourse. By awareness of learning is meant an
understanding of the nature of the learning processes LA promotes. The issues
listed under this heading have already been shown to be fundamental to LA.
Awareness of teaching implies the development of the skills and notions teachers
require to manage LA effectively. Skills in analysing language, for example, or
the notion of teacher-as-facilitator of learning, are vital to effective LA practice.
The three kinds of awareness identified above are equally important and the
order in which they are described is not meant to imply a hierarchy; thus, for
example, an understanding of what inquiry-oriented learning involves, and of
the nature of LA task design, is just as fundamental as an understanding of the
present perfect tense for teachers who want to adopt LA as methodology in their
66 LANGUAGE AWARENESS
Training methodology
Effective training obviously depends not just on the selection of training
content but perhaps more importantly on the methodology through which this
content is addressed. LA as methodology — as all teaching — is a practical
activity, and an appropriate training methodology for LA-oriented courses will
need, first of all, to reflect this practical orientation. This suggests a 'reflexive'
(Britten, 1985: 224) approach to training — one which, as far as possible,
exemplifies the practice it encourages trainees to adopt. An appropriate
methodology for LA-oriented work then would be one which is based upon the
methodology of LA itself. Let us examine this idea in more detail.
Earlier in this paper, LA was described as a methodology for foreign language
learning which is task-based, participant-centred and inquiry-driven, which
involves the investigation of language and which focuses on both learning
processes and products. Approached reflexively, LA-oriented training would
exhibit these same characteristics. This training methodology, through language-
focused tasks, would first of all provide trainees with opportunities to develop
their own awareness of language. It would also enable them to experience, first
hand, LA as methodology, and, by focusing on specific aspects of this experience
(e.g. the interaction patterns during a task), to develop their awareness of issues
relevant to LA-oriented learning and teaching. A further advantage of this
approach to training is that it integrates different aspects of the course content
identified above and emphasises the interrelationships between issues related to
language, learning and teaching within the methodological framework LA is
based upon.
Wright & Bolitho (1993) have provided examples of reflexive LA-oriented
language teacher training, but they are not as broadly educational as I suggest
LANGUAGE AWARENESS AS METHODOLOGY 67
here in their selection of content.4 In the sample training task given in the
Appendix, I have adapted their approach to incorporate opportunities for
trainees to develop an awareness of learning and teaching, as well as of language.
The training procedure adopted in this task consists of four stages, which are
briefly described below.
Stage 4: Follow up
Follow up involves trainees in exploring further both the language point
analysed as well as the issues related to learning and teaching which were raised.
This may involve trainees in, for example, evaluating the way a language point
is taught in a textbook or presented in a grammar book, devising their own LA
task (which could be tried out at Stage 2 of a subsequent activity), or completing
a reading task.
The training procedure outlined above can be adopted for the analysis of a
wide range of issues related to language, learning and teaching in LA. Despite
this, it is not proposed here as a definitive model, but rather as an example of the
practicability of a reflexive LA-oriented training methodology in which the
development of the different kinds of awareness demanded by LA of teachers is
catered for. Approached in this manner, training reflects the ultimately educa-
tional nature of LA, and provides teachers with the broad preparation which a
linguistically-oriented training course can never hope to supply.
68 LANGUAGE AWARENESS
Conclusion
Language awareness activities have become popular with teacher trainers in
recent years as a discovery-oriented alternative to the direct transmission of
linguistic facts to practising or prospective language teachers. However, much
of this work remains clearly linguistic in its emphasis, and is conducted in
isolation of the wide range of pedagogical issues which underpin LA as a
methodology for classroom practice. It thus fails to prepare teachers to respond
to the variety of demands which implementing LA as methodology in the
classroom presents. As an alternative to this situation, and in the light of these
demands, this paper has suggested that LA-oriented training adopt a broader
interpretation of the teacher awareness demanded by LA so that it includes not
only awareness of language, but also awareness of learning and awareness of
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teaching. Approached in this manner, training will reflect the strong educational
orientation of LA as methodology and prepare teachers not only to cope with the
linguistic requirements of LA, but equally vitally, to develop the attitudes, beliefs
and skills related to language, learning and teaching which are required for its
effective administration.
Pre-task questions
Roles of teachers and learners
(1) Think about a typical grammar lesson which you have experienced either as
a teacher or a learner. Make two lists, one for the roles which the teacher
adopts during such a lesson, and one for those which learners adopt during
the same lesson.
(2) Share your lists with a colleague, describing the kind of grammar lesson you
had in mind. If there are any major differences in your notion of the typical
grammar lesson, briefly discuss these.
(3) Hold on to your lists — you will be referring back to them later on.
least keen on their workmates, and least happy with the effi-
ciency of their firms they work for.
(5) For short distances, British trains are most expensive — 79p for
10km, against France's 42p and Greece's 21p.
(6) French women are by far most conscious of why it is important
to smell nice. According to research, they spend 1 billion pounds a year
on luxury perfumes.
Think about these questions individually, then discuss them with 2-3 colleagues.
(1) What criteria guided your decision to include or omit the? Did you apply any
of the rules you listed before doing the activity?
(2) Were there any sentences you had trouble deciding on? Why do you think
these sentences presented this problem?
(3) Were there any sentences you were immediately sure of? What made you
feel so sure?
(4) The above sentences all illustrate the use of superlative adjectives in English.
Most grammar books say that the use of the with these forms is compulsory,
a few suggest cases where it is optional. What do you feel about the use of
the with superlative adjectives?
(5) Here are the forms of the superlative adjectives as they originally appeared
in the sentences:
(1) the most efficient
(2) (a) the best working conditions; (b) the best-organised work; (c) happiest
(3) (a) most content (b) most inhibited
(4) (a) safest (b) least keen (c) least happy
(5) the most expensive
(6) the most conscious
(6) Reflect upon this information for a while. Does it alter your views on the use
of the with superlative adjectives in any way? Modify, if necessary, the
original list of beliefs about superlative adjectives which you made.
(7) Discuss the conclusions you drew from the above activity and write up a list
of all different information about the use of the superlatives in English which
70 LANGUAGE AWARENESS
your group has as well as any issue(s) you feel you want to clarify further.
Be ready to discuss this with the rest of the class.
(3) Do you feel that any of the roles of teachers and learners you identified in
your original list are inappropriate to the kind of language activity you have
just experienced? If so, try to explain why.
(4) Look at the list of teacher and learner roles identified in your second lists.
What effects (positive and/or negative) on the teaching/learning process do
these roles have?
Follow up
Be ready to discuss the following the next time we meet.
(1) Look at the explanation of superlative adjectives given in the textbook you
use. How accurate is this explanation? Does it need to be modified? If so,
explain how.
(2) What teacher and learner roles are implied in the manner in which your
textbook presents superlatives adjectives to learners?
(3) Wright (1987:62) refers to transmission teachers and interpretation teachers.
What kind of teacher would seem more appropriate for organising the kind
of language awareness activity you did above? Explain.
(4) Section 2 of Wright, T. (1987) Roles of Teachers & Learners. Oxford: OUP.
Notes
1. Throughout this paper, the term LA refers, unless stated, to language awareness as
methodology. Teacher refers to foreign language teachers.
2. Wright & Bolitho focus on LA as methodology in language teacher education, but the
principles behind their approach are applicable to LA work in classroom settings.
3. This cognitive bias is clear, I think, in early LA materials like Bolitho & Tomlinson
(1980). The seminal collection of LA tasks provided here demands intense mental
activity on the part of the learner, without attempting to generate much affective
motivation. My experience has shown that unless learners are intrinsically motivated
to do such work, the cognitive engagement on their part is unlikely to match that
demanded by the activities. Consequently, the latter will fail to reach their objectives.
4. This could be because Wright & Bolitho's work is located within the context of longer
training courses which, as was noted above, may provide separate components related
to issues in learning and teaching.
LANGUAGE AWARENESS AS METHODOLOGY 71
5. The author originally published this activity as part of an article in Modern English
Teacher 1 (4), 18-20.
References
Bolitho, R. and Tomlinson, B. (1980) Discover English. London: Heinemann.
Britten, D. (1985) Teacher training in ELT. Language Teaching 18, 220-38.
Ellis, G. and Sinclair, B. (1989) Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hall, N. and Shepheard, J. (1991) The Anti-Grammar Grammar Book. Harlow: Longman.
James, C. and Garrett, P. (eds) (1991) Language Awareness in the Classroom. London:
Longman.
Luxon, T. (1994) The psychological risks for teachers at a time of methodological change.
The Teacher Trainer 8 (1), 6-9.
Rutherford, W. (1987) Second Language Grammar: Learning and Teaching. London: Long-
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Schumann, J.H. (1975) Affective factors and the problem of age in second language
acquisition. Language Learning 25, 209-35.
Wenden, A.L. (1986) Helping language learners think about learning. English Language
Teaching Journal 40 (1), 3-12.
Wright, T. (1987) Roles of Teachers and Learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
— (1994) Investigating English. London: Edward Arnold.
Wright, T. and Bolitho, R. (1993) Language awareness: A missing link in language teacher
education? English Language Teaching Journal 47 (4), 292-304.