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J ELECTRICAL
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. 1 ANO MAINTENANCE
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10-3
SUCCESSFUL
ELECTRICAL
MAINTENANCE

Practical maintenance principles and methods

for industrial electrical distribution, lighting,
industrial controls, and electric motors.

PUBL/SHED BY
McGRAW-HILL, Inc.
ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, New York 10020

10.3 Printed in U.S.A. PRICE $4 .00

SUCCESSFUL ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE
New Editio n

Compiled from recent articles in, and copyrighted by,

ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION and MAINTENANCE

1221 Avenue of the A me ricas, New York, New York 10020

CONTENTS

PART I-Modern Electrical Maintenance Techniques in Industry

Modern Electrical Preventive Maintenance Program 7
Power Factor Correction . . . . . . . . ...... II
Effective Large-Plant Maintenance . 12
Electrical Techniques in a Metalworking Pl ant .. ...... . 15
Record Card Guides Motor Preventive Maintenance ....... 20
Tools and Techniques for Effective Maintenance 21
Electrical Maintenance At Republic Aviation 25
Specialized Service For Plant Electronics 30
Effective Motor Bearing Maintenance 34
El ectrical Maintenance for Stee lmaking 37
Se lective Manpower For Organize d Maintenance 42
Cont ract Maintenance A ids Production Re liability 46
Design For Simplified Maintenance 50
PART II-Equipment Testing, Troubleshooting and Maintenance
A Practical Approach to Motor Maintenance 56
Maintenance of Large Moto rs and M-G Set s 61
Trouble-Remedy Chart For Induction Motors . 65
Solving Commutation Probl e ms of DC Rotating Machin es 66
How to Maint ain Oil-Ring Sleeve Bearings 70
Reliable Operation of Fire Alarm System . . ........ 74
Troubl es hooting AC Motor Control C ircu its 79
Effective Motor Control Troubl eshooting 83
How to Maintain Motor Controls . ... ... . .. . 86
Troubleshooting Solid-State Speed Controls . . . . 90
Testing a nd Maintenance of Protective Relays and Circuit Breakers 95
DC Ove rpotentia l Testing of Electrical Equipme nt 98
Power Transformer Preventive Maintenance 0I
Electrical Testing With Portable Ind icating Instruments 02
Know Bearing Types and Functions for Proper Replacement . 06
Do's and Don'ts for Ball-Bearing Maintenance 07
Pump Motor Troubleshooting Chart 08
Capacitors for PF Correction at Motor Terminals 09
Powe r Control With Silicon Controll ed Rectifiers I0
NEMA Configurations for Receptacl es and Plug Caps 14
Checklist On Hazardous Location Equipment 16
Troubleshooting Fluorescent Fau lts 19
Troubleshooting Mercury Bal lasts . ....... 21
Relay Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . 23
Troubl e-Remedy Chart For Industrial Controls ....... . 24
Trouble-Remedy Chart For DC Motors and Generators . . . . . . . . 25
Modern Scaffolding and El evating Platforms . ......... 26
Part I

Modern Electrical

Maintenance

Techniques

In Industry

5
Here are key steps to aid organization LANT operating executives are

and operation of an electrical niaintenance

P well aware of the value of a
successful maintenance program
that minimizes electrical outages
program, designed to promote and keeps production on schedule.
In modern plant operations, un-
continuous production,. scheduled stoppage of .production or
long repair shutdowns are intoler -
able because of the resul tant hi g h
cost of downtime that eats deeply
Oy JOSEPH LONGO, into profits.
J. R. Longo & Sons, :\'lorristown, N. J. Although management realizes
the need for good maintenance, they
sometimes resist the investment in
proper tools, techniques or technical
assistance that provides assurance
of effective equipment performance.
Therefore it is up to the plant elec-
t rical man to show management
how a properly planned electrical
7
ELECTRICAL PREVENTIVE MA INTEN AN CE prog rams should
incorporate inspection of high-voltage equipment in outdoor
substations. Safety of inspectors is o primary consideration.
Procedures include check of superstructure nuts and bolts for
t ightness, air switches for proper operation and signs of cor-
ros•on, cleaning of insulators, and testing of transformer oil.
Service company is equipped to pion, organize ond perform
e lec trical preventive maintenance program for industrial cus-
tomers. Firm uses two-way radio-equipped trucks (right, top)
to speed service.

RECORD ING AMM ETER provides o permanent record of run-

ning current of o c;.riticol motor. Recordings, token perodi-
colly, con be compared to evaluate reliability of required con-
tinuous operation. Clomp-on probe is attached to motor circuit
in motor controller.

preventive maintenance program ALI GNMENT of motor end driven load

can be justi fled.
S tep I -Show management that
preventive maintenance pays divi-
dends. Illustrate the advantages to
be gained through a well-planned
PM: program. You can do this by
collecting case histories of equ ip-
ment or system breakdowns and by
tabu lating the cost of resultant lost
product ion. Then show how t he cost
of budgeted preventive maintenance
is s ignificantly less t han the cost of
lost production. Finally, you must
provide concrete evidence t hat the
program that you r ecommend wi11,
in fact, minimize electrical outages.
S tep 2-Start organizing the pro-
gram. It will be a relatively sim-
ple matter to gather data showing
(and mg-sets) should be checked at time
of installation and periodically thereafte r.
In A, the dial indicator reveals angular
misalignment of shafts. Angular align -
ment is the relationship of the shaft's
oxes in the horizontal plane-the angle
formed by the shaft's oxes as they inter-
sect (angle Al. The ideal condit ion exists
when the shaft oxes of the d riving unit
o nd the driven lood o re pa ra llel a nd a ngle
A is zero. In B, horizontal pa rallelism,
o r run-out, is checked by dia l indicator.
This check reveals offset at couplings.
A method for checking belted drives with
o straight edge is also shown.

8

MAI NTE NAN CE OF SOLID-STATE components, such
os these static light dimmers for stage light ing in o
high school, consists primarily of keeping the equip-
ment clean ond cool, inspec tion of components for
loose connections or signs of overheating, check of
monitoring devices ond recording of readings of am-
meters, voltmeters, etc. Keep spore units on hand
for lost replacem ent m the event of trouble.
KEY POINTS to check ot brushes o nd commu to tors on de motors ond
genorolo rs o re: 1. Condition of commutato r-look for undesirable
a tmosphe ric film ond streaking ond threading of commuta tor; 2.
Brush contoct-wotch for excessive sparki ng, check for prope r seat-
ing of brush to assure intimate con tac t with commutato r; 3. Brush
holders-bP. sure brushes ore free to move in brush holders, ch eck
that brush holders ore or proper distance from commutator; 4 . Brush
shunts-look for frayed wires, be sure connections ore tight; 5. Brush
holder springs--check that uniform pressure is applied to oll brushes.
Generally, proper brush pressure is 2 to 2 !12 lbs per sq in. of cross·
sectional oreo of the brush.

the cost of iost production. How-
ever, it is usually a di llicu lt chore
to set u p the budget fo1· t he elec-
trical maintenance program and to
plan its organization a nd operation.
The program must be effeclh·e and,
al the same time. its cost must be
kept to a practical minimum. Do not
underestimate the importance of
t his initial planning. It is through
this planning that you'll be able to
obtain an accurate guide lo cost of
the electrical PM program, and will
obtain the neces~a ry data lo s how
thnt the program will wor k.
Step 3 - Determine elect rical
ma intenance priority. Du ring early
planning, determine whether you
have proper test equ ipment, tools.
and tra ined men to apply them. Es-
timate time r equired to perform
tests, inspections a nd keep records.
Review all plan t equipment and sys-
tems and list all -eq u ipmcn t t hat is
cri tica l to ·pr oduction. Then set up
an electrical ma intenant:e priority
program designating the most im-
portant equipment or circuits at t he
top of the list and the least impor-
tant at the bottom.
Next, each motor, circuit or
equ ipment should be further classi-
fied according to its characteristics,
fu:1ction and inst allation factors .
This comparatively new mainte-
nunce concept, sometimes called
"selective maintenance" or "relia-
bility indexing," r equires an eva l-
uation of the equipment accor ding
to its age, history, environment, and
duty cycle.
Step -I-Select the best mainte-
nance techniques. For each type of
equipment or system. a variety of
maintenance methods may be se-
lected. Choose the best methods for
your ty.pe of equipment. and deter-
mine to what exte nt they should be
applied. As a n example, it may be
sufficient to check for possible bear-
ing t r ouble on a motor s imply by
feeling the beari ng housing for ex-
cessive temper ature, and listening
for unusual sounds. On the other
hand, it may be better to install
temperatu re monitoring devices and
make inspections using a transis-
torized stethoscope or a vibration
analyzer. Careful t hought a nd eval-
uation mu st be applied to each such
s imilar mnintona nce operati on in
order to an ivc nt Lhe most effective
ye t practical mainte na nce techn ique.
Step 5 - Obtain exper ienced
guidan ce. To s implify th is complex
planning, obtai n t he guidance of a
senice organization that specializes
in electrical maintenance. Many
electrical apparatus service firms
and some electrical contractors offer
such services. For example, our
company is staffed with electrical
maintenance specialists who know
latest technical developments und
use effective maintenance methods.
They are equipped with a wide va-
riety of modern test equipment, a nd
car. work in close coordination with
plant electrical men to set up or op-
erate an effective electrical mainte-
nance program.
The data listed below presents
basic procedures recommended for
maintena nce of electrical equip-
ment. This data is presented as
gu idelines to aid in setting up you r
electrical preventive maintenance
progrnm. In most fostan ces, these
proci>dures must be tailored accord-
ing to ci rcumstances pert inent to
each type of equipment.
BASIC ELECTRIC
MA INTENANCE
PROCEDURE
Mot.ors
1. Lubricate regularly according
to manufactu rer's instruct ions . I n
poor environments, change oil once
a month. Never over-lubricate; ex-
cess grease or oil gets into windings
and deteriorates insulation.
2. On essential or heavily used
motors, check bearings daily us ing
stethoscope, t hermometer or vibra-
tion a na lyzer. Check oi l rings.
Wutch for excessive end-play.

9
 ~.R.
on rtST DATA SltEtT
r or:
Cu1toucu· · 1 Order >:o :
APPARATUS:
lbnufacturt:T :
Serl1 l No :
(VA :
C!i l Ions:.
l'At\'JOUS Tl!~TS :
DIELCCTRIC STRtliCTH (l\'):
ht Tut:
lnll feu:
16
IS
3rd TH::
Cth Tes t :
5 t h Tut :
Dhlec: trl c A\·~:a so :
ACI DITY (ai,::/a) :
JXTt:RFAC tAl. TtNSION:
(dynu/c1tl
DtNSITY ("API):
COLOR:
JllASll J>O'INT:
POUR POINT:
VISUAL (OSO lTION:
St:DIMFNT:
CONDITI ON' OF OIL:
AtCOW>ttNOtD 'fRl!ATMENT: Re - Re!i.n~
CONJ<E.'ITS :
3. Check air gap between rotor
and stat or with feeler gages semi-
annually. Differences in readings
indicate bearing wear. Take read-
ings in four locations, 90 degrees
apart, around perimeter of rotor.
4. Check belt tension. Belt should
have play of about 1 in. Check drive-
to-load alignment (see accompany-
ing diagram).
5. In sp~t brushes and commu-
tator for excessive wear. Call serv-
ice company to solve recurring
problems of brush chatter, exces-
sive brush wear or sparking, streak-
ing or lhreading of the commutator.
Check spring pressure of brush
holders. Pressure should be about
2 to 21 lbs per sq in. of brush cross-
sectional area. Be sure brush shun ts
are in good condition and that
brushes are seated properly.
6. Keep the motor clean. In poor
environments, blow out dirt fre-
quently with dry compressed a ir
( not more than 50 lbs pressure) .
Pull important motors during sum-
mer shutdowns or during other
down periods for thorough cleaning
or reconditioning.
7. Perform insulation resistance
tests annually. Correlate with hu-
midity and temperature readings
to obtain indication of insulation
condition. Check that equipment
ground connections are tight.
LONGO .... eoN&
.. .......,.,
,
Sart~ lc No:
Te Jt J\o:
D:ite o( Tu t:
Transfonncr - Sparo
i1 ZlS69
JJJ
2SO
17
. 30
19.6
28.3
l XH
TYPICAL REPORT sub-
Clur
mitted to customer by
...
Heavy
service firm shows condi-
tion of tronsformer insu-
lating oil. Tests include
dielectric st rength, acid-
ity, color of oil, etc.
Control Equipmen t (motor con-
trollers, magnetic contactors, re-
lays, switches, air circuit break-
ers, etc.)
1. Keep control equipment clean.
In poor environments, blow out dirt
weekly, otherwise clean out quar-
terly or semiannually in accordance
with degree of contaminalion.
2. Check for excessive tempera-
tures, rust and corrosion, mechan-
ical damage a nd worn gaskets, if
any exist.
3. Keep contacts smooth. Never
lubricate contact surfaces. (This
causes dirt or other contamination
to collect on contacts resulting in
poor contact and undesirable burn-
ing. ) Do not file silver contacts.
Check coil and arc chutes for signs
of burning or overheating.
4. Check for freedom of move-
ment of mechanical parts. Watch
for frayed flexible leads. Do not oil
contactor or relay bearings.
5. Check contact pressure with
spring scale. Pressure should be the
same on all contacts. If variation
in pressure is found, replace
springs. On important controls, con-
tactors and circuit breakers, check
contact resistance with low-resist-
ance tester (see opening photo).
6. Make sure all electrical con-
nections are tight, especially on
equipment s ubject to vibration.
10
7. Check settings of overload re-
lays and size of protective heater
coils. Have service organization
make load tests on circuit breakers
and motor overload relays every
three to four years.
Transform ers
1. Test insulating oil annually.
Tests should include dielectric
strength, acidity, and color. For
highest degree of reliability, addi-
tional tests should include inter-
facial tens ion and flash point of
oil, power factor, high-potential and
gas analysis tests (see accompany-
ing oil test report).
2. Make regular inspection of
tank for rust or corrosion. Check
tank, fittings, manholes, and gas-
kets for oil leaks. Inspect pressure-
relief devices, bushings, ground
connections and protective devices.
Circui t Conductors
1. Perform insulation resistance
tests annually; on important cir-
cuits perform tests semiannually.
Be sure to record humidity and am-
bient temperature readings for
meaningful test read ings.
2. Keep conductors free of dirt,
oil and other contamination, par-
ticulal'ly at terminals. Provide good
mechanical protection. Check tight-
ness of connections particularly on
equipmen t subject to vibration.
Consider high~voltage t ests on top-
priority circuits.
Fuses
1. Check for proper fuse ratings.
Annu ally, inspect all fuses to make
sure that circuits are not overfused.
2. Keep fu se clips clean and tight
to prevent overheating and needless
blown fuses.
3. Be sure renewable fuse links
are of proper s ize. Make sure re-
newable fu::;es are assembled prop-
erly.
4. Keep fuse enclosures tightly
closed and secured to prevent pos-
sible sparks from escaping when
fuses blow.
Capacitors
1. Check for blown protective
fuses, circuit overvoltage, and ex-
cessh·e dirt or dust which can cause
overheating. Dust on bushings can
also cause leakage and possible
flash over.
2. Check for proper ventilation.
If ventilation is inadequate, relo-
cate capacitors, or provide cooling
baffies or cooling fans.
3. Inspect automatic switching
equipment if provided.
4. Be sure to discharge capac-
itors through a resistance before
handling.
High-Voltage Equipment (Work to
be done after proper station shut-
down.)
l. Inspect ~uperstructure and air
switches annually. Inspect super-
stru cture for rust and check nuts
and bolts fot· tightness. Check air
switches for conosion, ease of op-
eration and proper lubrication. In-
spect and clean bushings. :\lake sure
conductor connections are tight.
Check ground connections and re-
sistance of ground grid. When sta-
tion cannot be shutdown on sched-
Power factor
correction
QUESTION Q48 - In the ?>lant
w h ere I am employed, we ltauc a
problem with keeping a good power
factor.
Th e system which I am most cm1-
eerned with is our 440-volt, 9-phai;c,
GO-cycle vowe'· systern. W e have ad-
justable trans/ ormer taps so wr can
chan.qe our voltage in stevs of 2~% .
Whrre is it best to set the 11olta!!c
for greatest 011erall economics? Is it
best to keep nameplate voltage at
the 111ot<Jr. or is it more economical
lo be al a slightly higher voltage
than nameplate?
The clause in our power contract
gives irn creclit if we have higher
than 80% pf. When speaking for
rost (vower· bill), cloes 11wtor effi-
ciency hclJJ us more than higher pf,
r>r which tioltaae l evel is /J est for
011erall 1>crformance?- M.D.
ANSWER TO Q48-First of all,
the transformer taps have no bear-
ing on your power factor. However,
lo answer your question pertaining
lo t.he voltage setting, it is cus-
tomary to set the voltage al the
transformer nameplate rating at
the normal running load. I know of
instances where the voltage is ex-
cessive on weekends, when the load
is removed, and a compromise i!:l
ule, make thorough inspection from
a safe distance using binoculars.
2. lnspect oil - circuit breaker
pneumatic operating mechanism
weekly. Check gaskets and oil vah'es
for leakage. Annually, perform oil
tests and clean and inspect bush-
ings.
3. Inspect switchgear for sign:i
of rust, dampness, arcing or burn-
ing. Check breaker operation and
perform load tests periodicully.
Every 18 months to two ycar!l, in-
spect, calibrate a nd test all protec-
tive relays.
Electronic and Solid-State
Equipmen t
1. Keep electronic and solid-state
equipment clean. Dust out or blow
out monthly. Be sure equipment re-
ceives plenty of ventilation. Exces-
necessary if this arises. l~ eep in
mind. the higher the \'Oltage. the
lower the current, and consequently
the lower the PR losses in your dis-
tribution lines. Normally this is not
noticeable in your electric bill, but
wi!l contribute to lower power out-
put from motors, etc., due to the
voltage drop through the lines.
The best, and most economical,
approach to improving your power
factor is through the use of capac-
itors. The power company penal-
izes you for a low powe1· factor be-
cause of the "wasted" reactive
power furnished to you. Often, lhe
power company wiJI help you in
advising the amount of correction
since they must provide extn1 gen-
erating capacity for this reactive
power. Power factor correction
thrnugh the use of capacitors oftc11
creates substantial savings and the
investment cost is usually recov-
ered quickly.
Se\•eral manufacturers offer in-
formation on this subject and pre-
sent clear examples. Rather than
answer your question specificall.\·,
1 suggest you request one or 111ore
of the following publication!\:
Sprague Electric Co.. i\fanual
PF-1000, ·'A Guide to Power Fac-
tor Correction for the Plant Engi-
neer."
Cornell-Dubilier, Bulletin Fl:I-
81GO, "Power Factor Correclion Ca-
pncit.ors on Industrial l'owcr Sys-
11
sive heat s hortens component life.
2. Make a regular check of mon-
itoring devices such as ammeters,
voltmeters, pilot lights, etc. Keep a
record of readings, so thnl unusual
readings can be noted and equip-
ment investigated before lrouble
occurs.
3. I nspect terminals and connec-
tions for looseness or discoloration
at least semiannually. Loose C(Jnnec-
tions or terminals are a common
source of trouble in electronic
equipment. Also inspect. resistors,
cnpacito1·s, coils, etc., for discolora-
tion or other signs of burning.
tem:;."
General Electric Co.. Publication
GEA-7198B, "Power Capacitors for
Industrial Applications" and Pub-
lication GEA-5632G, "How to Use
Capacitors ."- P.D.
ANSWER TO Q48-The best volt-
<'.ge level to operate your motors at
is at na meplate voltage. At voltages
about 10% above nameplate the
characteristics generally will rnry
as follows:
The .efficiency will increaHe ap-
proximately .5 to 1 '1; al full load.
and will drop l to 2<; al one-half
load.
The power factor will decrease
about 3 % at full load and 5 to G<;;.
at half load.
Torque and maximum overload
capacity will be incr eased about
20 1Y, .
Your best bet is to mid capaci-
tors to bring the power factor up
nearer to unity. These capacitors
can be switched with the molcm; or
added to the secondary bus.
Capacitors often pny for them-
selves in a very short time because
of the savings in demand charges.
Literature on industrial plant
power factor improvemenl is a,·ail-
able from the major manufacturers
of capacitors.-D.J.L.
 Effective Large-Plant
Maintenance
Central maintenance operations plus an area maintenance plan keep
dow ntime to a minimum-efficiency to a max imum at GE's Radio Receiver
plant in Utica, N. Y.
standardization of equipment are combined
smoothly operating maintenance program.
By Robert J . Lawrie
REA maintenance and standard-
A ization of equipment greatly
simplify electrical maintenance
at General Electric Co.'s Radio Re-
ceiver plant in Utica, N. Y. With
nearly 200,000 sq ft of manufac-
turin"g space in one building and
100,000 sq ft in another, distances
to be traveled from a central main-
tenance area would be understand-
ably great. In addition, centralized
paper work, s pare parts control and
other functions required for proper
maintenance of this large high-
production plant would be over-
whelming. But, with each uni t
manager responsible for mainte-
nance in his own area, downtime is
practically non-existent and efficient
maintenance is easily obtained. Be-
sides area maintenance, Radio Re-
ceiver has a central maintenance
group to maintain plant utilities
and to handle large jobs.
Standardization of electrical
equipment, particularly in produc-
tion areas, s ignificantly reduces
downtime. Hundreds of motors,
controls1 and electrical parts used
on various machines and assembly
lines are of the same design. This
facilitates rapid replacement in
case of electrical failure and allows
a minimum spare parts inventory.
In addition, because maintenance
men have Jess varied types of equip-
ment to service, they become fa-
miliar with the selected standard
type of equipment and maintain it
more efficiently.
Here, preventive electrical
m a
A personal interview with Jim
Wiese, manager of Manufacturing
Engineering at Radio Receiver. is
presented here, giving details of his
electrical maintenance program plus
some of his problems and how he
solved them.
What is mos t s ig nificant about
e lectrical maintenance a t Radio
Receiver?
Most significant, I would say, is
that we have very little unsched-
uled downtime. We can't afford
downtime. We manufacture the en-
tire stock of GE's radios, consist-
ing of table models, clock-radio
models, transistor types, portable
intercoms, and the soon to be re-
leased educational projects. Fin-
ished models come off the Jines at
an extremely high rate-a down-
time of 10 to 15 minutes puts us
way behind.
How do you keep downtime to
a minimum ?
Area maintenance and standard-
ization of equipment are the major
factors. We originally had central
maintenance, but when trouble oc-
curred, we'd lose too much time
getting to it. Now we have a main-
tenance man in nearly every impor-
tant manufacturing area. And, be-
cause he associates with the same
equipment every day, he can usually
make repairs quite rapidly.
By standardizing our motors,
controls, etc., maintenance men can
be shifted to other departments,
when necessary, and still be famil-
12
maintenance and
highly practical,
iar with the equipment. In addi-
tion, standardization helps to keep
our spare parts inventory down.
What type of equipment must
you maintain?
Mostly motor s and controls. We
have a great number of machines
that wind coils or form parts.
And we have several assembly lines
with motorized conveyors. Certain
parts of these lines require accu-
rate speed cont rol, such as the sec-
tion where printed boards are sent
through a dip soldering process. In
our plastic-forming area, we have
several large plastic-forming ma-
chines that form the radio shells.
This equipment has high-wattage
electric heaters and extensive heat
and speed control.
How is your e lectrical mainte-
n ance department organized?
Electrical ma intenance is not a
separate department. It comes un-
der Plant Engineering, which con-
sists of one electrical engineer and
two high-level technicians. These
men are the core of plant mainte-
nance. They perform all plant plan-
ning and engineering. Under them
are two maintenance groups, each
consisting of a leader and four men.
These two groups maintain the
plant utilities and handle any large
jobs. In addition, there are the
area maintenance people who serv-
ice and troubleshoot equipment in
their respective areas. All main-
tenance men are carefully selected.

~ MANAGER OF MANUFACTURING
l MAN~FACTURING
MANAGER OF ENGINEERING
UNIT MANAGERS ·--------------PLANT FACILITIES
(I) Electrical Engineer
(2) Technicians
t nance. But on special equ ipment,
t t
AREA CENTRAL CENTRAL
MAINTENANCE MAINTENANCE MAIN TENANCE
Group I Group 2
Electrical Leeder Mechonicol Leader
plus plus
(4) Men (4) Men
ELECT RICAL MAINTENANCE is o port of the general mointenonce program. The
plant engineering group forms the core of the maintenance program. An electrical
engineer and his assistant direct electrical maintenance. Two central maintenance
groups perform buildi ng and utility maintenance. One group, heavier with electrical
men, concentrates on electrical maintenance. In manufacturing areas, each de port-
ment performs its own maintenance as recommended by Plant Engineering.
They must be alert individuals able Protected by air cir cu it breakers,
to handle electr ical maintenance, secondary feeder circu its car r y
mechanical maintenance, or any 480Y /277 volts to various parts of
other miscellaneous maintenance the plant. And dry-type distribu-
jobs that might occur. tion transformers supply 208Y /120
Do you have a ny electric ians in volts for lighting and miscellaneous
t hese g roups ? loads.
The area maintenance people are Do your maintenance people
not licensed electricians. But, after service t he high-voltage appar a-
receiving t ra ining from our plant tus?
engineering g roup and a fter work- No. I have a service contract
ing with t he equipment day after with an outside contractor who
day, t hey become quite efficient in maintains all high-voltage equip-
electrical maintenance. ment. Besides performing r egular
We have one electrician heading maintenance, t he contractor main-
one of the central maintenance tains a stock of spare pa r ts for this
g roups. Under his leadership, his equipment and he has a t rouble-
group ha ndles a heavy share of our shooter available if t he need ever
electrical ma intenance. arises.
Do t hey ha ndle any large elec- Do you have an electrica l pre-
tricu I ins t a lla tions ? ve ntive ma intenance prog ram?
No. I've found it cheaper and Yes. Central maintenance carries
faster to have contractors install out an EPM program, which covers
la r ger electrical jobs. building utilities and special equip-
What kind of power distribution ment. Area maintenance people
an d eq uipment do you have? perform EPM as directed by the
The utility company supplies 13.8 unit manager. Electrical preventive
kv on an overhead line. An over- maintenance for each area was
head metered bus runs the length planned and recommended by our
of the building. From this high plant engineer ing depar tment. Since
voltage bus run, feeders extend to each manager is responsible for the
five strategically located unit sub- operation and cost of ma intenance
stations. Each substation has either in his own department, he decides
a fu sed ai r switch or oil switch. which maintenance procedur es will
Transformers step down the pri- be carried out.
mary voltage to 480Y/ 277 volts. Generally s peaking, EPM occurs
13
as part of the daily routine. In the
manufacturing areas, maintenance
people inspect each motor and con-
trol daily. We call it t he "Iook-feel-
smell" test. This test doesn't take
long, yet we have caught many po-
tential trouble spots by t his partic-
ula r method.
Central maintenance people also
perform the "look-feel-smell" test
during much of t heir daily mainte-
we have check lists that must be
completed.
Exactly what PM do you per-
form to keep your motors runn ing ?
If, during the "look-feel-smell"
inspection, a maintenance man finds
dirt or grease around t he motor,
he'll immediately clean a nd blow
down the motor with an a ir hose
and check for bearing or seal fail-
ure. Once a year, running current
and voltage at each lar ge mot or
(10 hp or over) is checked a nd re-
corded. Insulation resistance tests
are performed and r ecorded yearly.
If a motor winding burns out,
we send it to be repaired. Replace-
ment of worn bearings is t he only
motor-repair work we perform by
ourselves.
How do you ma intain your elec-
t ronic s peed-control pane ls ?
We find them quite reliable. Fail-
ure of these panels, though infre-
quent, is usually due to a bad t ube.
We keep spare tubes handy inside
or near t he control panel for rapid
replacement. And about ever y t hree
months, area maintenance will blow
out any dust or dirt.
S uppose a s peed control fa iled
an d, after replacing t he t ubes, it
s till doesn' t ope rate-what do you
do?
If this happens, and the area
man can't find the trouble in five
minutes, he calls electronic tech-
nicians from the production test
area. Between t hemselves, they will
decide whether to replace the unit
or repair it, whichever is quicker.
How do you ma intain switches,
feeders and bus ways?
Every month, 440-volt safety
switches ar e blown-out with air.
At the same time, a visual inspec-
tion of the :>witch is made. The
440-volt feeders and all busways
are Meggered once a year. These
insulation-r esistance readings are
recorded fo r future r eference.
Do you ever check electrical
connect ions ?
On special or important equip-
ment, we'll check connections about
once a year. On equipment subject
ELECT RON IC TEST equipment, used to
check toble-model rodio receivers, is
mointoined by on electronic technicion
ossigned to this oreo. This sensitive equip-
ment not only tests receivers, but, os o
side effect, olso detects loose connections
in the buildin g wiring. Becouse o loose
connec tion often ores, the resultant high.
frequency hormonics ore picked-up by the
instruments. Since test technicians connot
:olerote this interference, maintenance
must locote and eliminate the trouble.
to vibration, we check connections
every three to six months. We don't
have much trouble with loose con-
nections. If a loose connection does
occu r , we'll find out about it because
the resultant arcing produces fre-
quency harmonics which are picked
up by the radios and test equipment
in our test area. Because tech-
nicians can't tolerate this interfer-
ence, they immediately request that
the interference (usually a loose
connection) be found and elimi-
nated. A portable radio is a handy
instrument for locating electrical
disturbances.
What electrical spare parts do
you keep?
Each area maintains a spare
parts inventory for its own equip-
ment. Central maintenance inven-
tories parts for building utilities
and special equipment. Each area
will inventory items such as fuses,
relay contacts and motor bearings.
Items such as busway switches,
bu ilding wire and cable, and the like
are inventoried by central mainte-
nance. In addition, we keep one
spare fuse (of the proper size) in
each safety switch. This quite often
saves a trip back to the stockroom.
Do you provide your men with
electrical training courses?
Yes. Once a year we program a
course covering basic electricity,
electrical-equipment fundamental s,
AREA MA INT ENANCE MAN checks wir-
ing ot control panel. On special equip-
ment, connections ore checked once o
year; o visual inspection is made week ly.
Each important areo hos its own main -
tenance man. Area maintenance men be·
come efficient in electrical maintenance
because they work with the some equip-
ment doily. And area maintenance sig-
nificantly reduces centralized paper work
and spore-ports control because this
method was adopted.
a nd maintenance and testing pro-
cedures. Classes are held once a
week, for two hours.
Do you have an e lectrical s afety
program?
Electrical safety comes under our
regular safety program. Our main-
tenance groups attend a safety
meeting once every three weeks.
Electrical safety as well as other
accident-prevention rules are dis-
cussed at these meetings. My own
THREE BUSWAYS, two roted at 480 volts
and one roted at 208 volts, extend over
the plating oreo. Central maintenance
performs insulation-resistance tests an -
nua lly. Readings ore recorded and com.
pored with previous readings; o continu-
ing downward trend of resistance readings
indicates foiling insulotion.
14
ELECTRONIC SPEED-CONTRO L UNIT,
mounted on column beneath disconnect
switch, controls conveyor speed. Radio
Receive r finds these units qu ite reliable;
occasional failure of the speed control is
usually due to o faulty tube. Note that
spore tubes ore kept close to unit for
rapid replacement. And, as on additional
time-saver, o spo re fuse of the proper
size, is kept inside the safety switch. This
quite often soves a trip bock to the stock
room.
special rules for electrical safety
include: ( 1) No one but a qualified
"A" man can troubleshoot or repair
440-volt equipment. (2) Mainte-
nance men must work in pairs on
440-volt equipment. (3) All 440-volt
circuit breakers have interlock
keys; maintenance men must lock
the breaker off when working on
the line. ( 4) All electrical installa-
tions have a'n equ ipment ground
wire installed in the same raceway
with the power legs. This continu-
ous ground wire insu res a good
ground without depending on the
raceway as a conductor.
Conclusion
Electrical maintenance at Gen-
eral Electric's Radio Receiver plant
accomplishes its major purpose-
downtime is at a minimum result-
ing in maximum production. But
choosing the most effective main-
tenance system was not a quick de-
c1s1on. For a number of years,
Radio Receiver engineers have been
studying and revamping their elec-
trical maintenance to ultimately
obtain optimum results in their
plant. Comparable industries may
find Radio Receiver's system help-
ful in planning their own mainte-
nance, but each company must make
allowances for their own particular
circumstances.
 ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT RESPONSIBILITIES

Design & layout Flexible organization Field supervision

Specification Work-incentive plan Tailor-made job schedules
Equipment selection Data processing Work progress cost reports
Estimating Training of specialists Training of electricians
Maintenance design Electrical PM Proper construction
considerations tools & equipment
Use of outside contractors

Special installations Standard production Special installations

Prod. elec. systems machine tools Prod. elec. systems
Modernizations Nu merically controlled Modernizations
Relighting machine tools Relighting
New construction for Electronic control systems New construction
o ther divisions DC motors & generators,
rectifiers, cranes
Power system components
Lighting

ELECTRICAL DEPAR TMENT OPERATIONS in meta lworking con be grouped into three main categories-design, construc-
plont ore highly diversif ied. Diogrom obove illustrates scope ti on and moint enoncc. Father-son team of chief electricians
of opero t ions ond mojor electrical deportm ent functions, which supervise oil electrical deportment opera tions.

Flexible organization is key to success/ul .••

Electrical Department Operations

In a Metalworking Plant

A comprehensive case study illustrating how a LECTRICAL department opera-

plant electrical department designs, constructs and E tions at the De Laval Turbine
Inc. plant in Trenton, ~- J.,
cover a broad range of responsibili-
maintains a wide variety of electrical systems and ties. Here, the electrical department
not only maintains and repairs elec-
equipnient. trical equipment and systems but
also designs and constructs plant
electrical facilities.
BY ROB ERT J. LA\\' JUE, Associllte E<iitor Plant electrical personnel select,
specify, layout and design or over-
see design of all new electrical in-
stallations. During the design stage,
maintenance aspects of electrical
systems are given careful consid-
eration. As a result, equipment re-
15
ELECTRICAL MODERNIZATION and conversion of a large
foundry to o production machine area included instollot1on
of modern I 000-wott mercury vapor luminoires in o 60- by
250-ft high-boy oreo. Ligh ting layout wos designed by chief
electrician; installation wos by plant construction e lect ricions.
HIGH-LEVEL LIGHTING in expansive production ond wa re-
house area is provided by very-high-output fluorescent lamps
powered at 277 volts. Lamps ore group-replaced every two
years. Lamps which appear to be in to p condition ore saved
fo r spo t replacement during the int eri m. Cost studies hove
shown that group replac em ent of lamps is more eff icien t than
random replacement.

SILICON-RECTIFIER substation consists of incoming high-vol tage swi tch at CONTROL PANEL for testing moto rized
right, 750-kvo tran sformer, silicon-rectifie r section ot center, ond 250-volt va lves is checked by electrician. Designed
de distribution section o ut of sight ot left. Annual maintenance includes by the chief electrician, panel features
cleaning of air filte rs and re moval of dust from rectifier-cell coo ling fins. wire troughs which aid neat interior
Annunciator in rectifie r sec tion indicates when a silicon cell foil s. wiring arrangement.

liability is increased and mainte-
nance is simplified. Installat ions in-
clude not only minor changes but
also maj or modernizati ons and new
bui lding construction. And, in most
in:;tances, plant electricians per-
form the required electrical con-
stniction.
An effective electri cal mainte-
nance program is guided by data
process ing and optimized by an in-
centive plan. This program incor-
porates practical techniques to
maintain modern apparatus and
systems as well as equ ipment that
has been installed for many years.
F or example, typical installations
range fr om a modern, high-capacity
s ilicon rectifier de substation and
complex numerically controlled ma-
chine tools to large de generators
and nickel-alkaline batteries in-
stalled over 20 years ago.
Encompassing approximately
700,000 sq ft of fl oor space, this
mult i-building plant employs over
2000 people. Major products include
steam turbines, centrifugal a nd ro-
tary pumps of many different types,
a complete line of compressors and
blowers, marine propuls ion unit3
and power transmission products.
16
Within the 12 main plant build-
ings , a wide variety of manufactur-
ing processes can be found. Major
manufactu ring equipment include;;
hundreds of machine tools- includ-
ing g iant lathes, planers and drills
as well as numerically controlled
machines a nd a variety of de pow-
ered. electronically controlled ma-
chine tools. Also, scores of de pow-
ered cranes, up to 30-ton capacity,
are installed. Other major proce:;ses
relate to heat treating of metal
parts, automatic welding, assembly,
and to cxterrnive testing, quality-
control, and r esearch.
 -~-=
==
.

RELIGHTING of production area was
achieved by instollotion of 400-wott
mercury vapor lamps powered at 208
volts. To simplify relocation or removal
for maintenance, the chief electrician
selected units with integral ballasts.
UNIT SUBSTATION serving a production area steps down 4160 volts to
480 volts, 3-wire, ungrounded. Ground Indicators ore ot top of low-
voltoge distribution section. Other substations provide a secondary vol tage
ot 480/277 vo lts, grounded. Note thot each feeder breaker ponel is
furnished with on ammeter. Annually, CBs ore inspected, cleaned, operated
ond lubricated.

As head of the plant engineeriny starts with this unusual combina- have received special training and
department, Richard Hart is re- tion of chief electricians. The elder have become proficient in their spe-
sponsible for costs, planning and Probst is responsible p1·imarily for cially. Within the electrical depart-
overall operati ons related to new electrical maintenance; however, he ment are specialists in instrumen-
construction, modernizations, and is often called upon to supervise tation, electronics, cranes and
maintenance of all plant facilities. electrical construction, or to help hoists, refrigeration, troubleshoot-
Under him is an assistant plant en- select new equipment. The younger ing, and construction. Each man is
gineer who supervises maintenance Probst designs and supervises in- 1·csponsible for work in his partic-
operations; a project engineer re- stallation of the various electrical ular field; however, the electricians
sponsible for design and specifi- construction projects. In addition, arc often assigned to other elec-
cation (except electrical ) , of con- he assists in training of electricians trical work when the need arises.
struction, modernizations or special and is called upon from time to For example, because there is not
projects; and the various depart- time to iron out a particularly diffi- always enough work to keep the
ment foremen. cult troubleshooting or maintenance electronic specialist busy, he may be
Heading up the electrical depart- problem. assigned to instrumentation or con-
ment is a father-son team, Dave Flexibility in the 18-man elec- trol maintenance. Or when there is
and Art Probst. Flexibility of trical crew is particularly signif- a great deal of construction work in
electrical depa1·tment organization icant. Many of the plant electricians progress, troubleshooter s or other
specialists may be assigned to elec-
ELECTRICAL PREV ENTIVE MAINTENANCE trical construction.
CHECKLIST-ALL ENGINE & TURRET LATHES Effectiveness of this type of or-
ganization depends on t he skill and
St eps Check the following: versatility of the electricians. To
develop these skills, the chief elec-
1 Power circuit insula tion resistance tricians spend considerable time in-
2 Motor bearings for wear structing electricians in an on-the-
3 Cleanliness of motors job training program. In addition,
4 Motor temperature the electricians broaden their
5 Air gap on ac motors- 100 hp & up knowledge and gain experience in
6 Brushes, shunts & holders, on de motors other a r eas by assisting other spe-
7 Commutator, riser conn. & mica on de motors cialists on the job. Also, a number
8 Field hot spots- de of the electricians have taken spe-
9 Controls-contacts (burned, pitted, worn) cial courses at nearby schools or
10 Controls-shunts (broken, frayed) colleges.
11 Controls-pins & springs Electrical design performed by
12 Controls-doshpot when used (clean ins.ide, check oil level) chief electrician Art Probst in-
13 Controls-rheostat contacts cludes not only minor alterations
14 Pushbuttons but also major moderni;;ations and
15 Rubber cords for damage or fraying new structures. One project re-
16 Flexible or rigid conduit for damage or looseness cently completed involved a com-
plete modernization of several floo rs

17
NUM ERIC ALLY CONTROLLED lathe fea tures a "dial -in"
i npu t rath er t han the conventional tope i npu t . M ai n tenance
is respon sibi l ity o f on elec tron ic speci alist, o plan t electrician
w i th on extensive background in electronics. Maintenance
inspec1ions ore per formed between production ru ns and during
annual vocation shut down.
PLUG-IN PRINTED-CIRCUIT board is inspected by Chief
El ectr ician Art Probst. Panel shown cont rols fu nctions of o
numericall y controlled drill. Component s on c ircuit boards ore
soli d -sta te, consist ing primarily of t ransi stors, silicon con -
lrolled rectifiers and othl'r semiconductors. Defective boa rds
con be quick ly loca ted through voltag e checks.

of office and engineering space to
proYide hi gh er lighting levels, m od-
ern commu nication and other ser v-
ices. In another project, a busway
system consisting o f nearly 500 li n-
ear ft of plug-in bu sway was se-
lected to provide flexible 480-volt
power take off. ln addition, he de-
signs electrical systems a nd pro-
vides electrical ma in te nance guid-
ance for other Oe Laval divisions.
Electrical systems des ig n, equip-
ment s pecificat ion, etc., a re based
on good desig n practice-safety, re-
liability , eflicienl performance, and
the like. :Mor eover, cons ider able em-
phasis is placed on providing fo r
simpl ified electrical maintenance at
the design stage. For example, plug-
i n busway is used extensively in
production a reas not only because it
offers economies when relocating
mach ines but a lso because it is
highly reliable.
In a r ecent installation, 26 1000-
watt mercury vapor lamps were in-
s talled in a high-bay area. The
1000-watt un its were selected to
provide the required lighting level
with the least number of luminaires
to maintain. Lamps a re plug-con-
nected to a 480-volt sou rce and have
ballasts integral with the fixture.
T hen, if either a ballast or a lamp
fails, the entire fixture can be easily
removed for repair or be replaced
with a s pare unit.
In another instance, a s ilicon rec-
tifier de substation was selected to
provide de power for m achine tools
and test equipment in a newly con-
structed production area. Because
of its inherent reliabili ty and min-
imum maintenance requirements,
the solid-state rectifier was chosen
over other types of conversion
equipment. The de substaLion was
sized at 750 kw to provide fo r both
present and futu r e needs.
Standardization of br ands and
design of electrical equ ipmenL are
important selection facto rs . This
practice of standar dization facili-
tates r apid repla cem ent in case of
equ ipment fa ilu r e and minim izes
spare parts inventory. Another s ig-
nificant selection factor is t he ava il-
ability of spare parts. When two or
more compara ble apparat us a r e be-
ing considered for a particular ap-
plication, the availability of spare
parts is often a major deciding
factor .
After designing a system, Probst
super\'ises the electrical construc-
tion project. On most j obs, con-
stn1ction plant electricians perform
the work. On major pi-ojccts, out-
side electrical contract or s are called
in. H owever, to maintain a constant
employment level, in-plant electri-
cians are a ssigned to these projects
when regular work loads a re low.
After much experience, the elec-
t r ical construction crew has devel-
oped considerable skill in their
work, and the electrical department
has accumulated a variety of con-
struction tools and equipment to in-
cr ease work efficiency.
To maint ain cost control and stay
within t he assigned budget, work
accomplished by each electrician is
r ecorded each day. Each week this
information is tall ied and compared
to progress schedules and budgets
assigned to that portion of the
work. In this manner. bottlenecks
a r e located and excessive costs a r c
pinpointed.
[n addition, these repor ts arc sen t
to Lhe plant engineer and to t he
plant data-process ing faci lity so
t hat a con tinu ing overall report of
the project may be maintained. T he
infor mation is also us ed in the op-
eration of a work-incentive plan,
which is discussed below.
M ainte nance Te chniques
Chief Electrician Da,·e Probst iii
r esponsible for electrical mainte-
nance operations. Because much of
the production equipment operates
on job-lot or on varying schedule:;,
electrical in spections or mainte-
nance procedures are performed be-
tween production r uns. H owever,
equipment operating in a poor en-
vironment or on a sever e applica-
tion is inspected regularly. A typ-
ical machine-tool E PM (electrical
preventive maintnance) inspection
procedure is shown in accompany-
ing illus tration.
Work-incentive plan - An out-
standing program at De Laval is a
plant - w ide work - incent ive plan
which increases productivity of em-
ployees. When a worker exceeds es-
tablished production standards, he
is rewarded accor dingly. The plan

18
DC GENERATORS instolled for mony yeors ore driven by
steom turbines. Four units roted 400, 600, 750 and 1250 kw
supply de power ot 250 volts for production machinery,
crones, hoists and controls. Brushes, brushholders, shunts,
commutators, etc., ore regularly inspected by powerhouse
electrician. Annually, insulot1on-resistonce tests ore per-
formed and the commutotor turned down if required.
NICKEL-ALKALI NE batteries afford standby de power for
essential product ion mochinery. Twin rocks conta in nearly
200 batteries. Battery charging motor-generator set on floor
in background maintains trickle charge on battery. Automatic
transfer controls ore ot left. Maintenance consists primarily of
keeping battery terminals clean and mainta ining proper bat-
tery woter level.

covers electl'ical depar t ment em-
ployees and has been quite suc-
cessful.
To initiate the program, De Laval
hired a cons ulting firm to make
detailed time s tudies of all work
performed by hou rly employees.
Electrical construction and mainte-
nance work elements were deter-
mined and ti me required to accom-
plish each was established.
As the elect1·ician performs a
maintenance p1·oceclure, he records
time applied to each work element
on the pertinent EPM check s heet.
All work performed is accounted for
in this manner. Weekly, the EPM
check sheets are sent to the plant
data-processing facility for compu-
tation and determination of the
electrician's performance. If he has
exceeded standard performance, he
receives a bonus; if not, he receives
his normal salary. The work-incen-
t ive program is well planned to pro-
vide just rewards and recognition
for effi cient workmanship. As a re-
sul t, not only do the plant electri-
cians heartily approve of t he system
but also work effi ciency is greatly
increased.
Preven tive maint enance-Regu-
larly scheduled EPM is performed
on essential or expensive equipment
or on a pparatus that appears to be
in need of attention. Production mo-
tors are lu bricated on a n annual
basis. After lubricating n motor,
the electrician wipes dcwn the mo-
tor, inspects for unusual build-up
of dirt, checks to see if the motor
is running hot ( if he cannot keep
his hand on the motor, it may be
overheated) , and listens for any
unusual sounds. Any anomalies
which cannot be rectified on the
spot are recorded on a motor record
card for future attention.
Direct-cunent motors recei\'e a
similar inspection with the addi-
tional inspection of bn1shes, brush-
holders, shunts, commutators, mica
and riser connections.
Annually, ins ulation - resistance
tests are performed on large or es-
sential motor s. One megohm is the
minimum accepted reading. All
readings are recorded to provide an
indication, over a period of time, of
t he condition of the motor. A con-
tinuing downward trend of read-
ings indicates failing insulation.
Main distribut ion feeders, both
primary and low voltage, receive
annual insulation-resistance t ests.
Oil circuit breakers, of which there
are many, receive an annual inspec-
tion; oil is drained, checked for
sludge and contamination and the
contacts are inspected.
Maintenance of a large bank of
nickel-iron alkaline batteries, which
provide a standby de su pply for es-
sential de-powered machine tools, is
comparatively s imple. The installa-
t ion, which has been in use for 20
years, cons ists of nearly 200 cells
(each cell is rated 1.3 volts) , a
motor-generator set and related
controls for battery charging, and
automati c t ransfer equipment.
Maintenance of the batter y consists
primarily of keeping the current-
carrying t erminals clean, and main-
taining the proper water level in
each cell. Water level in a pilot cell
is checked weekly. Annually, the
motor-generator set, transfer equip-
ment and controls receive a thor-
ough preventive maintenance in-
spection.
The silicon rectifier substation
receives an EP:M: inspection each
year. The substation consists of
5-kv incoming switchgear, a 750-
kva, askarel - fiJled transformer,
banks of silicon rectifier cells, pro-
tective devices and controls, and de
19
distribution circuit breakers. Main-
t enance consists primarily of clean-
ing the air filters in the rectifier
cooling system, removal of any dust
from rectifier-cell cooling fins, in-
spection and test of control anti
annunciator systems. The annunci-
ator system will indicate when a
silicon rectifier cell fa ils. The in-
coming ac switch and the de dis-
tribution circu it breakers are
checked for s igns of corr os ion or
dirt; are cleaned, lubricated anc
operated.
Maintenance of the numericaJly
controJled machine tools and other
electronic controls is the responsi-
bility of the electronic specialist.
Both tube-type and solid-state con-
trol systems are instaJled. In ad-
dition to maintenance check-ups
during machine downtime, these
control systems receive a thorough
EPM inspection each year. This in-
cludes removal of dust, inspection
for rust or corrosion, inspection of
contacts, relays or other moving
parts, inspection of electronic com-
ponents and circu it boards for over-
heated parts or loose connections.
Although t he electronic system
have been quite reliable, trouble-
shooting is a major concern because
downtime on the highly produc-
tive numerically controlled machine
tools is costly. To speed trouble-
shooting, t he electronic specialist,
who has extens ive background in
electronics, has spent considerable
time studying t he circuit diagram~
and becoming familiar with the
machine functions. The solid-state
control systems are modular wiU-
components mounted on plug-ir
printed-circuit cards. This feature
often reduces troubleshooting tc
locating the defective card through
voltage-check test points and re-
placing it with a spare card.
 ELECTRIC •DTOll CONTROLLED llAlllTEllAllCE MOHTitl. Y IHSPECTIOH
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Record card guides

motor preventive maintenance
At a luxury apa1·tment complex in Philadelphia,
a standard record-card system simplifies motor
maintenance planning, scheduling and record-keeping.

HE key to successful motor The back of the card serves as a

MOTOR MAINTENANCE at 4-building
apartment complex is directed primarily
at large integral-horsepower motors, such
as those shown above. F·roctionol horse-
power motors ore not regularly inspected,
except for those related to important fa-
cilities.
T maintenance at the Park Towne
Place apartments in Philadelphia is
a simple record-card system. Here,
motor maintenance procedures and
paperwork are reduced to a prac-
tical minimum yet dependable mo-
tor performance is achieved.
The system uses cards obtained
from a major electrical . manufac-
turer. A card for each motor in-
stalled in each of the four 19-story
apartment buildings is kept in a
master fi le. By referring to these
cards, the plant manager sched-
ules motor inspections and plans
any motor maintenance work re-
quired. The cards provide space for
all pertinent information. No other
paper work relative to motor main-
tenance is required.
Illustrated at top of page are the
front and reverse sides of a motor
maintenance card. The front of the
card provides space for motor
nameplate data, location of the mo-
tor, type of bearings, etc. Under
"Maintenance Record," all° repairs
performed, unusual variations, test
results and similar data are r e-
corded.
20
check list for maintenance inspec-
tion. Although the card lists 13 in-
spection points, emphasis is placed
on "excess noise," "excess heat,"
"clean" (cleanliness of motor and
nearby area), "excess vibration"
and "lubrication." In general, fhp
motors are not inspeeted; however,
large or important motors receive
frequent inspection.
Each month, the plant manager
goes through the motor card file re-
moving cards of motors due for in-
spection or maintenance work.
When the maintenance crew com-
pletes the inspection or work, ap-
propriate information is marked on
the card and it is returned to the
file. When unusual test results are
reported or special work is re-
quired, a notation is made on a mas-
ter maintenance schedule.
Annually, most motors receive a
thorough check-out, which includes
insulation resistance tests, voltage
and current checks, thorough clean-
ing, inspection of bearings, cou-
plings and accessor·ies. In some in-
stances, motors ar e dismantled for
complete inspection and cleaning.
Tools And Technique s
For Effective
Mai ntenance
Here's how a la rge manufacturing plant achieves effective electrical maintenance
through skillful organization and planned preventive maintenance using proper tools
and modern methods.
SYNCH RO NOUS CONVERT ER roted 300
kw, 250 volts a nd insta lled many years
ago now acts a s spore for m ercury-ore
rectifiers. Converte r is kep t ready for use
through scheduled elec trical maintenance
which inc ludes periodic test operation,
insulation- resis tance tests, commutator
and slip-ring inspec tion.
By Robert J. Lawrie
MERCURY-ARC RECTIFIER BANK,
roted 300 kw, 250 volts supplies bat-
tery-charging equipment, va rious de
motors and field cu rrent for nearby
large synchronous motors. Sponge-like
jackets wra pped around water-cooled
tubes absorb condensation which occurs
on su rface of tubes.
21
UCCESSFUL electrical mainte-
S nance at the plant of The Singer
Manufacturing Co., Elizabeth,
N. J., is the result of a carefully
planned preventive maintenance
program coupled with t he capable
application of modern maintenance
methods. Here, t he electrical de-
partment maintains and repairs
highly automated systems as well
as apparatus t hat had been installed
many years ago. And to accomplish
effective maintenance of t his equ ip-
ment, plant electricia ns utilize a
complete complement of electrical
maintenance equipment and tools.
In addition to s mall por table de-
vices such as voltmeters, ammeters,
brush-spring tension testers a nd a
t ransistorized stethoscope for
checking motor bearings, mainte-
nance equipment used includes a
5 0 0 - v o 1t insulation - resistance
tester, a spark-gap oil dielectric
tester and a portable oil-filtering
unit. Proper methods of using this
equipment and interpreting test
results a re discussed later on.
Several of t he Singer Co. build-
ings, constructed more t ha n 50'
years ago, have .been modernized
and are s till in use. In addition,
several new buildings plus many
installations of modern, highly ad-
vanced equipment have been added.
Today the sprawling plant includes
11 major buildings encotnpassing
one and one-half million sq f t.
Major equipment includes auto-
mated conveyor-assembly lines,
large aluminum die-casting ma-
chines, induction and resistance-
type electric furnaces, plating ap-
paratus and hundreas of metal-
working machines. Service equip-
ment includes 18,000 kva of pri-
mary transformers, extensive
switchgear, several unit substa-
tions, large synchronous motors
driving air compressors, and de
convers ion apparatus .consisting of
modern mercury-arc rectifiers as
well as a 300-kw rotary converter.
In the following personal inter-
view, A. B. Young, electrical main-
tenance department manager, de-
scribes his maintenance program
and how modern electrical mainte-
nance tools and techniques are ap-
plied.
How is your electrical maintenance
program organized?
Electrical maintenance is part of
our over-all maintenance program.
Under the plant engineer, the chief
maintenance engineer keeps a
broad control over electrical, me-
chanical and other phases of main-
tenance. Under the chief mainte-
nance engineer, the electrical de-
partment manager plans electrical
maintenance procedures, controls
electrical preventive maintenance
and supervises the electrical crew.
The electrical maintenance crew
consists of an electrical foreman,
ass istant foreman and about 40
first-class and second-class electri-
cians and helpers.
Preventive maintenance and
electrical repair work is scheduled
by t he foreman . Repair work orders
are submitted to the electrical de-
partment manager, who gives
priority to work orders according
to urgency before sending them on
to the electrical foreman . Electrical
preventive maintenance is sched-
uled according to a file card system.
How does your EPM (electrical
prevent ive maintenance) program
oper ate?
Our EPM is part of the general
preventive maintenance program,
which is set up on a planned and
scheduled basis. Using a file card
system, a ll s ignificant equipment
is scheduled for inspection and
maintenance procedures. Pertinent
data such as repairs, insulation-
resistance readings or oil dielectric
test results are marked on the card
providing a permanent record for
future refere.nce.
At the beginning of each month,
the maintenance clerk removes PM
cards marked for that particular
month from the file. These cards
are given to the various craft fore-
PRACTICAL TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR
EFFECTIVE ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE
Tools o r equipment
1. Multi-meters, voltmeters, ohm·
meters, damp-on amme ters,
wattmeters, clamp-on P.F. meter
2. Potential and current tra ns·
formers, meter shunts
3. Tachometer
4. Recording meters, instruments
5. Insulation resistance tester,
th ermometer, psychromeler
6. Portable oil dielectric tester;
portable oil filter
7. Transistorized stethoscope
8. Air ga p feeler gages
9. Cleaning solvent
10. Hand stones, (rough, medium
fine); grinding rig; canvas strip
11. Spring tension sca le
12. Magnifying glass,
binoculars
13. Motor rotation tester
-14. Oscilloscope, vacuum-tube volt-
meter, high-impedance meters
15. Variable autotra nsformer
16. low-resistance tester
17. light meter
18. Portable capacitance and re·
sistance bridge
19. Electricians standard tools
(fuse-pullers, wire cutters,
scre wdriver, e tc.)
20. Safety equipment (rubber
gloves, boots, mots; grounding
sticks)
men, who schedule the work to be
completed during the month. At the
end of the month, completed cards
are returned to the file.
On some cards, daily and week1y
inspections or procedures are in-
dicated. The foreman keeps dupli-
cates of these cards to assist him
in planning the daily PM schedule.
At the end of each day, the fore-
man makes out a time-charge re-
port, listing each PM assignment
22
Application
Measure circuit voltage, resistance, current and
power. Useful for circuit tracing and trouble-
shooting.
Increase range of test instruments to permit read·
ing .of high-voltage ond high-current circuits.
Checks rotating machinery speeds.
Provide permanent record of voltage, current,
power, temperature, etc. on charts for analytic
study.
Test and monitor insulation resistance; use ther-
mometer and psychrometer for temperature-
humidity correction.
---
Test OCB, transformer oil or other insulating oils.
Recondition used oil.
Detect faulty rotating machinery bearings; lea ky
valves.
Check motor o r genera tor air gap betwe e n rotor
a nd sta tor.
Removes grease or dirt from motor windings or
other electrical p a rts.
Grinding, smoothing and finishing commutators
or slip rings.
Checks brush pressure on de motor commu tators
or on ac motor slip rings; tests electrical contact
pressure on relays,_s!arters or contoctors.
Use magnifying glass to examine brushes, com·
mutators or small electrical contacts or parts;
binoculars allow close inspection of remote or
high-voltage parts.
Checks d irection of motor rotation before con·
nection.
Used for electronic circuit testing.
Allows testing of circuits at reduced voltage.
Checks low-resista nce paths of electrical contacts,
switches, etc.
Indicates light intensity.
Provides accurate readings of capacitance and
resistance.
Disassembly or repair of electrical equipment.
Provides for safe a nd efficient electrical mointe·
nonce.
and time required to accomplish it.
This report is sent to accounting
where cost-accountants ascertain
the labor cost of each PM proced-
ure. Accounting then sends the re-
port to the maintenance clerk who
checks that all daily and weekly PM
work is being accomplished accord-
ing to schedule. In addition, the
report serves the department man-
ager as a guide to labor costs of the
various maintenance procedures.
What kind of power distribution
and equipment do you have?
The utility supplies 26.4 kv to our
outdoor substation where three
4000-kva transformers and one
6000-kva transformer step-down the
primary voltage to 2aoo volts.
Connected delta-delta, these trans-
formers feed current through 2000-
amp OCBs and disconnect switches
to a main bus in the power house.
From the main bus, 2300-volt feed-
ers energize ten unit substations
which supply the 11 main build-
ings. Oil circuit breakers, rated
800 and 1200 amps protect the
2300-volt feeders.
What electrical maintenance
equipment and tools do you use?
Small portable devices that we
utilize include : voltmeters, clamp-
on ammeters, clamp-on power fac-
to1· meter, commutator grinding
stones, scale fo r checking brush
spring tension, light meter, a tran-
sistorized stethoscope fo r checking
motor bearings and an industrial
analyzer.
Other portable equipment that
has proven to be very useful in-
cludes an insulation-resistance
tester, spark-gap oil dielectric
tester, and an oil filtering unit.
How is a trans istorized s tetho-
s cope used?
The stethoscope, equipped with a
transistor-amplifier, is used to as-
certain the condition of motor bear-
ings. A little practice in interpret-
ing what is heard through it may
be required, but in general, it is
relatively simple to use. If. when
the stethoscope is applied to a
CONT ROL CONSOLE for highly automated conveya rized line
provides cen tralized control of modern se wing -machine assem-
bly line. Completely automated assemb ly line uti lizes various
types of control devices including limit swi tches, proximity
swi tches, photo cells and hundreds of re lays.
MA IN CO HTACTORS for induction melt-
ing furnace p0wcr circuit are examined
by electrical engi nee r George P. Dan-
cisin. Tap contacta rs carry high power
current; lower pair is connected in re-
d uced power circuit. Maintenance inspec-
tion includes check of spring pressures,
electrical contact surfaces, coil voltage
and mechanical linkages.
motor bearing a purring sound is
heard, the bearing is usually nor-
mal. On t he other hand, a thump-
ing sound or a rough grinding
sound indicates a failing bearing.
.Mechanical maintenance people
use the stethoscope to detect water
leaking through valves or other
plumbing fixtures.
What equipment receives insula-
tion-resistance tests?
We test ou r 2300-volt cables
every two months. Annually, we
test our 440-volt lines, large t rans-
formers and motors and generators
including switches or starters.
HUND REDS OF RELAYS, connected in the control circuitry
for the automated sewing-machi ne line, are inspected
monthly. Relay panel is blown down with an air hose to re-
move dust; connections arc checked for tightness a nd con tac ts
are inspected for signs of arcing or burning.
23
Also, certain high-power process
equipment such as electric furnaces
and die-casting machines receive
insulation-resistance tests annually.
How do you perform these ins ula-
tion-resistance tests?
Because our portable, hand-
driven l\1egger operates at 500
volts, we make certain th.at the
equipment scheduled for tests are
rated at 480 volts or more. Before
connecting the instrument, the elec-
trician makes a careful safety
check. He makes certain that the
equipment scheduled for test is
completely disconnected from all
power sources. All safety switches
are opened and he makes su re that
motor starters or other control
equipment cannot accidentally ener-
gize t he apparatus.
Next, the electrician checks his
instrument for accuracy. First, he
tests for an infinity reading by op-
erating the tester with the test
leads not connected. Second, he
tests for a zero read ing by short-
circuiting the test leads and turn-
ing the instrument handle slowly.
Following these checks, the elec-
trician obtainn insulation-resistance
readings of a conductor to ground
or between two conductors, or
both. Insulat ion readings from
conductor to ground are obtained
by connecting the "Line" test lead
to the conductor and the "Earth"
test lead to ground. For the test
between conductors, the test leads
are connected to the two conductors
to be tested.
After proper connections have
been made, the electrician turns the
inst:·ument handle at an even speed
for about one minute. At the end
of this time. the insulation-resist-
ance value is recorded.
Because temperature and humid-
ity have profound effects on insula-
tion-resistance readings, tempera-
ture and humidity at the apparntus
a1·e 1·ecorded immediately after the
test. rn addition, pertinent consid-
erations are noted such as condition
of the immediate area-wet location
or excessive dust, whether the ap-
paratus had been in operation prior
to the test or had been at rest for a
prolonged period of time. Consider-
ing these factors, we can make a
valid interpretation of the insula- POWER SWITCHBOARD controls moin-feeder oil circuit breakers. Ponels contoin
tion-resistance readings. voltmeters, ammeters, wottmeters, and power-factor me1ers. Ponels ot right control
250-volt de power distribution.
now do you inter pret ins ulntion-
resistnnce readings?
First, the insulation-resistance
reading is corrected for tempera-
ture using a temperature-correction
chart supplied with the tester. As
a rule of thumb, we feel that our
600-volt insulation is normal if the
corrected resistance value is one
megohm or mwa Howew~ a~
ceptance of this value is not always
tangible. For example, if the ap-
paratus is subject to excessive hu-
midity or is very old, a lower read-
ing may be normal. The best check
is the trend of resistance values
over a period of months 01· years.
rf for many months an apparatus
insulation-resistance reading re-
mains constant at a low value, it
usually indicates a normal operat-
ing condition. On the other hand,
high resistance readings which
show a continuing downward trend
over a period of time indicate fail-
ing insulation.

How do you perfor m a n oil dielec-
t ric test?
We have a portable spark-gap oil
dielectric tester that we use pri-
marily to test oil in our large trans-
formers and in our oil circuit
breakers. To test oil in the 2800-
volt OCBs, the electrician first
takes oil samples from both the top
and bottom of the breaker oil tank.
It is important that oil-sample bot-
tles be clean and dry.
Oil samples are poured into the
test machine container. The oil
covers two sphereoid electrodes,
which a re separated by a small gap.
Next, a high voltage is applied
across the electrodes gradually in-
creasing up to 25,000 volts. If the
oil can withstand a 22 to 25 kv
stress, it indicates that the oil is in
good condition. However, if visual
ELECT RICAL EQUI PME NT located in die-costing mach ine oreo typifies diversified
maintenance. Arrows point out equipment: ( 1) die:casting machine control panels
ore periodically cleaned, connections checked; (2) 4-in. wirewoy simplifies addition
or replacement of conductors; (3) dry-type tronr.former requires little maintenance
other than periodic cleaning; (4) industrial fluorescent fixture hos translucent cover
to preclude dust; (5 ) emergency lights ore tested periodically by unplugging flexible
cord; (6) buswoy receives insulation-resistance tests annually.
examination shows that the oil is filter effectively removes suspended
darkened or discolored with carbon solids and most moisture.
or sludge, it is replaced or recondi- Use of the oil filter is quite sim-
tioned (even if it passes the dielec- ple. Circuit-breaker oil is pumped
tric test) . If the oil breaks down into the unit, through the filter and
before reaching the 22-25 kv level, back into the circuit breaker in one
the circuit-breaker oil is either re- operation. After all the oil is back
conditioned or replaced. in the breaker, oil samples are taken
and retested for dielectric strength.
How do you recondition ins ulating In addition the oil samples are
oil? submitted to ou r chemical labora-
When insulating oil must be re- tory for acidity tests. If the acid
conditioned, it is pumped through number is over 1.0 for 3 tests, the
our portable oil-filtering unit. This oil is 1·eplaced with new oil.

24
Data-Processing Guides •••

Electrical Maintenance
At Republic Aviation

Modern. maintenance operations incorporate a well-planned electrical pre-

venti.ve m.aintenance program using data processing to schedule ?Vork and
lreep records. Latest maintenance procedures for numerically controlled
machine tools and electronic equipment are featured.

IlY ROBERT J. LA WIUE

LECTRICAL maintenance at wide variety of manufacturing

E Republic Aviation Corp., Farm-

ingdale, I.:. I., N. Y., plays a
major role in a master plan de-
signed to provide optimum mainte-
nance at minimum costs. Key to
this successful plan is a thorough
preventive maintenance program,
which is directed by a Maintenance
Control group. This group, gu ided
by pertinent information derived
from a data processing system, effi-
ciently schedules maintenance in-
spections and r epair work, and
maintains accurate work and cost
records. A significant portion of
the program concerns electrical
maintenance because of the exten-
sive production and support facili-
ties, including a complex 50,000-kva
power distribution system.
Spread over 600 acres are 62 ma-
jor buildings which encompass
nearly 3 million sq ft devoted to pro-
duction, test, research and devel-
opment engineering and other
support facilities. The primary
product produced is the famed
F-105, a supersonic jet aircraft. To
produce these complex aircraft,
which are heavily laden with elec-
tronic equipment, nearly 14,000
workers are employed. Also, com-
ponents and systems for other air-
craft and for space applications are
produced at Republic.
Within the sprawling plant,
which resembles a small city, a
processing can be found. Main
process equipment includes many
types and sizes of metalworking
machines-including 24 numeri-
cally controlled machine tools; hun-
dreds of electronically cont1·01led
resistance spotwelders; large heat-
treat furnaces ; both 400-cycle and
de portable generators equipped
with electronic voltage regulators;
plating equipment; a foundry; ex-
tensive test and quality-control fa-
cilities, and a research and develop-
ment center.
Organization lor Maintenance
The accompanying block diagram
illustrates the maintenance depart-
ment organization. The mainte-
nance superintendent, Nick Harris,
is responsible for costs, planning
and over-all operations. Under him
are the departmental maintenance
heads and a Maintenance Control
group.
Heading up the electrical main-
tenance operations is the chief elec- SUPERSON IC JET, the F- 105 fighter-
bomber is token through finol assembly
trician, Edmund Ransom. His stoges prior to pre-flight check out. Huge
department, consisting of 67 indus- Republic plont encompasses over 600
trial electricians, is divided into acres. Power distribution hos a capacity
four groups- (1) electrical con- of 50,000 kvo; modern monufocturing
struction; (2) electrical service, focilities include large instollotion of com-
who perform electrical preventive plex numerical-control machine tools.
Portoble 400-cycle and de generators,
maintenance and routine work; (3) which supply oircroft power during vari-
electronic, a group of 15 industrial ous construction phoses and testing, con
electricians who through training be seen between rows of aircraft at left.

25
 Maintenance
Superiniendenl
I
I I I I I
Special
protects
engineer
Maintenance
control
supervisor
NC maintenance
supervisor
I Chief
eleclricion
I Mechanicol
supervisor I Transportation
supervisa

Plant
I
Secrelary j
I
Electronic
Doto processing technicians
facility. ---- -- -- ---- (trained plant
electri cians)
mechanical
I I techni cians
Analysis-estimating PM Schedulirig S Equi pment
Ana lyzes PM records. inventory.
reports, equipment Monitors PM Maintains
rec0<ds, man power program. equi pment
performance records
to meet govt
specifications
I I I
MAINTENANC E ORGAN IZATION utilizes plant data- Elect rical Electrical Electronic Doors S hoists
processing foe ility and maintenance contro l deportment construction. service. service electricians.
to schedule wo rk end keep records. Electrical deportment Performs new Performs (trained plant Service
is divided into four groups-construct ion, service, e lec- coostruction ond electrical electricians). electric doors;
Ironic and doo rs and hoists. Numerical-control deport- equipment preventive Maintains plont elevators, ooists
ment is seporo ted because of complex nature of work; changes mointeronce electronic
most NC main tenonce men ore trained plant electricians. equipment

and experience have developed con-
siderable skill in electronic mainte-
nance ; and ( 4) the doors and
hoists service group.
Maintenance of numerically con-
trolled (NC) machines is accom-
plished by a separat e department
because of the highly complex
nature of the NC machine tools in-
stalled. Most machines have "con-
tinuous-path" functions, which re-
quire more intricate circuitry t han
do "point-to-point" units. However,
many of the NC maintenance tech-
nicians are plant electricians who
have been trained to perform the
electrical, electronic, hydraulic and
mechanical maintenance required.
The maintenance control group,
using a punched-card data-process-
ing system, plan and schedule all
preventive maintenance inspections
and repairs. The data processing
system s implifies and speeds paper-
work, provides for "on-time" sched-
uling of equipment inspection, al-
lows scheduling according to
manpower availability, and affords
an analysis of maintenance costs.
The electrical preventive main-
tenance ( EPM) program covers the
vast power distribution network,
production and research equipment
including the NC machine tools and
electronic equipment. To set up the
EPM program, the maintenance su-
perintendent held a series of meet-
ings with the chief electrician, the
electronic maintenance foreman
and the NC maintenance super-
visor. At these meetings, all plant
equipment and systems were an-
alyzed as to maintenance require-
ments. Factors considered included
(1) need for reliability; (2) past
performance records; ( 3) duty;
(4) environment; (5) age ; and
( 6) accessibility or availability for
maintenance. From t hese studies,
they were able to make concrete
recommendations as to what to in-

NUMERICAL-CONTROL plug-in circuit cord receives opera·
tionol test on special module test panel in NC maintenance
shop. For testing and troubleshooting, technicians also use
dual -trace oscilloscopes, on oscillogrophic recorder, vacuum·
tube voltmeters, multi-meters, and clomp-on ammeters.
4 00-CYCLE portable generator is equipped with on electronic
voltage regulator. Calibration and tests con be performed
at the generator location with portable equipment (left). Fred
Miller, e lectronic maintenance foreman (standing), checks
generator output.

26
ELECTRONIC TROUBLESHOOTING and testing of solid-state
voltage regulators is facilitated with special test panel arrange-
ment. Lorge panel at left supplies on adjustable de output
to precisely regulated inverter on top of test-jock output
ponel. Panel supplies 400-cycle output at 115/200 volts,
single or 3-phose; or 28 volts de. Assembly on bench ot left
is o 400-cycle portable reference regulator. Plant electrician
is checking o 400-cycle generator regulato r with multimeter.
RESISTANCE SPOTWELDER is monitored by dual-trace oscil-
logrophic recorder. Instrument provides continuous oscillo-
grophlc recording of test-point waveforms for comparison with
reference waveforms. Welder panels contain vacuum-tube
control circuits and ignltron or thyratron power circuits. Elec-
tro nic troubleshooting and maintenance is performed by
train ed plant electricians. Maintena nce inspections ore sched-
uled through th e punched-cord dote-processing system.

ELECTRONIC CONTROLS for spotwelders consist of separate
modu les, which con be rep laced as o unit when trouble occurs.
This allows electricians to repair unit in the electronic mointe·
nonce shop when convenient. Regularly scheduled mointen·
once includes blowing out dust with dry compressed air,
visual inspection of control wiring, and voltage checks.
SWITCHGEAR MA INTENANCE includes inspec tion of air
ci,rcuit breakers for rust and signs of orcing or burning;
lubricat ion of CBs according 19 manufacturers recommenda-
ti ons; periodic tests of protective relays; inspection of con-
trol wiring for loose connections; inspection of control circuit
CBs, fuses and fuse clips for corrosion.

spect, what to inspect for, and how
often.
l\Iuch of this information was
then transferred to business ma-
chine cards to be used for schedul-
ing and records. At the same time,
detailed check lists, plus test or
maintenance procedures where nec-
essary, were written for each sig-
nificant equipment within the plant.
In operation, the electrical main-
tenance data processing system
works as follows: Each week, cards
for weekly, monthly, semi-annual,
and annual inspections due are au-
tomatically sorted out by com-
puters and sent to Maintenance
Control. Also, special inspections
or repairs due are automatically se-
lected. Maintenance Control then
sends the cards to the various de-
partment heads. The work called
for by the card must be completed
by the following week.
The EPM cards are quite simple.
On each card, the check list to be
used is noted and space is available
to note any items in need of special
attention or repair. The card also
lists any special instructions which
should be referred to when making
the inspection. This includes volt-
age check charts, special drawings
or other test instructions.
When the inspection or other ac-
tivity is completed, the card is sent
back to Maintenance Control. Here,
work accomplished, time consumed,
etc., are recorded. If any anomalies
or unusual test readings are noted,
these cards are set aside for further
investigation.
Because time required to com-
plete an inspection or maintenance
function is marked on the card, to-
tal time applied to various equip-
ment can be computed. Also, total
manhours consumed and total costs

27
MAIN OUTDOOR SUBSTATION receives
weekly, quarterly and annual inspections.
During the yearly shutdown, the super-
structure is checked for rust, cleaned ond
pointed os required. OCBs and transform-
ers receive thorough annual inspecfr:ms
including testing of oil for dielectric
strength and acidity level.
5 0-KVA MOTOR-GENERA TOR set supplies 120/208 volts, 3-phose for
large installation of data-processing machines. Ed Ransome, chief elec-
trician inspects the isolated power source, which provides a constant-volt-
age, constant-frequency supply for computers and other business machines.
Unit is not affected by disturbances in normal-power system.

can be derived for a monthly report
to management. This data serves
to control costs by pinpointing
trouble spots and pointing up ex-
cessive cost areas. Other benefits
of the system are t hat the more ex-
pensive and most critical equipment
receives adequate maintenance,
while non-essential apparatus re-
ceives less attention, and manpower
is more advantageously utilized. I n
addition, recent studies show a
definite decrease in electrical main-
tenance costs since the institution
of the data-processing system.
Numerical-Control Maintenance
Manufacture of many of the com-
plex aircraft parts is accomplished
automatically by 24 numerically
controlled machine tools. These in-
clude drilling and boring machines,
vertical and horizontal miJling ma-
chines, and lathes of various types.
They vary in size and complexity
from comparatively simple point-
to-point units up to giant fully
automatic multi-function continu-
ous-path machine tools. Mainte-
nance of t his equipment is also
scheduled by Maintenance Control
using the data-processing system as
previously described.
I n setting up the preventive
maintenance program for the NC
machines, Emil Gargani, super-
visor of NC maintenance, first
gathered pertinent maintenance
and troubleshooting data from the
many operating and instruction
books. Next, he sifted through this
material, selecting essential pro-
cedures and other important infor-
mation for each machine tool. To
this, data was added from his own
experience. Then, he reorganized
the maintenance procedures into
three sets of books, one each for
electronic, hydraulic and mechani-
cal preventive maintenance. Elec-
tronic preventive maintenance pro-
cedures are gathered into four
books one for each inspection
period. Books were made up for
each machine for monthly, quart-
erly, semi-annual and annual in-
spections.
Typical NC Maintenance
Procedures
Frequency and extent of preven-
tive maintenance performed on the
NC systems depends on the com-
plexity, duty, and reliability r e-
quired of the machine. Typical
procedures performed are as fol-
lows:
Monthly ins pection-Cl ) Check
operation of cabinet ventilating
fans. (2) Look for burned or dis-
colored components. (3) Examine
and clean relay contacts. ( 4) Scan
wiring for break!l or loose connec-
tions. (5) I nspect motor and gen-
erator brushes, commutators and
bearings. (6) Inspect connecting
cables and plugs for wear.
Mont hly cleaning-(!) Clean
interior of control cabinets using
a hand vacuum cleaner. (2) Clean
photo diodes to remove dust. (3)
Clean or replace control cabinet air
f:lters.
Electronic adjustments and
tests-( Frequency and extent
vary according to complexity of
control system.) In general, the
PM electronic adjustments and
tests are quite extensive because
most of the numerical-control sys-
tems provide continuous-path con-
trol, which incorporates many feed-
back circuits that require close
adjustment. Also, because the
feedback circuits affect many parts
of the control system, trouble-
shooting sometimes can consume
considerable time. Thus, it is par-
ticularly advantageous to prevent
trouble before it occurs.
In addition, control system
parameters (voltage levels, firing
and timing circuits, etc.) tend to

28
 Power System Maintenance
WELDING MACHINE ELECTRONIC PM CHECK LIST
A comprehensive electrical pre-
1. Record operators comments re: machine performance. ventive maint enance progra m for
2. look at flexible conductors for frayed and twisted lines. t he vast 50,000-kva power system,
3. Check timing with oscilloscope. which incor porates dozens of sub-
Weekly 4. s tations a nd miles of underg round
Inspect coolant and pneumatic system for leaks, deterioration,
and proper function. feeders extending to many spread-
5. Insp ect gas system for leaks and proper operation of flow meter.
out buildings, is understandably an
6. Cleon foot swi tch and panels. immense undertaking. However,
7. lubricote conductor bar, air lines, and ram. carefu l planning, organizing, and
detailing of the preventive mainte-
1. Operate and test gos valve and timer.
na nce procedures together with the
2. look a t torch ossembly for wear.
s implified scheduling and record-
Monthly 3. Inspect and cleon movoble electrical contacts.
4. Scan wiring for breaks, damage and burned insulation.
keeping made possible through t he
5. Verify voltage readings vs. comparison chart.
data-processing system, have re-
6. Toke resistance test on ignitrons. duced t he job to practical propor-
tions. This is illustrated by the
1. Inspect fan and motor for proper operation and cleanliness. well-organized maintenance proce-
Quarterly 2. Clean and blow out entire system. clu res which are performed on the
3. Gauge test spark gop (.006 to .008). main 20,000-kva substation (system
components are shown in accom-
1. Inspect diaphragm for crocks and deterioration (remove head panying photos).
Semi-Ann ual and bolts). Superstructure a nd air switches
2. Test tubes with tube checker. - Annually, the entire supers truc-
ture is inspected for rust, cleaned
1. Inspect retraction air cylinder for wear. and painted as required. Nuts and
Annua l 2. feel and test transformer bolts for tightness. bolts are checked for tightness. In-
3. Voltage test reactors and rectifiers. sulators are inspected for cracks or
chips and cleaned if necessary. Air
s witches are inspected for corro-
s ion, operated, and lubricated when
drift from prescribed limits from maintenance follows procedures necessary. All conductor connec-
time to time. This occurs when similar to those outlined for nu- tions, including ground connec-
electron tubes are reaching end- merical control systems. In an ac- tions, are checked for tightness. In
of-life and tube emission drops off, companying table, a typical check addition, the station ground-grid
when mechanical parts wear, or list notes major electronic mainte- resistance is measured and re-
when ambient temperature varia- nance procedures performed on the corded.
tions occur. welding machines. 66-kv oil circuit breakers -
As a result, certain critical ad- The mobile generators supply Weekly, the OCB pneumatic operat-
justments and tests are made on a either 400-cycle power at 115/ 200 ing sys tem is bled to eliminate any
monthly basis. These include volts, or 28 volts de for testing the water vapor. Control-panel strip
checks of voltage and res istance aircraft electrical systems or. for heaters are checked for operation.
readings according to check charts; starting the j et engine. Units Gaskets and oil valves are checked
observation and compari~on of cir- range in size from 5 to 60 kw. Each for oil leakage.
cuit waveforms (phase sequence, generator is furnished with a solid- Annually, bushings are cleaned
firing or timing spikes, etc.) on a state voltage regulator to maintain and inspected for damage. All con-
dual-trace oscilloscope or on a re- output voltage levels to within pre- trol cable connections in the oper-
cording oscilloscope. The recording scribed limits. ating-mechanism ho us i n g are
oscilloscope provides a permanent Because the generators provide checked for tightness and for
record of the waveform. Dual-trace power for vital testing of the air- frayed cable ends. The OCB is t est
instruments are required to com- craft elect rical and electronic sys- operated to check the operating
pare the actual circuit waveforms tems, it is of paramount impor- mechanism and control circuits. Oil
with a reference waveform. tance to keep this equipment in top samples are taken from the top and
operating condition. Regular main- bottom of each tank and sent out
Electronic Maintenance tenance, including adjustments and for dielectric and acidity tests.
tests, is essential. As scheduled Every five years, the main contacts
Over 100 electronically controlled through the data processing sys- are detanked for inspection.
production spotwelders and 138 tem, adjustments and tests on the Power transformers-Two 10,-
mobile motor-generator and engine- voltage regulators can be made at 000-kva oil-filled transformers s tep
generator sets, whiclT are equipped the generator location using port- the 66-kv utility supply voltage
with solid-state regulators , re- able test equipment. When exten- down to 4160/ 2400 volts for pri-
quire electronic maintenance. As sive testing or repairs are required, mary dis tribution. Both transform-
s hown in accompanying photos, the the regulator is replaced with a Weekly, a plant electrician checks
welders are integral units equipped spare, and the malfunctioning unit and records transformer tank oil
with vacuum-tube control circuits is returned to the electronic shop level, oil temperature, winding tem-
and ignitron or thyratron power for troubleshooting at a panel de- perature, and vacuum-pressure
circuits. In general, preventive signed to test the regulator. rrage readings. ,..,_

29
 Punched Punched- Moin Digit
Multi-Topped
Poper Tope - Tope
Reader
;- Steppinq Decoding
Transformer
(Binary Code) Relays Relays

'
Transistor
Manually Set Auxiliary Amplifiers
Digit Buttons Functions for
Hydraulic
Sys tern

NUMERICAL CONTROL for a 32-spindle drill is shown in
a block diagram. Brush- type tope reade r senses punched
holes in tape and sends voltage impulses to corresponding
steppi ng relays and digi t decoding relays. Digit decoding
relays connect selected voltage levels from o multi-topped
transformer into servo transducers. These se rvo transducers
hove a number of primary windings and a rotating core
winding, which is mechan ically lin ked to the movable drill
gantry. Mo vemen t of the gant ry causes the tronsducer co re
to rotate until its ou tput conforms to o preselected value
which corresponds to the required drill location. Mixer and
discriminator circuits combine various servo transducer out-
puts ond convert them to de voltages. These vol tages ore
amplified and applied to the co ntrol fields of on omplidyne,
which in turn, supply the armatures of the posit ioning moto rs.
All auxiliary control functions ore accomplished automatically.

Specialized Service
For Plant Electronics
Solid -state switching, plasma-arc welding, ta pe-controlled processing, numer-
ically controlled robots, the automatic factory- plus hundreds of other new con-
cepts based on electronic control are being put to work in America n industry.
Here's how one plant electrical department meets the broadening ch a llenge of
troubleshooting a nd maintaining some of these com plex electronic systems.

P URRED on by demands to cut By Robert J. Lawrie best be accomplished by specially

S costs and increase both quan-

t ity and quality of product ion,
the Harrison Div., Worthington
Corp., Harrison, N. J . is but one of
many plants that have turned to
automation. Here, a giant numer-
ically controlled dr ill, electronic
tracers, electronically controlled
welders plus many other automatic
processes typify t he inevitable, con-
stantly growing t rend toward com-
plete automation.
And with these electronic instal-
lations comes the often difficult
problem of providing efficient and
effective electronic maintenance.
At Worthington, however, the
electrical department has licked this
problem. Their successful electronic
maintenance program, developed
gradually over the years as an in-
creasing number of electron ic con-
trols were being installed, is the
result of careful studies and prac-
tical experience. They have found
t hat electronic maintenance can
trained in-plant electricians. Be-
cause troubleshooting a nd mainte-
nance of most automated apparatus
require ·an understanding of me-
chanical, hydraulic, electrical and
electronic principles, the plant feels
that an alert, specially trained plant
electrician, wi th his experience and
familiarity 'vit h plant equ ipment, is
the logical choice.
In general, their electronic main-
tenance program is based on t he
following principles : 1) careful se-
lection of men for electronic main-
tenance, 2) training in electronics,
3) application of systematic com-
mon-sense troubleshooting tech-
niques plus practical preventive
maintenance procedures.
Encompassing over a million
square feet, this multi ~building
plant manufactures a complete line
of pumps as well as standard and
custom-built condensers and com-

30
 Mixer "x"and"Y"

-
Servo
and - Positioni119 Drill
Tronsducers Amplifier Amplidyne
Discriminator DC Gantry
Circuits Motors
I
+ t
L ------------------------
Feedback geor linkage
-----------~ v10

p1·essors. Majo,r processes include
heavy machining and assembly ;
fabrication, in which s teel plate,
angle or channel is cut to s ize and
weldccl; erection, in which giant
condensers and compressors are as-
sembled. In addition, the plant has
steel, iron and brass foundries as
well as extensive fac ilit ies for re-
search and development.
In t he following personal in-
terview, chief electrical foreman
Charles F. Riechers describes the
electrical maintenance procedures,
the development of their electronic
maintenance program and reveals
how practical techniques simplify
electronic troubleshooting.
How is your electrical department
organized?
Under t he plant engineer, the
maintenance manager is responsible
fo1· over-all operations, planning
and coordination of all maintenance
departments. The chief electrical
foreman directs the electrical crew
wh ich consists of 21 electricians.
Electricians are rated mechanic, in-
termediate, or star ter according to
t heir experience and skill. Some
perform general maintenance du-
ties ; others are assigned special
duties. For example, one regula rly
inspects all cranes. Another elec-
trician has been t rained to main-
tain and t roubleshoot electronic
equ ipment and instruments.
What are your respons ibilities ?
In addition to direct ing t he ele<!-
t rical crew, supervis ing new con-
struction and planning maintenance
procedures, my duties include se-
lecting new equipment, ordering
spare parts, estimating costs of new
construction or changes, and trou-
bleshooting both electrical anrl ele<!-
t ronic equipment.
Do you have an EPM program?
Our EPM (electrical preventive
maintenance) is performed on es-
sential or expensive equipment or
on apparatus that appears to need
attention. Much of our manufac-
turing progresses on individual op-
erations because we specialize in
heavy and custom-built equipment.
As a result, very little manufactur-
ing is based on assembly line pro-
cedures. Thus we limit our EPM
to the best economical balance.
However, because of our r ecent
modernization and addition of spe-
cial equ ipment, our EPM has been
expanding.
In general, what equipment is in-
cluded in your EPM?
The outdoor substation, which in-
cludes transformers, circuit break-
ers and insulators receives periodic
inspection a nd tests. l gn itron rect i-
fiers, motor-generator sets, standby
battel'ies, electric trucks, cranes
and electronically controlled appa-
ratus also receive r egularly sched-
uled inspections and maintenance.
Because much of our production
equ ipment operates on varying
schedules, disconnect switches, con-
trol panels, and similar related
apparatus are checked between pro-
duction runs or whenever a ma-
chine is not in production.
Equipment operating on severe
applications or subject to poor en-
vironments is inspected on a weekly
basis or sooner if required.

ROBOT MACH INE TOOL is o 32-spindle drill which, through
tope-fed nume rical control, con drill up to 2000 holes per
hour in JA·i n. m e tol plates. Control automatically selec ts
drills and pos itions d rill s pindles to allow drilling anywhere in o
10- by 15 -ft area. Specially trained plant electricians ore re-
sponsibl e for e lec tronic sys tem maintenance.
PUNCHEO-TAP E READER mounted on shelf ot the operator's
control console or digit pushbuttons shown at to p left accept
input doto in binary code. Controls o n consoltl desk top allow
manual con t rol if desired. Two main contro l panels are located
nea rby. Ma intenance incl udes cleaning, looking for burned or
loose connections ond testing relays.

31

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS in the main panels include electron-tu be amplifiers
\le ft photo) mounted on swing-out door; and terminal blocks, resistors, transformers,
s tepping relays, etc. {right photo) mounted inside the panel. The electronic specialist
inspects stepping relays (shown bottom of right photo) periodically, checking for
contact wear, worn ports and for proper mechanical operation.
What e lectronic e quipment do you
maintain?
Our most. complex electronic sys-
tem is the control for a numerically
controlled, 32-spindle drill which
also incorporates extens ive hy-
draulic and mechanical systems. We
als1.> maintain scores of thyr atron
speed controls; electronically con-
t rolled welders; electronic balancing
machines, which allow exact balanc-
ing of pump impellers; electronic
tracers; a large X-ray machine plus
electronic laboratory devices and
instrnments. We anticipate install-
ing additional numerically con-
trolled machine tools as well as
otht-.r electronically controlled ap-
par>itus in the near future.
Do you have a s pecialis t to main-
tain this equipmen t?
Electronic troubleshooting and
maintenance is accomplished by a n
electronic and instrument special-
ist, who is basically an electrician,
and by myself. In our system, one
electrician is trained to maintain
electron ic controls and instruments.
Before I became foreman, I was the
plant electronic and instrument
man. However, the electronic spe-
cialist performs most electronic
maintenance; my attention is r e-
quired only during a particularly
difficult problem or when certain
electronic circuit design changes
may be needed.
What s pecial training do your
electronic s pecialists r eceive?
Before a man is considered for
the position of electronic specialist,
he is required to have a basic knowl-
edge of electr onics. In addition, his
gener al ability and capacity for ab-
sorbing this type of tra ining is
eval uated. If the man qualifies, he
r eceives special courses such as
those given by instrument and elec-
t ron ic equipment manufacturers.
Also. he is urged to take formal
evening courses in electronics. au-
tomatic machine contr ol, etc.
Additional skill is developed on
the job after studying training
manuals. drawings and becoming
int imately familiar with the vari-
ous electronic circuits.
Whal test equipment do you use
when 1roubleshooting electronic
controls ?
1n addition lo standard electrical
instruments such as, voltmeters,
clamp-on ammeters and the like. we
use an industrial analyzer, a vac-
uum-tube voltmeter, recording volt-
amp meter, ammeter oscilloscope
and a brush frequency recorder,
which provides a permanent oscillo-
graphic r ecord.
How does the oscilloscope a nd
brus h frequ ency recorder assis t
I rou bleshooting?
The oscilloscope has many useful
applications in electronic trouble-
shooting. For example, it will indi-
cate voltage level, compare oscilla-
tor frequ encies, present waveforms
of r ectifier or amplifiers outputs,
a nd the like.
We find its use necessary to cneck
backlas h or overshoot of drill posi-
tioning cir cu its. In this function, a
volt.age deviates from zero so rap-
idly that a voltmeter would not
indicate. On the oscilloscope, how-
ever, the voltage waveform is easily
obser ved and interpreted. In addi-
32
tion, some circu it functions are de-
pendent on phase relationships. And
with the oscilloscope, these relation-
ships can be eas ily checked.
Brush recorder operation is s im-
ilar to the oscilloscope except that
it provides a permanent oscillo-
grnph. We use it to record the num-
ber of cycles required for a fast-
acting r elay to open or close or lo
check t he number of cycles it r e-
ma ins open or closed.
Describe the operation of the 32-
s pind le drill.
'l'he machine automatically drills
a pattern of holes in heat exchanger
plates such as used for steam con-
densers in power plants. In engi-
neering, "x." and "y" dimensions
are taken from drawings and
marked on a process sheet. Directly
from t he process sheet, an operator
types t he data on a special type-
writer which punches paper tape in
binary code. This tape is then
placed in the tape-reading device
installed at t he drill control console
readying the machine for operntion.
As shown in an accompanying
photo, the 32 drills are arranged in
a str aight line on a gantry-like as-
sembly which moves forward or
s ideways over the stationary work-
piece. A hole can be drilled any-
where in a 10- by 15-ft area.
All operations can be effected au-
tomatically or by the operator at his
control console. Operations include
all gantry bridge tr avel which
brings drills to the exact locations
required; selection of spindles to
drill or not to drill; selection of
drill speed plus auxiliary functions
such as starting and stopping of
auxiliary motors, operation of
safety devices or indicating lights,
a nd the like.
Manl\gement appears highly sat-
isfi ed with t he numerically con-
tr olled drill because set-up time has
been practically eliminated, the ma-
chine's production rnte has been
very high and down t ime has been
minimum; and r ejects a r e practi-
cally non-existent because the ma-
chine has a constant accur acy of
plus or minus 0.0005 inch.
Describe the numerical control
system for t he 32-s pindle drill.
After the punched paper tape is
installed, the tape-reader senses the
punched holes with spring-operated
brushes or fingers which, upon en-
countering a hole, will trip and send
voltage impulses to stepping r elays
in the control pan el. These r elnys
connect to digit decoding relays and
to a multi-tapped transformer,
which provides voltages correspond-
ing to the proper digits. From the
transformer, the selected voltages
are applied to positioning servo
transrlucers. These servo transduc-
ers are motor-like devices furnished
with a numbei: of primary windings
and a rotating core winding, which
is mechanically linked to the mov-
able drill gantry. Movement of the
gantry causes the transducer core
to rotate until its output conforms
to a preselected value which cor-
responds to the required drill posi-
tion. Electronic mixer and discrim-
inator circuits combine the various
servo transducer outputs and con-
vert them into de voltages. These
voltage signals are amplified and
applied to t he control fields of an
amplidyne, which in turn, supplies
the armatures of the positioning de
motors.
In a similar manner, transistors
and other solid-state circuitry con-
trol solenoid valves and components
in the hydraulic system. In addi-
tion, all auxiliary control functions
as well as operation of s pecial cir-
cuits, such as error-checking cir-
cuits or drill feed-rate circuits, are
programmed into the paper tape.
When you have trouble with t he
numerically controlled dr ill, what
is your a pproach ?
We first define the problem and
localize the source of trouble. For
example, if drill No. 25 will not
lower, we check the hydraulic valve
which mechanically lowers that
drill; or we inspect the relays and
electronic circuitry related to that
drill using schematic and wiring
diagrams as a guide.
Another example might be if the
operator cannot obtain the "in po-
sition" signal on his console. In
this case, we can eliminate all logic
circuitry concerning drill selection
or operation; instead we will look
into the circuit's components re-
lated to that lamp.
In general, the troubleshooter
must become familiar with the vari-
ous functions and circuits in the
system. He must have a good un-
derstanding of the mechanical and
hydraulic functions because the op-
erations are all interrelated in the
control scheme. He must study and
t horoughly understand the block
diagrams, schematics and wiring
diagra ms so that he can quickly
trace through the circuitry, localize
ELECTRONIC TRACER automatically cuts and forms pump housings, im-
peller blades and similar ports. A template is placed on rock above the
revolving table. Cutting tools then form the port guided by a stylus t racing
the template. Control box on top of eiectronic panel allows operator to
select speeds of de driving motors and d i.ection of cut.
the problem and replace the faulty
component. However, this skill is
developed relatively quickly if the
troubleshooter has had the proper
training and on-the-job guidance.
Would you explain how a circult
is traced and checked?
Usually, the troubleshooter will
make his checks working back from
a faulty function. For example, if a
drill will not position properly for
a particular hole, all the circuits
concerning thai drill and related
dimensions or digits are checked.
Using the schematic drawings, wir-
ing diagrams, instruction book, and
voltage and resislnnce tables, the ELECTRONIC TROUBLESHOOTING is o
troubleshooter takes readings with specialty of chief electrical foreman
Charles Reichers. Here he makes on ad-
a vacuum-tube voltmeter at desig-
nated points in the pertinent cir- justment on the electronic tracer.
cuitry. If a voltage or resistance
reading is not within prescribed Electronic maintenance is part of
our regular electrical preventive
limits, this particular circuit is
mamtenance program. As an ex-
traced back until a propet· reading
ample, ignitron rectifiers are in-
is obtained. The trouble then is lo-
calized between this point and the spected once a week. Water
point of the first improper reading. pressure, temperature and meter
While circuit tracing, the trouble- readings are checked and the con-
shooter also looks for loose connec- trol plane is inspected for signs of
tions, burned or darkened compo- burning or loose connections. Other
nents and improperly positioned equipment such as electronic speed
relays. controls, electronic tracers and the
Because relays are prone to mal- like receive similar inspections.
functions, we check them carefully These inspections are also per-
for proper contact and tight connec- formed on the numerical control
tions. On some occasions we found system for the 32-spindle drill. In
that electron tubes were weak and addition, we periodically lubricate
required replacement. The transis- all relays with a special lubricant
tor circuitry has been most reliable and check relays for pickup or drop-
beca use no failures have occurred out, contact wear and worn parts.
in these circuits s ince t he uni t was It is very impor tant that elec-
installed over t wo years ago. t ronic controls qe kept clean. Using
compressed air, we blow out control
Do you have an electronic preven- pa nels as required depending on the
tive maintenan ce program? condition of t he sur rounding a rea.
33
 LUBRICATI ON FREQUENCY TABLE

Motor Size
Type of Bearing Where Normally Lubrication *
Applied Frequency
Sleeve
Plain sleeve Fractional hp 6 mo to 1 yr
Oil-ring sleeve Lorge 6 mo to 1 yr
Boll bearing
Open Lorge 3 mo to 3 yr

Single shield All sizes 3 mo to 7 yr

Double shield All sizes 6 mo to 7 yr

Sealed
I Medium & small Not needed**

• Recommended lubrication freq uency depends on type of service- cosy, sta ndard, severe,
or very severe. Use the longest interval on easy applications; use the shortest interval on
very severe applications .
.. Scaled bearings may be disaucmbled and repacked with grease at 1 to 5-year intervals
depending on kind of service.

Ellective Motor
Here's how a plant electrica l department applies modern bear-
ing maintenance techniques to increase the life of motors.

T THE Weston Instruments Di- wide range of high-quality elec- well as emergency breakdown re-

A vision, Daystrom Inc., Newark.

N. J., motors last longer and
perform better because plant elec-
t1·icians follow a carefu Jly planned
motor lubrication schedule and ap-
ply the latest bearing maintenance
techniques.
Previously, ac motor failures ac-
counted for a high percentage of
electrical repa-ir work. And most of
these failures were traced to faulty
bParings. As a r esult, their motor
maintena nce program places heavy
emphasis on proper handling, r epair
and maintenance of various types
of sleeve and ball bearings.
Motors of various types a.id sizes
are used extensively in all processes
at t he plant, which consists of nine
major buildings encompassing 500,-
000 sq ft. The plant produces a
t rical measul'ing instruments as
well as instrument component pa r ts.
Major processes include plastic
mold ing, small-parts machining, as-
sembly and testing.
In the follow ing personal inter-
vie·w, Howard Wachter, chief elec-
trician, describes his electrical
maintenance procedures and dis-
cusses modern bearing maintenance
techniques.
How is your electrica l department
organized?
The electrical department is part
of the maintenance divis ion, which
is supervised by the plant engineer.
Headed by a chief electrician, the
elect1·ical departmenL consists of
eight electricians, who perform
electrical preventive maintenance as
pairs.
The chief electrician plans elec-
trical preventive maintenance, s u-
pervises the electrical crew, formu -
lates electrical maintenance and
repair procedures, selects spare
electrical parts, and advises on se-
lection of new electrical equ ipment.
How is your EPM (electrical pre-
ventive main tenance) program set
up?
We do not go over boa rd on pre-
ventive maintenance. Because we
a re essentially an assembly plant
and because our products are, in a
sense, handmade or custom-made,
our processes do noL include a high-
produc.>tion conti11uous ty pe of op-
eration. Related to electrical main-
tenance, this means that downtime
will not hurt us nearly as much as
it hurts an automated high-produc-
t ion process. Therefore, we feel it
is more efficient to function with a
minimum-size electrical crew and
perform electrical maintenance on
only essential or expensive equip-
ment or where it is needed.
However, since motor failures

34
BALL BEAR ING is assembled into cart-
ridge-type housing. Bearing must be
seated squarely on shoft and must fit
snugly. Before installing on shaft, bear-
ing should be heated either by on induc-
tion heating unit, or by immersing it in
oil that hos been heated to o tempera-
ture of a bout 200°F.
VERTICAL INSERTION aids in centering
moto r shaft to hou sing when ext reme
clearances occur. The bea ring should be
free to move axially to allow for shaft ex-
pansion. If th e fit is too loose, however,
the housi ng will be damaged. During all
assembly phases, strict cleanliness must
be maintained.
PLAIN SLEEVE BEARING receives o coat-
ing of o durable plastic sealant, which
acts as o shim, filling excess clearance be-
tween bearing and housing. After the ap-
plication, the assembly is set aside for
two to four hours to allow the sealant to
ha rden into o strong and long-wearing
surface.

Bearing Maintenance
were our· most frequent cause of As a result, we updated our mo- Ball bearing:s may be found on vari-
downtime, we felt that preventive tor lubrication methods and bearing ous-size motors and their construc-
maintenance or other necessary maintenance techniques, emphasiz- tion may be (1) open, (2) single
steps to reduce motor fai lures would ing cleanliness in procedures for all shielded, (3) double shielded, ( 4)
be worthwhile. Therefore, we in- types of motor bearings. sealed, plus double row and other
vestigated these motor breakdowns special types. Open bearings a re of
and, as a result, we established a What types of bear ings mus t you open construction and must be in-
modern motor repair and mainte- maintain? stalled in a sealed housing. These
nance program. There a re many types of bear- bearings are less apt to cause churn-
ings, however, most of our motors ing of g rease, hence they are usu-
How was your motor main tenance are equ ipped with ball bearings. a lly applied only on large motors.
program established?
The first step was to find out why
our ac motors were failing. And, of
course, there are various causes of
motor breakdowns, such as exces-
sive load, binding or misalign-
ment of motor drives, wet or dirty
surroundings and bearing failures.
Among t hese we found t hat faulty
motor bearings were the most com-
mon cause of fai lure. And it is sig-
nificant that such failures occurred
in newer motors with hig h-quality
bearings as frequently as in older
motors equipped with less reliable
bear.ings. A notable exception was
that motors equipped with sealed
bearings were much less prone to
failure.
Cons idering this data, particu-
larly the fact that sealed bea1·ings
are shielded from contamination
and do not r equire lubrication, we
BEARING MAINTENANCE includes ove rhaul and inspection of large oil-ring
concluded that contamination of sleeve bearings. At left of photo, o 4 160-volt, 250-hp wound-rotor motor
bearings was one of the major drives o refrig erant compressor via o speed converter. Exposed coupling
causes of bearing failures. at the compressor wi ll be checked for alignment.

35

ELECTRONIC CODED-PAGING system in-
corporates on encoder, transmitter and
several small, pocket size receivers which
ore worn by maintenance foreman. Main-
tenance secreto ry con dial o foreman's
code on encoder, operate a switch and
thus immediately contact th e foreman
onywhere in or near the plant.
,_
~ -·
POCKET-SIZE RECEIVER is worn ot the
belt by chief e lectrician, Howard Wach-
ter. Upon receiving the proper signal
from the transmitter, the receiver emits o
series of "beeps" that correspond to Mr.
Wochter's code. He then calls in to re-
ceive his message. The electronic paging
system hos proved to be on efficient time-
sover.
The single-6hielded bearing has a
shield on one side to preclude grease
from the motor windings. Double-
shielded bearings have a shield on
both sides of the bear ing. This type
of bearing is less susceptible to con-
tamination and, because of its de-
sign, reduces the possibility of over-
gr easing. Sealed bearings have, on
each side of the bearing, double
shields which form an excellent seal.
This bearing requires no mainte-
nance, affords protection from con-
tamination at all times, and does
not require regreas ing. It is usu-
ally used on small or medium-size
motors.
Our very large motors are fur-
nished with oil-ring sleeve bearings.
And some of our fractional-hp mo-
tors are equipped with plain sleeve
bearings.
How often do you lubricate motor
bearings?
Frequency of motor lubrication
depends not only on the type of
bearing but also on the motor appli-
cation.
Small and medium-size motors
equipped with ball bearings (except
sealed bearings) are greased every
three to six years if the motor duty
is normal. On severe applications
(high temperature, wet or dirty lo-
cation, or corrosive atmosphere),
lubrication may be required more
often. In severe applications, past
experience and condHion of the
grease a re the best guides as to
frequency of lubrication.
We change lubrication oil in
sleeve bearings at least once a year.
When the motor duty is severe or
the oil appears dir ty, we change it
sooner.
Describe your motor lubrication
procedure.
For effective motor lubrication.
cleanliness and use of t he proper
lubricant are of paramount impor-
tance.
When greasing a ball-bearing mo-
tor, the bearing housing, grease gun
and fittings are wiped clean. Great
care must be taken to keep dirt
out of the bearing when greasing.
Next, the relief plug is re-
moved from the bottom of the bear-
ing housing. This is done to pre-
vent excessive pressure from build-
ing up inside the bearing hous ing
during greasing. Grease is then
added, with the motor running if
possible, until it begins to flow from
the relief hole. Allow the motor to
run from 5 to 10 minutes to expell
excess grease. Then the relief plug
is replaced and the bearing housing
is cleaned.
It is important to avoid over-
greasing. When too much grease is
forced into a bearing, a churning of
the lubricant occurs, resulting in
high temperature and eventual
bearing failure.
On motors that do not have a re-
lief hole, we apply grease sparingly.
If possible we disassemble the mo-
tor and repack the bearing housing
with the proper amount of grease.
During this procedure we always
maintain strict cleanliness.
The importance of strict adher-
36
ence to these procedures cannot be
overemphasized. We feel that con-
tamination and overgreasing of
bearings are the major causes of
bearing failures.
For sleeve bearings, we use only
the recommended oil for particular
service conditions. Observing care-
ful cleanliness, old oil is removed
and new oil is added until the oil
level reaches the "full" line on t he
oil sight gauge. This is done only
when t he motor is not running.
How do you tes t or check the con-
dition of bearings on motors in
place?
We find that the two most effec-
tive tests a re what you might call
the "feel" t est and the "sound"
test. The "feel" test is performed
by the electrician. If, while t he mo-
tor is running, the bearing housing
feels overly hot to touch, it is prob-
ably malfunctioning. (Some bear-
ings, however, may operate safely
up to about 85° C.)
During the "sound" test, the elec-
trician listens for foreign noises
coming from the motor. Also, he
may place one end of steel rod-3 ft
long and about ~ in. in diameter-
on the bear ing hous ing; the other
end is held against his ear. The rod
then acts as an amplifier, transmit-
ting unusual sounds such as thump-
ing or grinding, which would indi-
cate a failing bearing. Special
listening devices, such as the tran-
sistorized stethoscope, can also be
used for this purpose.
Additional checks can be made.
For example, the air gap on sleeve-
bearing motors should be checked
periodically. These test-s, performed
with a feeler gauge, indicate when
a bearing begins to wear. Four
measurements are taken about 90
degrees apart around the rotor pe-
riphery. These measu rements are
recorded and compared with earlier
readings, providing a check on con-
dition of the bearing.
Motors should also be checked for
end play. Ball-bearing motors
should have about ~ in. to h in. end
play. Sleeve-bear ing motors may
have up to ~ in. end play.
On large sleeve bearings the oil
level is checked periodically, and the
oil is visually inspected for contami-
nation. If it is possible, t he elec-
trician checks that t he oil rings ro-
tate when the motor is operating.
Other inspections include check-
ing for misaligned or bent shafts
and for excessive belt pressure.
 ELECTRICAL
CONSTRUCTION
AND MAINTENANCE

Electrical
Maintenance
For Steelmaking
Electrical equipment and systems at Pittsburg, Calif., steel making facility are
maintained under a comprehensive preventive program. Scope ranges from
personnel training to c<X>rdination with continuous production schedules.

By H. P. Scott
HE steel industry's evolution Maintenance of motors and gen- ing attached to mechanical equip-

T from manpower to horsepower

and instrumentation has radi-
cally changed the pattern of main-
erators is based on the fact that ro-
tating equipment fails due to (1)
normal wear of moving parts, (2)
ment which suffers shock or vibra-
tion as an inherent operating
symptom. This is true especially
tenance. It has changed in charac- vibration, (8) dirt and electrically with control equipment, inasmuch
ter, due to growing use of electronic conductive dust, (4) moisture, (5) as vibration and bounce shortens
controls, system analyzers, graphic insulation breakdown, (6) too lit- tube life, increases bearing wear,
panels and the like. It has changed tle or too much lubrication, and causes contacts to chatter and pit.
in magnitude, with size of mainte- (7) misapplication of equipment. In most instances protection of
nance departments, budgets and in- Vibration problems generally rotating equipment against dirt
ventories increasing as processes are due to electrical equipment be- and moisture is furthered by en-
become more complex, functions of
controls more critical, product
specifications more precise. It has
changed in timing, due to process-
ing and sequences which now are
highly automated and continuous.
It has changed in status and sig-
nificance, with acknowledgment
that prevention of fault-caused
shutdowns are vital. And it has
changed in cost evaluation, inas-
much as maintenance charges now
are accepted as "insurance premi-
ums,'' approved so long as "divi-
dends" are obtained by productive
continuity.
This changing pattern is clearly
evident at the Pittsburg (Calif.)
Works, Columbia-Geneva Div., U.S.
Steel, where the electrical and elec-
tronic maintenance program covers
all rotating equipment, controls,
protective relays, capacitors, trans-
formers, cables and high,voltage
switchgear. Also included are trac-
tor motors and magnet equipment
for transportation and materials- INSPECTIOM, adjustment, replacement of worn ports and tightening of connections ore
continuous maintenance routines on this annea li ng-line control board. Filtered air is
handling facilities, communication kept unde r slight positive pressure in this underground room to insure dust-free en-
equipment and training programs. vironment for countless contact devices.

37

I
I veniently fo r reference, in some in-
I
/ vacuum, or by blowing with dry
COMM UNICAT ION between mainte-
nance and operating personnel stationed
in different areas of the mill is established
th rough speaker-mikes and intercom
jacks located at all main control panels.
Communication in this large mil l also is
maintained through sho rt-wave radio sets
mounted on fork-trucks, fire trucks, crane
cobs, yard locomotives, area stockrooms,
central engineering and dispatch offices.
6900-VOLT AC SWITCH GEAR, motor-
generator sets and 250-volt de control
equipment for cold reduction mills are
housed in clean, cool, separate room ad-
jacent to mill proper. Meters and record-
ing instruments ore periodically checked,
repaired ond recalibrated in the mill's in-
strument maintenance shop.
closure designs such as splash-
proof, drip-proof or totally-enclosed
fan-cooled motor housings. Motor
life also is prolonged by facto ry-
sealed prelubricated anti-friction
bearings.
Factory guarantees, however, are
not taken for granted. Whenever
oil and grease bearings are acces-
sible, lubrication is checked regu-
larly and replenished with amounts,
types and viscosities specified by
manufacturers. This information,
which is particularly important
when motors are installed in high
ambient temperatures, is filed con-
stances being attached directly to
frames of motors demanding spe-
cial lubricants. Rotating equip-
ment also is cleaned regularly by
a ir, or wiped with dry cloth.
Through scheduled inspection,
adjustment, lubrication and clean-
ing, trends towards failure gener-
ally are detected in ample time to
schedule rep:.irs or replacements
during normal down-time. When
major repairs require more than
normal down-time, maintenance su-
pervisors consult with operating
and engineering personnel to deter-
mine approaches most acceptable to
all.
Down-time is shortened in sev-
eral ways. Where numerous motors
are alike in capacities and charac-
teristics, spare units are available
for replacement or substitution.
Spare motors are moved to loca-
tions of pending trouble, then are
substituted as scheduled down-time
pe1·mits.
Motors are repai1·ed and re-
wound, generally, in the mill's well-
equipped shop. In emergencies,
motors are trucked to local, inde-
pendent EASA shops for servicing.
Storage of spare parts, espe-
cially coils, is a compromise between
full replacement and minimum in-
ventory. For example, s ince experi-
ence suggests little likelihood of all
coils failing simultaneously in a
major 6900- or 2300-volt motor,
only quarter-sets of these coils are
carried in inventory. As their use
is anticipated and scheduled, other
replacement sets are reordered.
When delivered, coils are packaged
for long-time storage.
In smaller, more prevalent 440-
volt sizes, motors a re card-indexed
and cross-filed to show what mo-
tors, materials and parts are avail-
able, where they are stored, or
where they can be obtained
38
(through other mill departments or
outside suppliers) . This avoids
needless duplication, t hereby pro-
moting economy and conserving
storage space.
Consultations between mainte-
nance, engineering and operating
authorities also take place when
new equipment is specified, de-
signed or installed. These meetings
acquaint desk men with practical
field knowledge. In such sessions
maintenance makes suggestions
concerning equipment location, ac-
cessibility, necessary replacement
inventory, estimated times for re-
placement or transfer to a standby
unit. This follows t he thought that
it is more sensible to avoid or an-
ticipate bad conditions than to cor-
rect them later. Therefore, engi-
neering consu lts with maintenance
regarding poss ibilities for contami-
nation by dust or moisture, preva-
lence of heat or hazards, conditions
of corrosion or vibration, protec-
tion of personnel and equipment.
Emphasis on Control
Maintenance of controls covet·s
automatic, electronic and non-elec-
trical devices. Automatic timing
devices and recording instruments
are periodically checked, recali-
brated and repaired in the mill's
instrument shop. In some special
instances, automatic controls are
returned directly to manufacturers
for repair or replacement.
Maintenance of controls, such as
relays and contactors, includes
tightening of connections, adjust-
ment of contacts, replacement of
springs, general cleaning and lubri-
cation.
Protective relays, as the name
implies, are designed and installed
to protect electrical equipment from
damage by fault curr ents. There-
fore, dependability is mandatory
and maintenance must be thorough.
This dictates checks for corrosion,
damaged or missing covers or glass
ports, dust or dirt ins ide enclo-
sures. Relays are actuated manu-
ally, noting whether parts move
freely and perform intended func-
tions, such as tripping circuit
breakers or actuating related equip-
ment. When parts move sluggishly,
steel pivots or cracked jewelled
bearings are replaced-never lubri-
cated.
Time-delay settings are checked
by simulating overcurrent and
over-voltage, reverse-current and
ground-fault conditions. Also
checked are cu rrent and voltage
calibrations at pick-up and drop-
out points. In some instances, re-
lays are electrically loaded by uti-
lizing variable-res istance kits, then
related circuit breakers are tripped
to check protection against short
circuits and overloads.
Where s ilver contacts are found
to be corroded, they are burnis hed
lightly with flexible, etched steel-
strip tools. Abras ive cloth is not
used because non-conductive parti-
cles might remain to prevent posi-
tive closing and contact. Files and
knives also are avoided, inasmuch
as hars h scratching might cause
arcing and pitting.
Capacitor Routines
Maintenance of capacitors in-
cludes checking fo r over-voltage,
automatic switching, blown fuses,
dirt, excessive temperature and
adequate ventilation.
High operating temperatures are
checked by attaching thermometers
directly against enclosures. When
indicated, ventilation is improved
by relocating capacitors in cooler
ambients; by installing fans to pro-
vide forced cooling, or by installing
baffles between adjacent capacitors
to lessen inter-unit convection of
heated air. Heat also can be caused
by thin layers of dust that lessen
dissipation of heat from parts and
enclosures. Heavy layers of dust on
bushings can cause flas hover and
leakage. Cleanliness, therefore, be-
comes essential.
Tran.~{ormers, located at outdoor
substations as well as indoor load
centers, are checked frequently for
coolant level and dielectric
strength, operati ng temperatures,
voltage and ampere loads. In ex-
t racting samples of coolants from
liquid-cooled transformers for t est,
drain valves are first wiped clean
and sample bottles rinsed with liq-
uid being sampled. Temperature
of the liquid is checked to assure
that it is at least as warm as sur-
rounding air. This prevents con-
densation. Samples then are
checked for dielectric strength by
the mill's substa tion maintenance
department.
Liquid-cooled transformers also
are checked for tightness of connec-
tions and undercover condensation,
while dry-type transformers are
checked for cleanliness, dryness,
signs of heat discoloration, corro-
s ion and loose connections.
Windings a re cleaned by vacuum
DEPENDABILITY of drive motors, sensing end safety devices, conTroi a nd dii.tribution
equipment is mandatory for continuous operation of block-long strip steel annealing
line. Key requisites for uninterrupted production include preventive electrical and
electronic mointenance programs.
or by blowing with compressed air
not over 20 psi. Dry transformers
are bracket-mounted on columns or
out from walls to obtain good ven-
tilation, and are removed or pro-
tected from water and steam pipes
to avoid wetting due to leaks.
Checking Power Pat hs
Moisture and heat again enter
the maintenance picture in connec-
tion with checking f eede1· cables,
inasmuch as t hese two causes are
prime reasons for dielectric losses
and insulation cracking, drying,
disintegration and fai lure. There-
fore, cables are checked periodically
for poor thermal conditions, me-
chanical damage, overloading and
potential faults. Loading is checked
by hook-on ammeters. These give
fairly accurate and fast readings
without disturbing or de-energiz-
ing f eeders.
Megohm readings are taken and
recorded regularly, plotted to show
trends and checked against recom-
mendations of the IPCEA (Insu-
lated Power Conductor Engineers
of America) . Records include
dates of tests, identification num-
bers of megohmmeters used, in-
itials of electricians making the
tests, existing temperatures and
megohm r eadings corrected to a
39
standard base temperature.
Where feeder replacements are
indicated, cables are not disturbed
until replacements are available
and substitution is coordinated
with scheduled production down-
time. Cables are not disturbed un-
til then, because insulation which
has become brittle might easily
crumble with movement, causing
immediate fai lure.
Maintenance of high-voltage
bushings includes inspection, clean-
ing, testing and replacement of
damaged parts. This can include
chipped petticoats, fract ured porce-
lain or leaking gaskets.
To protect maintenance inspec-
tors before work is st arted, (1)
high-voltage bushings a re first de-
energized; (2) saf ety locks and
tags are attached to related circuit
breakers to prevent others from re-
energizi ng the system until main-
tenance work is complete, and (3)
grounds are attached to remove
poss ible electrostatic charges.
Cleanliness of bushings is impor-
tant for two reasons: first, to pre-
vent flashovers during humid
periods; second, to prevent corona
effects from interfering with recep-
tion over short-wave 'radios which
are used extensively for two-way
intercommunication between main-
t enance a nd tra nsportation dis-
 ..t.&Nf HO. _ __ _ MACHl,_t H0 . - - - - --ttfv-DJIO•T H 0 · - - - - - M0 1'0 • N 0 . - - - -

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PROTECTIOH of maintenance inspectors

is insured by worning togs attached to cir-
cuit breakers related to feeders serving
equipment being checked, se rviced or re-
paired. Breakers also ore padlocked in
Off posi ti ons, high-voltage bushings ore
de-energized, and grounds ore attached.
MOTOR SERVICE RECORDS identify motors by code, serial, series and style numbers,
by location in the plant, horsepower roting, key dimensions, and complete con-
struction, operating, Insta llation and connection dote. Also noted ore dotes of
installation and repairs, cause diagnosis and corrective recommendations, identifica-
ti on of maintenance crew or individual making such repairs, repair costs, monhours
required and ports inventory remaining in stock.

patch offices, moving fork-trucks,
crane cabs, yard locomotives, fire
trucks, area stockrooms and ro\·-
ing maintenance crews equipped
with walkie-talkies.
No Mere Slogan
Few industrial plants have as
high a safety concept or record as
this one. H erc protection of per-
sonnel is the rule not the exception.
Safety is enforced rigorously not
SAFETY HUDDLES ore held on tho job
almost doily. A typical session, above,
catches o maintenance foreman explain-
ing to his crew the purpose and impor-
tance of wearing safety glosses ond hard
hots where their use is prescribed. Effec-
tiveness of huddles is evidenced by un-
usually high safety record; this mill hav-
ing less than 0.8 disabling injuries per
million monhours worked.
merely preached. l\lanngemcnt con-
tends that "knowing's not enough,"
basing this belief on the fact that
most injuries can be avoided when
knowledge of safety procedures is
applied consistently.
Management also endorses "Sin-
gle Objective Safety" in reviewing
injuries, even minor ones. By this
procedure, information is compiled
to determine injury extent, pat-
tern, frequency. Conditions and
causes are analyzed to determine
preventive protective measures.
Then correction is determined and
applied to prevent reoccunence.
When an injury occurs, the fore-
man attempts to determine the
cause. Findings a nd conclus ions
are submitted in fu ll reports. If
an injury is serious or disabling,
the maintenance superintendent
and two foremen conduct an on-
the-spot investigation to determine
responsibility and recommenda-
tions for prevention of recurrence.
In addition, there are numernus
safety "huddles" between divis ion
heads and wage employees at the
start of each s hift, also group
safety meetings, individual con-
tacts and instruction programs.
During a recent month, for ex-
ample, this mill conducled 192
safety huddles, 86 safety meetings,
82 planned personnel interviews,
88 reports concerning unsafe pro-
cedures, 20 reports on unsafe con-
ditions and 9 safely analyses.
Recommendations, met.hods and
plans are submitted to department
superintendents and foremen by a
Joint Safety Committee; yet it is
the responsibility of management
to insure the safety of those in
their departments. When a safety
measure is adopted by any division,
this information is disseminated to
other general managers and super-
intendents. Whether they adopt the
measure is their personal choice,
because rules governing safety in
specific departments is their in-
dividual decis ion. Safety, how-
ever, must be achieved.
When considering men for pro-
motions, their division safety rec-
ords are reviewed critically, for it
is assumed that executives who are
Jax concerning safety of men may
be equally lax in other things as
well. For these reasons safety is a
reality.
Emphasis upon safety was illus-
trated forcefully immediately fol-
lowing a recent strike. With men
returning to work after a Jong mill
shut-down, tremendous pressure
was placed on production to meet
backlogged orders. Before operat-
ing and maintenance men were per-
mitted to resume their function s,
they were reindoctrinated in safety
rules and procedures, individually
as well as in groups. These re-
fresher sessions covered every-
t hing from use of hard hats to
color-coding of electrical equipment
and warning s ign~ at blind corners.
Throughout the mill, safety is
evidenced by readily identified
stretcher-blanket locations, fire

40
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rurnuc.11. MAillmlAIJCJ! cmn smr
66" COll?IJU)\E Plaulll LIU
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Il:sl'ICTllW Kn'D am 6£CTIOI
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11>n1r-1• T
-.
THOROUGHNESS OF MA INTENANCE program is indicated
by detailed extent of checklists. The obove sheet, for example,
is port of o 6-poge list relating to weekly inspections of a
continuous pickling li ne. Maintenance inspections of motors
and generators, control equipment ond capacitors, trans·
formers and feeders, crones ond communication equipment
ore equally detailed.
stations and fire truck doors.
Workers wear protective glasses,
safety shoes and gauntlets where
activities so dictate. All workers
wear hard hats. Protection is pro-
moted by structural guards,
screens and handrails. Warning
tags and padlocks are used for cir-
cuit lock-outs to safeguard main-
tenance men working on related
feeders or remote equipment. Work-
ers are indoctrinated in use and
care of quality tools and test equip-
ment. Posters and safety rules a re
posted conspicuously, practiced
consistently, enforced rigidly.
Training and Retraining
It should be emphasized that in-
spections cannot be thorough, nor
can repair routines be efficient if
maintenance men are unfamiliar
wit h equipment. This is true
whether equipment be a simple
machine or a digital computer. Effi-
ciency demands knowledge, which
begins with instruction.
Therefore competent workman-
ship and skills are fostered by ap-
prentice training in 14 trades, in-
cluding electricians, instrument
repairmen and machinists. Appren-
tices attend classes during working
hours at a mill training center
where they study mathematics and
mechanical drawing as well as print
reading and related trade subjects.
There also is on-the-job training
of new employees, and retraining
programs for older workers.
P1C•)ot6 I
I
I II ...___
·- -· _
-
........
4".. .......
I
JiealCPLIHID ..__ I
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-
INVENTORY RECORDS for spore ports identify items, contain
basic specificotions, indicate storage locations, vendors,
standard order quantities and price quotations. Records also
indicate additions, deletions and running balances of quon ti·
ti es on hand. Stock clerks alert purchasing deportment when
inventories ore reduced to minimum amounts consistent with
importance of ports ond predetermined rotes of replacement.
This maintenance program The trend is neither new nor revo-
stresses tea mwork and cooperation lutionary, merely an intens ifica-
between maintenance workers, su- tion of a continuing evolution
perintendents, inspectors, opera- which has fostered higher-speed
tions men and technicians. It also production. Today this is empha-
subscribes to the belief that an sized by keener competition and
effective maintenance department narrower profit margins.
must be well bala nced, well knit, This has spurred development of
well informed, even preinformed. modern mills where production is
Only then can pending fau lts be governed by sophisticated sensing
spotted and scheduled for preven- devices and computer-like controls.
tive attention. It is inevitable t hat the trend will
Many maintenance and repair continue ; that operating and con-
jobs can be delayed and scheduled trol equipment will become even
for the one 8-hr shift or "turn" more complex and precise. Invest-
per week when production is halted. ments in equipment will increase,
Urgent maintenance assignments and production must be continuous
are handled promptly by alerted to yield reasonable investment re-
crews during these periods of turns.
"bonus" down-time. Therefore, power must be in-
At the Pittsburg Works, this sured by fault-free transforma-
maintenance approach is used to tion, switching and distribution.
insure continuous operation of Motors and generators, cables and
open hearth furnaces, rolling and capacitors, relaying and grounding
rod mills, wire and wire rope mills must be dependable. Process varia-
. .. also a 4-stand reduction mill tions must be detected and cor-
where 8-ton steel coils are rolled rected instantly, automatically, ac-
to thin-gauge sheet . . . also a 6- curately.
story-high continuous annealing This is true especially in con-
line wherein strip steel is unrolled tinuous sequences, such as the roll-
from coils, cleaned, heat-treated at ing, annealing, galvanizing and
1350° F, cooled and recoiled at the tinning processes at Pittsburg.
rate of 1500 ft per min . . . also Here failure of one component can
three continuous electrolytic tin- halt an entire production line.
ning lines where strips move Maintenance is recognized as a
through sequence processes at 1250 key factor in plant efficiency, cus-
fpm. All these f acilities are highly tomer deliveries, personnel and
motorized, operated and controlled equipment safety, over-all operating
electrically and electronically. costs and investment returns. This
Perhaps the word "automation" is a great responsibility, and an
has received too much publicity. equally great challenge.
41
 Selective
Manpower
For Organized
Maintenance
Here's how a well-organized plant e lectrical department selects a nd
trains electricians to provide specialized maintenance for a wide
range of equipment including a 50,000-kva primary distribution
system, solid-state speed controls for la rge paper-mill motors, and a
computer-controlled co nveyor system.

By Robert J. Lawrie

T THE Scott Paper Co., Chester, tinues to expand incorporating ad- In the following personal inter-

A Pa., electrical maintenance cov-

ers a broad range of responsi-
bilities. Modernizations, brought
about by continuing technical ad-
vances in the pr oduction of paper,
have resulted in many complex con-
trol installations as well as an ex-
panding power distribution system.
For example, giant paper mills,
heart of the paper-production proc-
ess, are automatically controlled by
solid-state or electronic-tube-ampli-
dyne systems. For high-speed ware-
housing and shipping, digital com-
puters supervise an automated
case-selection conveyor system. In
addition, a secondary-selective dis-
tribution system, which supplies
power for these installations and
other plant equipment including
over 4000 production motors, con-
vances such as automatic transfer
switching of separate power sources.
To provide effective maintenance,
t he electrical department employs a
well-organized and skillfully man-
aged maintenance program. Here,
selection and training of electri-
cians, specialization in mainte-
nance, a well-planned preventive
maintenance program, and accurate
cost accounting through a mainte-
nance coordination department are
the principal features of their suc-
cessful program.
Encompassing over a half-million
sq ft of floor space, this multi-
building plant employs about 2000
people. Products produced include
a wide variety of sanitary paper
products such as paper towels, table
napkins, and facial tissues.
view, Nelson Allen, electrical su-
perintendent and LaRue Scott, as-
s istant electrical s uperintendent,
describe t heir electrical mainte-
nancP. program and d iscuss ma in-
tenance procedur es for specific
equipment and systems.
H ow is your e lectrical department
organized ?
As heari of the mainte1.ance de-
partment, the mi>intenance manager
is responsible for costs, planning
and over-all operations. Under him
a re the maintenance superintend-
ents and a maintenance operations
and coordination group.
The electrical superintendent a11d
his assistant are responsible for
electrical depa r tment activities.
Some of our duties include control
of electrical maintenance costs, pre-
ventive maintenance pr ogramming
and pr ocedures, hiring and training
of men, wr iting new equipment and
construction specifications, estimat-
ing electrical maintenance or con-
struct ion costs and designing new
electrical installat ions at the Ches-
ter plant.
We have two foremen who pro-

42
 being assigned to a specific duty,
MAINTENANCE the candidates' education, past per-
I MANAGER I formance and general ability is
Mo inte no nee evaluated both verbally and through
Other ope rations 8 written tests. In addition, we make
moint. deportment coo rd i notion
ELECTRICAL certain that all new electricians
superintendents MAINT.PLANNING ENGR.
SUPERINTENDENT hired are of highest caliber.
MECHANICAL MAINT. P.M. SHUTDOWN PLANNER
PIPE SHOP P.M.SHUTOOWN COORDINATOR
INSTRUMENT DEPT. FINISHING MAINT. PLANNER
How do you select new electri·
FINISHING MAINT. ASSISTANT MAINT. EXPEDITOR cians?
BLDG. 8 GROUNDS ELECTRICAL SECRETARY
SUPERINTENDENT CLERK TYPIST
To obtain the best qualified appli-
cants, we advertise in local papers
calling for plant electricians with
ELECTRICAL ELECTRICAL a minimum of six years mainte-
MAINTENANCE CONSTRUCTION nance experience on various types
FOREMAN FOREMAN of equipment, such as large motors,
. generators, transformers, substa-
15 men 4 shi ft leaders tions and control devices. A basic
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE 12 other knowledge of electronics is also a
TROUBLESHOOTING AND EXPERIENCED requirement.
ELEC. CONSTRUCTION TROUBLESHOOTERS When a prospective new electri-
cian applies for a position, he must
2 men fill out, in addition to standard ap-
3 men
ELECTRONIC plication forms, a special question-
REFRIGERATION
TECHNICIANS naire on his electrical background
and experience. Consisting of about
I man 30 questions, this questionnaire
I man will tell us whether the applicant
ELECTRICAL
BENCH REPAIRMAN
INSTRUMENTS has had experience on equipment or
systems similar to that installed in
our plant.
I man 1man If he appears to have a good
CLERK 8 background which may meet our re-
LUBRICATION
EXPEDITOR quirements, the assistant superin-
E. ECTRICAL DEPARTMENT ORGANIZATION promotes speciolizotion in moin- tendent or superintendent will in-
tenonce. Four teoms of experienced troubleshooters (four men per teom) ore terview him. During the interview,
ovoiloble to mointoin continuous production in the plont. The mointenonce opera- we will ask him specific questions
tions ond coordination deportment coordinate electrical molntenonce activi t ies with about our equipment and electrical
production ond other mointenonce deportments to obtoin maximum efficiency.
maintenance procedures. We then
try to evaluate his background and
experience from his answers.
vide direct superv1s10n of our 40- most effective way to maintain in- In addition, he is taken on a tour
man electrical crew. One foreman creasingly complex control systems, of the plant by our electrical fore-
is particularly skillful in mainte- special equipment and larger power- man. Several times during the tour,
nance techniques; the other has an distribution net.vorks. they will stop at an equipment in-
excellent background in electrical For example, to service our com- stallation and the applicant is asked
construction. puter-controlled conveyor system, to explain its operation; or he is
Our maintenance electricians ne two of our electricians, who have required to describe how he would
assigned specific duties and are ex- taken courses in electronics and troubleshoot and repair a particular
pected to become highly proficient have thoroughly studied the cir- apparatus.
in their specialty. Most of the men cuitry, concentrate almost entirely The questions we ask the appli-
are on "days" but to insure against on this system. As a result, the cants are comparatively difficult, but
excessive downtime, four experi- automated controls operate we adhere to this procedure rigidly.
enced troubleshooters are assigned smoothly antl downtime is min- For example, the last two electri-
to each shift. imum. cians were hired only after we bad
Another example is the electrical personally interviewed over 35 men.
What a re t he advantages of hav- instrument man. He maintains, re- This extra effort pays off, however,
ing area specialists in t he elec- pairs and calibrates ah electrical because we feel that our men do a
tr1£al department? instruments including panel meters. su:p.erio.r job n~ith minimum di.rect
Maintenance of instruments such as supervision.
This arrangement helps us to clamp-on ammeters, voltmeters, and
maintain more efficiently the wide certain sensitive relays require spe- Do you have an in-plant training
variety of equipment and systems cial skill. Through study, t raining program?
in the plant. We believe that the and practical experience, be is able
"all-a1 Jtmd" ele.~trician, particu- to provide efficient service. Yes, our informal training pro-
larly i11 a large plant, is gradually It is important that the men se- gram has been successful because
becoming outmoded, and that de- lected for these jobs have sufficient our carefully selected electricians
partmental specialization is the background and ability. Before are quite receptive to opportunities

43
UNIT SUBSTATIO N roted 2500 kvo steps 13.2-kv primary
supply down to 550 volts for distribution in o secondary
selective system. Unit sub is one of 20 roof-mounted stations.
Phone sets at all unit subs and at elect rical shop focilltote
system operation.
to learn. In addition, the program
provides for incentive rate ad-
vances.
Electricians are classified as lst-
class, 2nd-class and helper. In order
to advance in rate, the men must
pass written and verbal tests. These
tests concern our power distribu-
tion system, motors, generators,
control, electronic installations, and
the like.
Training is accomplished infor-
mally during the work day. The
assistant electrical superintendent
will gather available men at a par-
ticular apparatus and discuss its
operation and troubleshooting and
maintenance procedures with them.
A question and answer period is
also included.
Also, we have a library in the
electrical shop area, well stocked
with carefully selected books and
magazines. A card system is used
to lend out literature.
In addition. we urge the men to
attend training courses at nearby
schools and colleges. The company
refunds all costs for these courses
upon their successful completion.
So far, over 50% of the electrical
crew has taken, or is enrolled in,
formal outside courses.
Describe t he fu nction of the main-
tenance operation and coordina-
tion group.
This department plans, sched-
ules and coordinates preventive
maintenance and repairs between
all maintenance and production de-
partments. Careful planning and
coordination are important because
our paper mills operate seven days
INTERLOC KED ARMORED CABLE, installed in ladder-type
troys, carry 2400 volts to large oc motors. Multiple runs of
interlocked armored coble (which hove been pointed white)
in center of photo are supported on welded angle irons, and
carry power to large synchronous motor-generator sets.
a week around the clock. And re-
quired maintenance must be accom-
plished during a seven- to eight-
hour shutdown, which is scheduled
about every 30 days.
At a monthly meeting, electrical
department supervisors, as well as
other maintenance supervisors, sub-
mit a report on maintenance or re-
pairs that are needed. Usually, the
maintenance departments will want
to complete more work than is pos-
sible in the time allotted. And co-
ordination between the maintenance
workers is required to avoid con-
fusion. After all maintenance re-
quirements have been thoroughly
discussed, t he maintenance coordi-
SOLID-STATE SPEED CONTROLS for
paper-mill de drive system requi re mini-
mum main tenance. Control circuitry is
contained on cord-packs, which con be
seen in lower right portion of panel. Test
panel (mounted above cord-pocks) is fur-
nished with dual meters and selector
switch, and provides for simple testing
of control circuits and quick location of
defective card-pocks.
44
nation group plans and schedules
work to be done by each depart-
ment.
Another important function of
t he maintenance operations and co-
ordination department is mainte-
nance cost accounting. Because
processing is a continuous opera-
tion, maintenance breakdown costs
are measured in downtime. Each
month, a report on downtime is sent
to each department head. On the
electrical department report, the
date, paper mill affected, hours
down, and causes of trouble are
listed. This data serves to control
costs by pinpointing trouble-spots
and pointing up excessive cost
areas.
All inspections, repair or con-
struction work are scheduled on a
work-order basis. These work or-
ders are sent to maintenance plan-
ning, where costs are computed. A
report is then sent back to the elec-
trical department to help us analyze
our costs.
What kind of power distribut ion
syste ms do you have and how do
you maintain it?
Philadelphia Electric brings in
three separate 13.2-kv feeders. In
addi tion, we have three steam-tur-
bine generators, which can provide
12,000 kva of power. Total capacity
of the system is about 52,000 kva.
Twenty unit substations, installed
on the building roofs,- reduce the
primary voltage to 550 volts, 3
phase. Substations are both single-
ended and double-ended; transform-
ers range in size from 1500 to 2500
kva. Providing a high degree of
ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROL system for additional paper-
mill de drive systems incorparotes tochometer generotors to
provide input-feedback slgnols, electron-tubes to omplify sig-
nors ond provide reference voltoges, mognetic omplifiers ond
omplidynes to supply reguloted power to de drive motors.
DIGITAL COMPUTER, instolled on extensive, high-speed con-
veyor system, selects, counts and records specific cartons
according to binary code printed on cartons. System com-
puters select cortons from over I 00 different brands, ond
inltiote conveyor track swi tching and discharge.

MOTO R DATA is checked by electriol
superintendent Nelson Allen. Card sys-
tem provides o complete reody reference
on over 4000 production motors within
the plant.
SPARE COIL RACK ollows shop electri-
cian to quickly select o required coil from
the mony stocked. For rapid identifica-
tion, coil hooks on rack are coded to
coil stock numbers.
ANNUNCIATOR PANEL, one of three
instolled, simplifies operation ond moin-
tenonce of the conveyor system. Asst.
electrical superintendent La Rue Scott
tests loudspeaker system.

reliability, the 550-volt network is
connected in a secondary-selective
system operated through magnetic
air circuit breakers.
In general, maintenance of the
system includes annual insulation
resistance tests, transformer oil
tests, circuit - breaker inspection,
cleaning and testing. The electrical
instrument man records meter read-
ings periodically, daily in some
cases, providing a good check on the
system condition. Annually, all me-
ters and relays are inspected, cali-
brated and tested.
Because unit substations are 1·e-
mote from one another, we have
installed an intercom system with
phones at each Jinit sub and at the
electrical shop. With this system,
we can coordinate switching of
loads with electl'icians at each
pertinent unit sub, thereby greatly
reducing the possibility of incor-
rect switching sequences.
Would you describe t he operation
and maintenance of the computer-
controlled conveyor system?
Located in our 300,000-sq-ft stor-
age and shipping warehouse, the
conveyor system forms an exten-
sive loop-network of motorized
sections powered by 60 motors. Op-
erating around the clock, the sys-
tem automatically routes and dis-
charges into waiting railroad cars
over 7'50 tons of packaged paper
products per day. Completely tran-
sistorized digital computers, de-
signed and built in our research lab-
oratories, and a reflected-light
photo-electric scanner furnished
with dual-light sources for added
reliability, are installed at dis-
charge and switching stations.
As cartons pass a computer sta-
tion, the scanner detects a binary
code system printed on the carton
and sends varying voltage impulses
to t he computer. As shown in an
accompanying photo, the code con-
sists of a series of printed mark-
ings similar to those on a business
machine card.
The digital computers employ
logic circuitry to decipher the code
enabling it to select and count des-
ignated cartonR from over 100 dif-
ferent brands.

45
OUTDOOR SUBSTATION roted
25,000 kvo is served ot 115 kv.
Annually, o maintenance service
company performs on-site oi l-di-
electric and acidity tests and, if
necessary, reconditions or replaces
main transformer oil. Modern re-
search and development building is
in right background.

In a large processing plant

Contract Maintenance
Aids Production
Reliability
"Outside" e lectrical maintenance specialists team-up with the plant e lectrical
department in a co mprehensive plan to assure continuous power for vita l
around-the-clock processes.

N ELECTRICAL contractor, a vital is conti nuity of power to this

A maintenance service company

and a consulting instrumenta-
tion technician are key figures in a
comprehensive plan to assure top
production reliability at Bristol
Laboratories, Division of Bristol-
Myers Co., Syracuse, N. Y.
Working on contract, the elec-
trical contractor supplies skilled
electricians to supplement the plant
electrical force and performs power
system maintenance, which includes
on-site testing of circuit breakers
and relays. Also, the maintenance
service company inspects, tests, and
reconditions or replaces t rans-
former and circuit-breaker insulat-
ing oil. And the consulting tech-
nician, who is a specialist in
By Robert J. Lawrie
instrumentation, repairs and cali-
brates highly sensitive measuring
instt"Uments and provides instru-
mentation engineering assistance.
All of these outside services, in
conjunction wi th the plant electrical
crew, play an important role in
Bristol's "power reliability" plan.
Here, manufacture of penicillin,
tetracycline and other life-saving
antibiotics demands continuous
power for the contr olled growth of
microorganisms. Power must be
available around-the-clock to oper-
ate a wide variety of equipment
which creates a controlled environ-
ment in silo-like process tanks. So
critical growth process, that a
5-minute power interruption could
cause complete destruction of large
amounts of valuable materials.
In addition, the process requires
extensive instrumentation to mon-
itor and control temperature, hu-
midi ty, application of sterile air
and other environmental condition-
ing factors.
Thus, dependable power for pro-
duction is the primary concern of
the electrical department. To pro-
vide reliable power, Robert A. Kem-
merer, manager of maintenance and
engineering, a nd Albert Gallagher,
head of the electrical and instru-
ment department, developed a
3-point electrical maintenance plan.

46
This plan effectively affords the de-
sired result-power continuity. At
the same time, it remains within
practical cost limits and meets the
·fl I
company's policy of continuous em-
ployment for its personnel.
The three main parts of the plan
are: (1) development and mainte-
nance of a reliable power distribu-
tion system; (2) efficient manage-
ment and utilization of plant
electrical personnel; and (3) use of
"outside" maintenance specialists.

Distribution for Positive Power

Established in the early 1940's,
the plant grew rapidly as the need
for penicillin and other antibiotics
increased. Gradually, new buildings,
facilities and a research and devel- CURRENT-LIMITING REACTORS, installed in the original 6000-kvo out·
opment division were add ed. Today, door substation, will limit short-ci rcuit currents to within ra tings of the
this large pharmaceutical manufac- original CBs should o fau lt occur. Reactors ore connected in tie lines be-
tween the 4 160-vo lt feeder buses in both stations.
turing plant has over 15 separate
buildings encompassing nearly a
half-million sq ft.
As the plant grew, the power dis-
tribution system was expanded and
refined. A new 25,000-kva outdoor
substation supplements the original
6000-kva outdoor substation. Both
substations as well as the 4160-volt
primary distribution system incor-
porate many features which provide
system dependability. For example,
the utility brings two separate 34.5-
kv lines to the original substation.
Within the substation, a switching
arrangement allows either incoming
line to feed either, or both, of the
two main 3000-kva transformers,
which step the primary voltage
down to 4160 volts. Oil circuit
breakern, in the secondaries of each
transformer, connect the 4160 volts
into the main switchgear split bus. CONTRACT MA INTEN ANCE, which includes Inspection, cleaning, testing,
A normally closed t ie breaker con- adjustment and repair of oil power system circuit breakers and protective
nects each half of the bus. This ar- relays, is performed by on electrical contractor. Inspecting the operating
rangement allows either trans- mechanism of the main l 15-kv CB ore the contractor, Horwood Jones
former to supply either section of (left) and Robert A. Kemmerer, manager of maintenance and engineering.
the bus as requ ired.
A third utility line supplies the flexibility, each section of the 4160- the original 3000-kva transformers
new substation at 115 kv. This line volt buses in both substations con- and plant equipment. However, as
feeds two main 12,500-kva trans- nects through tic breakers and line plant loads grew and when the al-
formers through a 1200-amp OCB. reactors. This over-all design of the ternate Jines from the new 25,000-
Provisions have been made fo r a primary switching arrangement of- kva substation were circuited
second OCB and a fourth utility fers many alternate power-supply th rough the original CBs, the mag-
supply to be installed in the future. circuits, thereby affording a high nitude of the short-circuit currents
The secondaries of each trans- degree of dependabili ty. available was higher than the rat-
former, which also provide 4160 Because this power system was ings of the original CBs. To limit
volts, are protected by 2000-amp air "grown" rather than designed as an these short-circuit currents within
CBs located in the main metalclad original concept, cer tain modifica- the rating of t he CBs, 5-kv current-
switchgear. As in the or iginal sub- tions, such as the addition of cur- limiting reactors were installed in
station, the 4160-volt bus is split rent-limiting reactors and ground- substation split-bus tie lines.
into two sections. A 2000-amp, nor- ing resistors were required. In the To fut'ther reduce magnitude of
mally open, tie air circuit breaker original substation, feeder CBs have fault currents, the 4160-volt neutral
is installed between the sections. ample capacity to safely interrupt is grounded t hrough res istors lo-
Providing further operational short-circuit currents available from cated in each substation at the main

47

..
I I
t •
'•
..
PROTECTIVE DEVICES in the 4160-volt switchgeor ore inspected by Robert
Kemmerer (right) and Albert Gallagher, deportment head of the electrical
and instrument deportment. Relays, which include di rectionol-overcurrent,
time-overcurrcnt, inverse-time, undervoltoge, and ground relays, ore cali-
brated end coordinated on-si te by the electrical contractor's technicians
using mobi le laboratory equipm en t.
transformers. The r ating of the
2-ohm grounding resistor in the
original substation is 1200 amps at
2400 volts. In the new substation,
a 1.6-ohm grounding resistor is
rated 1500 amps, 2400 volts.
Carefur coordination of protective
relays and thorough metering is an-
other plus factor aiding the distri-
bution system dependability. Types
RECORDING AMMETER monitors pro-
duction -motor running current at a mod-
ern motor control center. Intermi ttent
overcurrent relay tripping prompted elec-
trica l foremon to obtain continuous record
of motor current to ascer tain cause of
trouble.
of relays installed for protection of
the primary system include: direc-
tional - overcurrent, time - overcur-
rent, differential-protective, inverse-
time, undervoltage, and ground
relays. Meters include ammeters,
voltmeters, wattmeters, watt-hour
meters, and power factor meters.
To speed switching operations,
disconnect switches in the outdoor
MODERN CONTROL for giant 2250-hp,
4 160-volt synchronous motor driving o
14,000-cfm air compressor includes (from
left) cir-volume, air-flow, water-tempera-
ture and motor-load controls. Protect ive
relays and on annuncia tor system ore
installed in end section of panel.
48
substations can be remotely oper-
ated from a control panel near the
main switchgear. All remotely op-
erated disconnect switches are key-
interlocked with appropriate circuit
breakers as a safety measure.
The design for reliability con-
tinues with the underground pri-
mary distribution to ten load cen-
ters feeding the plant buildings.
Duplicate 4160-volt feeders extend
to most load centers. And several
load centers have alternate 460-volt
circuits connected through tie CBs
in a complex network arrangement.
At load centers, both dry-type and
oil-filled transformers reduce the
primary voltage to 460 volts delta
ungrounded for utilization. It was
decided to fol'feit the advantages of
a grounded secondary system in or-
der to retain continuous power
should a ground occur on the 460-
volt system. Ground indicators are
strategically located throughout the
plant to monitor the system.
Because power distribution is so
extensive, a coding system was de-
vised for quick identification of
circuits. At each load, panel, or dis-
tribution point, a plastic tag, at-
tached in an obvious location, iden-
tifies the location of the circuit's
previous disconnect switch, panel or
circuit breaker. For example, 5-2-
Lt-NW-14 would identify a circuit
emanating from building 5, 2nd
floor, from a lighting panel, located
in the northwest corner of the build-
ing, circuit 14.
Maintenance Management
The second part of the plan to
assure electr.ical continuity is the
application of effective management
methods. Generally, this includes :
(1) organization of the electrical
department, (2) efficient utilization
of manpower, (3) operation of an
EPM (electrical preventive mainte-
nance) program, and (4) selection
and installation of improved, more
dependable equipment.
As head of the electrical and in-
strument department, Albert Gal-
lagher is responsible for electrical
maintenance costs, planning and op-
e1·ation of the EP.M program, and
design and construction of new elec-
t rical installations. Under him are
an electrical foreman, who super-
vises a five-man electrical crew, and
an instrument foreman who directs
six instrument technicians. The in-
strument technicians calibrate, r e-
pair and maintain production and
laboratory instruments and controls
to assure continuous, accurate in-
strumentation.
The primary responsibility of the
plant electrical crew is to perform
the EPM required on essential pro-
duction equipment, which is shut
down for short intervals during the
continuous production cycle. In ad-
dition, they must be fami liar with
pertinent production circuitry in
order to rapidly troubleshoot and
repair any malfunctions.
The electrical crew also performs
electrical construction and some
maintenance of the power system.
However, the bulk of power system
maintenance is accomplished by an
electrical contractor and a mainte-
nance service company working on
contract.
. r.a
Contract Maintenance EXTENSIVE INSTRUMENTATION is required to control ond monitor the
critical penicillin-production process. Every two weeks, a consulting technician
The third part of the "power re- who specializes in instrumentation is brought In to augment services to vital
instruments. Shown above is a portion of these measuring instrum ents.
liability" plan is use of the special-
ized skills and manpower of "out-
side" service companies. A local
electrical contractor, who specializes
in industrial electrical maintenance,
services the power distribution sys-
tem. This includes a complete visual
inspection of all power system com-
ponents; cleaning, test and repair
of all circuit breakers; and thor-
ough testing and coordination of all
protective relays.
These inspections and tests are
accomplished by the contractor's
specially trained men at the CB and
relay location using mobile test
equipment. And, in most instances,
the work can be done without inter-
rupting plant power. Future main-
tenance work to be done by the
contractor includes insulation-re-
sistance tests on all power feeders,
and inspection and test of high- DUAL BUSWAYS in pilot.plant laboratory provide a ready power source for
voltage components in the outdoor additional equipment when required. Top buswoy supplies 220 volts, 3
substations. phase; lower buswoy provides 208 volts, 3 phase ond 120 volts, single phase.
In addition, the electrical contrac- Plug-in bus receptacles hove individual circuit-breaker protection and polar-
tor supplies construction and main- ized receptacle slots.
tenance electricians as required.
Normally, there are from two to curate, up-to-date one-line diagram service is provided by a consulting
ten contractor electricians working of the power system. instrumentation technician. Al-
with the plant crew on electrical Transformer and circuit-breaker though most of Bristol's instrumen-
construction or maintenance proj- oil is also serviced through contract tation technicians are fully trained
ects. maintenance. Annually, an inde- and experienced, the instrumenta-
The contractor also provides en- pendent service company that tion technician is brought in every
gineering consultation for equip- specializes in maintenance of in- two weeks to provide an added de-
ment installations as well as other sulating oils inspects, tests and gree of reliability and accuracy to
special services. For example, he filters or replaces insulating oil in the critical laboratory and research
recently surveyed the rapidly grow- all oil-filled transformers and cir- instrumentation. His services in-
ing electrical system to obtain per- cuit breakers. This service company clude adjustment, repair and cali-
tinent equipment data, and studied also provides on-site service using bration of especially sensitive
the available electrical drawings to mobile equipment, such as a dielec- instruments, sucp as temperature
extract circuit layout information. tric test unit, acidity test equipment and humidity controllers, and en-
With this data, he then consolidated and a filter press. gineering consultation to improve
the various drawings into an ac- Another contract maintenance instrumentation methods.

49
 /,
//
·r
CHEMICAL PLANT operotes on continuous schedule which o ll ows li tt le time for
normol maintenance procedures. Power s~·stem design, reliable components, con-
tinuing modernizoti on ond simplified mointenance keeps downt ime to o minimum.
Continuous production depends on ...
Design for simplified maintenance
Skillful electrical design, continuing
11iodernization and careful planning add
'UP to si1nplified elect?·ical ?naintenance
at an industrial chemical coniplex.
Unusual maintenance methods include a
coniprehensive color-coding schenie to
speed trou bleshooting and protective
waxing of expansive de bus-bar syste1n.
By ROBERT .J. LAWRIE, Associate Editor
50
H EN an industrial plant op-
W erates on a seven-day, around-
the-clock schedule, electrical sys-
tem des ign must provide for
dependable opera tion with a mini-
mum of maintenance. Furthermore,
when electricity is the key element
in the cont inuous pr oduction proc-
ess. power systems become vital
lifelines essential to successfu l plant
operations.
Such is the case at the Inorganic
Chemicals Div., FMC Corp., Buf-
falo , N. Y. At t his multi-building,
270,000-sq-ft plant, a n extens ive
installation of de-powered electro-
lytic cells make up the major powe1·
load. Total connected de load is over
7000 kva. These cells are part of a
pr ocess in t he production of hy-
drogen peroxide, which is the pri-
mary chemical produced. The proc-
cess is continuous, operating on a
24-hr schedule, seven days a week.
Because electric power plays the
major r ole in the production proc-
ess, r eliable power systems are a
must. And usually, maximum re-
liabili ty demands frequent mainte-
nance inspections and tests. How-
ever, the continuous production
schedule permits little time for
many of tho usual electrical main-
tenance procedu1·es. Because of this,
the plant electrical department
called for a number of features
in the original electrical design to
promote dependability and to mini-
mize maintenance. In addition, a
continuing moderni?.ation program
further reduces maintenance re·
quirements and, at the same lime,
increases plant power system de-
pendability.
Design for maintenance
Design features that promote
continuous power for production
include:
1. Proximity of power sou rce.
The plant is located less than a
mile from a large Niagara l\Iohawk
Power Corp. generating station.
2. Dual utility service plus an
auxiliary incoming line. A 115-kv
loop feed and a separate 23-kv
supply assure a dependable power
source because it is unlikely that
all three services will be down at
the same time.
3. Standby primary feeder for
production power. Normal feeders
supply two silicon rectifier substa-
tions, which convert ac power to
de for t he production process. The
standby feeder supplies an ignitron
installat ion, which is part of the
original conversion equipment, and
which now serves as a standby de
power supply. The ignitrons also
supplement the silicon units, pro-
viding additional de power when
production demands are high.
4. Primary selective arrange-
ment of feeders supplying circuits
essential to production. From the
outdoor substation, two 23-kv feed-
ers each extend to a 1500-kva,
23/ 4.G-kv transformer. From each
transformer a 4160-volt circu it is
carried to each of two selector-
switching cubicles which supply
the main 5-kv switchboard in the
plant. Either or both of the feed-
ers may be selected to supply the
switchboard.
5. Ungrounded 240-volt utiliza-
tion-voltage distribution system.
The ungrounded system assures
that utilization power, particularly
for control ci rcuits and instru-
ments on process lines, will not be
interrupted if a phase is grounded.
A ground detector, consisting of
three lamps connected across all
phases, is inst.'llled at the 240-volt
main distribution switchgear. This
device indicates when a ground
occurs and a maintenance crew will
immediately start procedures to
find and eliminate the ground.
The accompanying one-line dia-
gram and photos show details of

?.3-Kv 11 5-Kv 115-Kv

.ouxilipry incoming incoming
incoming line No.1
line line No.2

! Disc.sw
34.5 Kv
!.,,,--__-Disc.s
115-Kv
w- , !
--...
I 600omp 600 amp
I mtr. ope r.
I SIMPLIFIED ONE-LINE diagram shows basic e lemen ts of
l 15,000Kvo design. Dual 115-kv utility line plus auxiliary 23-kv service

I
I

L ___ J_nter!Q.~------
T 115/23 Kv
3-phose
provide o high degree of reliability. Moin OCB as well os
feeder OCBs ore located in outdoor substation. The two 23-kv
feeders at left, which ore stepped down to 4.16-kv and extend
to switching cubicle, offer high dependability of service be-
cause either feeder or both may be selected to the supply 5-kv
primary switchgear. The 23-kv feeder supplying the igni tron
rectifier serves os o standby feeder since the igni trons ore on
standby duty. Silicon rectifiers supply hig h-capacity de power
to two large bus-bor systems in hydrogen peroxide process.

Oise sw
- 23Kv
400omp

-Feeder OCB
34.5 Kv
r 600omp
I I rectifier
lr
L _Jlsubslolion
23Kv/215V
18000 amp (Q) Power-
266 volts de foclor
corrective
copacilors

DC bus - bar syslem DC bus-bar sys tem

7 feeders protected by air circuil breakers

lo 4.16-kv malors, elc , ond 4.16-kv/240-voll disl.
lransfrs. for process power and lighting.

51
the high - voltage distribution
scheme. These design features,
which emphasize alternate power
supply routes, help to provide the
1·esuU of a good maintenance pro-
gram-continuous power for pro-
duction, while at the same time,
actual maintenance procedures are
held to a minimum.
Modernization for maintenance
High-capacity de power is re-
quired for the electrolytic, hydro-
gen-peroxide process. Direct cur-
rent at 220 to 280 volts is applied
to the electrolysis cells which pro-
duce a bisulfate and a persulfate
solution. The solution is further
processed through evaporation and
distillation, resulting in hydrogen
peroxide in a 50 % to 90 % solution.
Two silicon rectifier substations
each supply a large electrolytic in-
stallation. One rectifier delivers
9600 amps at 272 volts de; the
other is capable of delivering 18,-
000 amps at 266 volts de.
Originally, this high-capacity de
power was provided by mechanical
rectifiers. Mechan ical rectifiers
were selected over motor-generator
sets because of their inherent high
efficiency (94 % to 97 % ). Efficiency
of operation was important because
the cost of power was a significant
factor in the production process.
However, maintenance require-
ments tended to offset any gain
offered by the efficiency of the me-
chanical rectifiers. Weekly, the
units bad to be s hut down for re-
placement of contacts. Not only was
this maintenance procedure costly,
but also considerable production
t ime was lost.
When silicon rectifiers became
available, John W. Worrell, engi-
neering superintendent, who is an
electrical engineer, investigated
the possibility of replacing the me-
chanical rectifiers with silicon
units. His investigation revealed
that silicon rectifiers were ideal
for the electrolytic process. Their
efficiency is high, in the order of
95%, and they are highly reliable,
requiring little maintenance. There-
fore, in 1959 during a program of
conversion from 25-cycle to 60-cycle
power, the two silicon rectifier sub-
stations and associated protective
devices and controls were installed
as shown in accompanying photos.
In an effort to further improve
power system reliability and to re-
duce maintenance, Worrell advo-
cates a continuing modernization
program. For example, a recent
control installation allows elec-
tricians at the plant to monitor and
operate 350-hp, 4160-volt pump mo-
tors which are located a consider-
able distance away at the Niagara
River. Also, outdoor light ing equip-
ment is in the process of being
upgraded throughout the 14-acre
plant grounds.
Recently, a portable polarizing
unit was acquired. This unit essen-
tially is a portable s ilicon rectifier.
In the electrolytic process, differ-
ent de voltages are required at vari-
ous times. This is accomplished
through a motorized lap changer
on each s ilicon rectifier substation.
Power must be off during the tap
change, which would allow loss of
polarization of t he electrnlytic cells.
To maintain polarization, a holding
voltage is derived from two large
battery banks rated at 1600 amp-
hrs. This is practical when many
cells require a polarization hold-
ing voltage. However, it is imprac-
tical when only a few cells require
the holding power. As a result, the
portable silicon unit, rated 15 kw
was obtained to provide small
amounts of de power.
Maintenance methods
E lectrical mnintennnce is the
responsibility of Carl Kamholz,
electrical foreman, who heads up
the electrical department. Under
him are four plant electricians, who
perform all electrical maintenance
and construction; two instrument

MAIN 1 S,000-KVA TRANSFO RMER in outdoor substo-
tion is inspected by Corl Komholz, electricol foremon,
ond Jomes Gronton, Niogoro Mohowk Power Corp. An-
nuol mointenonce includes toking oil somples ond com-
plete onolysis to determine condition of oil.
115-KV OUTDOOR SUBSTATION hos dual feed plus on auxiliary
service. Lorge transformer at left steps primary voltage to 23.4 kv.
At right is line-up of OCBs which protect primary feeders to plant.
Small structure at left contai ns main OCB control and battery for
CB operatin g power.

52
5-KV PRIMARY SWITCHGEAR is located in powerhouse at
one end of plont. Dual 4 160-valt feeders enter selectar-
switching cubicles at right, which supply power to the 5-kv
switchgear line-up. Color-code scheme col ls for b lock point
on oc µowcr circuits.
SILICON RECTIFIERS installed in powerhouse supply high-
copocity de power to e lectrolytic cells. Unit at ri-gh t is roted
18,000 omps at 266 volts de. Rectifier a t left supplies 9600
amps at 272 volts de. These units ore furnished with rec tifi er
tra nsformers, motorized top changers, and silicon cells.

technicians, who maintain process
instrumentation and meters ; and
three welders.
Kamholz uses a "check-sheet"
met hod to s.!hedule routine mainte-
nance, which consists mostly of
visual inspections because of the
continuou s operation. However,
meters, gauges, recording equip-
ment and monitoring devices, in-
stalled on essential components or
systems, aid evaluation of equip-
ment condit ion and indicate im-
pending or current troubles.
High-voltage maintenance start s
at the outdoor 115-kv substation.
Annually the station undergoes a
thorough inspection plus proce-
du res or tests which can be per-
formed without interrupting power.
This includes inspection of super-
structure for rust, insulators for
excessive conta mination, switches
for corrosion and ground connec-
tions for tightness. Also, oil sam-
ples taken from all OCBs and the
main transformer are sent to a
testing laboratory for analysis.
When power can be isolated
from the station, further pro-
cedures include calibration of
protective relays ; close inspection
of ins ula t ors for cracks; checking
of conductor connections ; inspec-
tion, lubrication and test operation
of OCB operating mechanisms;
and an overall cleaning or paint-
ing of sta t ion components.
In addition, a ll insu lators re-
ceive a coat of s ilicone g rease for
environmental protection. Air-
borne contamination s uch as dust
and waste chemical matter from
nearby plants often settle on in-
sulators and could cau se a s urface
flash-over. The silicone grease
coating is inspected and replaced
if necessary wheneve r the substa-
tion is s hutdown.
Kamholz points out that if a ll
of these procedu res a re not per-
formed w it hin a four-year period,
arrangements are made with pro-
duction fo r a station shutdown.
This permits completion of t he
entir e maintenance program and
assures a high degree of power
system reliability.
High-voltage feeders which con-
sist of s ingle-conductor, paper-
insulated lead-covered cables at
the 23-kv level, and 5-kv rubber-
insulated, neoprene-jacketed ca-
bles at the 4160-volt level have
been highly reliable and, as a re-
sult, warrant minimum mainte-
nance. These cables are inspected
at potheads and terminations on
a spot-check basis. During out-
door station s hutdowns, a ll feeders
receive ins ula tion-resistance tests.
Silicon rectifiers have proved to
53
be highly reliable and likewise re-
quire minimum maintena nce. Each
of the two silicon rectifier substa-
tions consist of a rectifier trans-
former, which steps down incoming
23-kv power to 230-280 volts, de-
pending on the setting of an inte-
gral motorized tap changer; banks
of silicon cells mounted on water-
cooled bus bars; and outgoing de
protective equipment. All compo-
nents are housed in free- standing,
in-line metal enclosures. Gener..
ally, maintenance procedures con-
s ist of keeping the equipment clean,
visual inspection, and evaluation of
data compiled from recording in-
struments, meters a nd gauges
which monitor the de system.
Hourly, process operators record
incoming voltage; ac a nd de a mps;
temperature of silicon-cell cooling
water; transformer tap posit ion,
temperature and pressure. Know-
ing proper operating values, opera-
tors will spot any deviations from
normal and immediately notify the
electrical maintenance department.
In addition, operators check pilot
lights, furnished on each rectifier,
which indicate when a silicon cell
has shorted out. Each s ilicon recti-
fier consists of a number of s ilicon
cells connected in parallel. The 18,-
000-amp unit is furnished with
over 100 cells. Connected in series
DC M ETE RING includes mcosurement of
voltage ond omperoge on de branch cir-
cuits (bus runs to eoch electrolytic celll.
A de circuit breaker protects bus-bor
runs which branch off from moin run to
elec trolytic cell. Meter shunts for current
measurement ore installed on one leg of
eoch bus feede r.
with each cell is a fuse with a
shunt-connected pilot lamp. If the
silicon cell shor ts out, the fuse will
blow permitting t he pilot lamp to
be illuminated, which pinpoints t he
fau lted cell. At the next production
shutdown, the cell is replaced.
The bus-bar system is a complex
maze of copper extending from the
silicon rectifiers in the powerhouse
to the electrolytic cells in process
areas. Two main bus-bar runs sup-
ply de power to two separate elec-
trolytic process areas. Bus-bar
runs, which vary in configuration
and make-up, are equivalent to
eight parallel bars each with a cross-
section of -}-in. by 8 in. to carry
18,000 amps without overheating.
Maintenance of these bus con-
ductors consists primarily of an
annual cleaning and application of
a coat of wax. In process areas,
chemical salts and other deposits
settle on the bars. This could cause
deterioration of the copper or a
possible flash-over. To prevent this,
plant electricians annually apply a
coat of a " brand-name" auto wax to
all bus conductor surfaces. This has
proved to be an effective and prac-
tical method of providing environ-
mental protection for t he copper
bus bars.
Color-coding of t he bus bars,
conduit, process piping a nd certain
MAZE OF BUS BARS carries de power from
silicon rectifiers to electrolytic cells. Double
bus-bor feeders ot right ond bus runs at top
have o capacity of over 18,COO omps at 266
volts. Bus run indicated by "R" is positive
leg ond is painted red in color-code scheme;
negative bus run is pointed green ond is
indicated in photo by "G."
PROTECTI VE RE LAYS, monitoring de-
vices, meters, gouges and recording
charts (on panel in background) help to
simplify maintenance of electrical systems
ond equipment. Comprehensive records
ore kept on hond; da to are surveyed fre-
quently by opera tors. Any devi a tion from
normol is immediately reported to the
electrical deportment.
cqu ipment aids fast ident ification
of variouf: systems when mainte-
nance is requ ired. This is pa r t icu-
lady helpful when troubleshooting.
On the de system, all positive bus
bars are painted red; negative bus
bars a re painted green. Conduit,
switches, boxes, etc., carrying ac
'POWer are painted black, except i n
some instances where all conduit
54
SILICO N CELLS (arrow) in rectifie r
ore connected in parallel t') carry
high currents ot selected voltage.
Cells ore mounted on wot.:r-cooled
bus bors. Adjacent to eoch silicon
cell is o protective fuse ond pilot
lomp which is illuminate<.! ....hen o
cell foiis.
GEOM ETRICAL COMBINATIO N ot bus
bors consists of ~-in. by 4-in. bors run
in multiple. Metal screw clomps hold bus
bors of some polarity in close contact.
Coot of point (red for positive; green for
negative) protects feeder bus bors from
contamination. Bus bors supplying elec-
trolytic cells receive coot of auto wox
which provides environmental protection.
or components contain ac power
a nd mistaken identification is
highly unlikely. Motors are light
blue; however, moving parts are
bri~ht yellow. Cooling water piping
is dark green; distilled water pipes
are painted pink. Other colors, as
well as color-coded pipe tracing,
identify various process piping
systems.
Part II

Equipment Testing,

Troubleshooting

And Maintenance

55
 A practical

By ERNEST F. COOKE, Equipment Service Engineer,

Reliance Electric and Engineering Co.

PROPER A LIGNM ENT is one of severol requisites for in·

suring vibrotionless operation. This is most important be-
cause excessive vibration con deform or even break
shafts, cause bearings or seals to fail, damage a motor's
mechanical structure, break electrical connections or
brushes, speed dete riora tion of insulat ion or creole severe
commutator slip-ring problems. Maintenance man here
checks alignment bewte.:-n cc-motor and de generator.

Production sequence and motor d epende nce

Ouontity of H.P. of Production Permissible Ronk of

Process duplicate the motor loss if repair time motor
number machines on each one motor before plant importance
mo chine foils shuts down
Production
Process I 10,0
100% 2 days 2
h.p.

10
2 4
h.p.
25% 3

Production 40
Process 2 3 100% None
h.p.

Production 15
4 2 h.p. 50% 4 days 4
Process 3

10
2 10% 5
Production 5
h.p.
Process 4

2-doy RELATIV E IMPORTA NCE of

inventory motors to product processing
can be analyzed by diagram-
ing manufacturing sequences,
noting quantities and hp rat-
ings of motors, also extent of
Production inventory material normally
Process 5 stored between successive pro-
duction processes. In example
above, the 40-hp motor relat-
Input ing to Process 3 is most im-
portant because it is o single
unit ond no inventory is pos-
_ _ _ _ __ sible due to spoce limitations.
Finished If this motor fails, the entire
processing sequence would in-
Output product sta ntly stop.

56
 approach to motor maintenance

H e1·e are some realistic procedures for evaluating the importance

of m otors as they relate to plant production sequences, and fo1·
making knowledgeable predictions as to which motors a1~e likely to
fail first. This analysis stresses the penalty to production when key
motors fail, and advises maintenance supervisors how much downtime
is permissible fo1· repairs before p1·oduction bottlenecks develop.

HE subject of motor mainte-
T nance is one which has been
discussed in countless previous arti-
cles and instruction manuals. There-
fore the reader might assume, quite
correctly, that this present discus-
sion is not apt to express a wealth
of wisdom which is being voiced
for the first time. However, the
fact that so much has been written
is the justification for this review,
for previous discussions have pre-
sented some conflicting opinions and
have stressed certain subjects while
leaving gaps in the overall picture.
For these reasons it is pertinent
to review and coordinate the think-
ing of many experls from many mo-
tor manufacturers and maintenance
organizations, and to submit an
analysis which, hopefully, will be
basically simple and practical as
well as comprehensive.
The first step towards a reliable
maintenance program is to prepare
records. And, while this chore often
is distasteful, it also is essential to
tabulate the mass of pertinent data
which cannot possibly be retained
by memory alone. Obviously, rec-
ords can take many forms and mu st
be tailored to specific needs and re-
sources. But, as a minimum, records
on each motor shou Id include :
A complete description, including
age and nameplate data.
Location and application, keeping
such notations up-to-date if motors
are transferred to different areas or
used for different purposes.
Notations of scheduled preventive
maintenance and previous repair
work performed.
Location of duplicate or inter-
changeable motors.
An estimate of the motor's im-
portance in the productive process
to which it relates.
Predictive maintenance
This estimate of importance,
which we will refer to as the pre-
dictive maintenance factor, consid-
ers the importance of the motor to
overall plant operation, and it also
involves a knowledgeable prediction
of which motors are likely to fail
first. This is an important evalua-
tion, for it recognizes the penalty
to production if a motor fails, and
it also indicates to the maintenance
supervisor how much permissible
downtime is available for equip-
ment repairs before a production
bottleneck develops.
The value of this information can
be illustrated by referring to a
typical Production Sequence and
Motor Dependence chart. As indi-
cated, our theoretical plant has five
separate production processes which
must be performed in sequence. Also
noted are quantities of motors and
inventory levels stored between
processes.
This tabulation indicates that
failure of a 100-hp motor (related
to Process One) would cause a
100% shut-down after the inventory
for the following process is ex-
hausted. In Process Two, failu re of
a 10-hp motor would cause a 25 %
redu ction of operations immedi-
ately, while fai lure of a 15-hp motor
in Process Four would cause a 50%
reduction after four days (two days
of inventory permits four days of
half-volume production). Failure of
a 2-hp motor in Process Five would
cut production by 10%.
But, if the s ingle 40-hp motor re-
lated to Process Three fails, the
entire processing sequence would
halt immedialely. Therefore, the
40-hp motor is the most critical unit
in the plant and should receive
priority attention in the mainte-
nance program.
This is not a unique conclusion,
and most maintenance men have
recognized lhis fact instinctively.
Yet, by analyzing an entire opera-
tion, evaluating the importance of
each motor and placing conclusions
on paper, the maintenance depart-
ment remains constantly alert to its
productive responsibilities.
Causes for fa ilure
In determining which motors are
likely to fail first, it is well to re-
member that motor failures gener-
ally are caused by either loading,
age, vibration, contamination or
commutation problems.
Obviously, an overloaded motor
will fail :iooner than one which is
not ovcl'loaded, so the easy answer
to this problem would be to eithe•
eliminate overloads or replace these
motors with larger units. But this
usually is not possible. Also, over-
loads may be caused by fluctuations
of circuit voltage or frequency.
Sometimes it is possible to up-
grade a motor by using a better in-
sulat ion system, putting more cop-
per in the slot, changing from a
cast to a bar-type rotor on an ac

57

UPGRADING MOTOR CAPAC ITY sometimes is p?ssible
by ut ilizing insulation with higher temperature resistance,
placing more copper in slots or welding de armature leads
to commutator risers by inert-gos process. Armature being
prepared for welding operation above is shown mounted on
common shaft with ac rotor.
induction motor, or welding de com-
mutators by the inel't-gas method.
More about these techniques later.
Light loads on de machines like-
wise can cause excessive commuta-
tor wear.
To prevent a sudden or unex-
pected overload, it is wise to check
all protective devices, such as over-
load rnlays, fuses, circu it breakers,
field loss relays and voltage relays
periodically. This also insures that
these devices will not be bypassed
or neglected.
It is worth noting that much bas
been accomplished in recent years
in improving motor protective
devices which are responsive to
changes in temperature and cur-
rent. These devices, usable in 3-
phase motors up to 7'hp, are supe-
rior as overload protective agents.
Larger and other types of motors
also may be equipped with various
types of inherent protectors.
As to the age factor, motors have
Life-Failure patterns that follow
definite curves, although failures
due to age can be delayed consider-
ably by thorough periodic cleaning;
dipping and baking the windings;
replacing fast-wearing bearings and
brushes; also tightening, turning
and undercutting commutators on
de motors.
100
u
80
=60
·~
0"'
~
::;
20
20
TEMPERATURE TESTS should be mode only ofter a motor has
been running for an appreciable period, because maximum tem-
peratures arc reached only after extended, steady operation.
Curves shown here refer to 60°C rise motors operating at various
speeds, ot full or overloads, for pericds of on hour or more.
Excessive vibration can cause
sprung or broken shafts, bearing
or seal fai lures, insulation break-
down, broken electrical connections,
damage to the motor's mechanical
structure, broken brushes and a
variety of commutator or slip-ring
problems.
Vibration can be caused by mis-
alignment, bearing problems or im-
balance. These conditions can occur
either in the motor or machine, and
should be corrected promptly.
Bearing problems can be due to
contamination, lack of lubrication,
improper fits either internal or ex-
ternal, also overloading, carrying
stray electrical current, slip-ring
damage and vibration itself.
Bearing pl'Oblems not only will
cause excessive vibration that will
damage other parts, but they can
lead to complete bearing failures
which in turn may cause failures
in rotors or windings.
Contamination probably is the
most common cause of failure. Just
plain nonabrasive, nonconductive
dirt can coat motor windings and
cut clown on heat dissipation, or it
can block ventilation passages and
increase insulation temperature so
that failure ultimately occurs.
Abrasive contamination can cause
wear in moving parts, especially
58
100% lood,1150-rpm bose speed
Typical curves of heotinq time
for o 60°C rise motor
40 60 80 100
Operating tome in minutes
bearings, and can wear down the
insulation until failure occurs. Con-
ductive contamination, especially
moisture, can cause insulation fail-
ure by shorting the windings or
shorting to ground. Moisture also
can cause rust, which certainly
never helps.
Combinations of solid and liquid
contaminants can fill up air gaps
so that rotors and stators are locked
together. Abrasives, moisture and
chemicals can cause excessive com-
mutator wear. Corrosive contami-
nants can attack everything in the
motor, from metal parts to the in-
sulation system. These problems
can be corrected by proper mote".'
enclosures or by the use of winding
encapsulation.
Generally speaking, all motors
can withstand surprising amounts
of abuse. But when abuse of de
motors is cited, the problem should
emphasize possible trouble· with
c01mnulation, commutator and
brushes. This is evident in such
conditions as rapi,d brush wear,
chipped or broken brushes, burned
brushes, copper feathering or drag,
commutator burning, slot or pitch
patterns, or overfilming.
These conditions are caused by
many diff~rent factors, sometimes
in combination but not necessarily
 I service factor, how long the over-
I load is applied, and what the degree
I
I
Closs H 180°C l of overload is. For example, assign
I
I
Closs F 155°C l I up to 3 points for reversing duty
I I and up to 4 points for s hock loads.
~120° I I
Up to 6 points should be assigned
0 c Closs B13fl°C 1
I
;;;
a. I
if starts and reverses are frequent,
E I points varying in accordance wit h
~
Q)
Totally enclosed actual numbers of starts or re-
~100° nonvenliloted verses. Also, up to 10 points are re-
lated to history of operating trouble.
~ c
CJ The duty facto r is determined by
E
~
adding point.s for speed and load,
0 then deducting points for other
:;:0 sooc items noteu in the paragraph im-
mediately above. Theoretically t his
Typical curves relating the temperolure rise procedure can result in a negative
of o molar lo the inlernol hot spot temperature
number for this category, but if
this occurs you had better hur ry
60° into the plant to see if the motor
c ._..._~~-...JL-~-'-~---'-~~~.1--l..~~~~-'-~-
120° 140° 160° 180° is still operating. Actually, nega-
Hot spot temperature of tive ratings art! not valid, so the
motor windings in degrees C least you should give to a motor for
this category is zero.
INTERN AL TEMPERATU RES of o motor normolly ore considera-
bly hotter than external temperatures. Therefore, if motor frame As in all of the categories, t he
becomes as hot as the insulotion roting of the windi ngs, o safe important consideration here is to
conclusion would be tha t interna l ho t spots exceed th is roting remain consistent in rating all mo-
and insulation breakdown can be anticipated in the very near tors by the same standards. In com-
fu tu re. paring motors, sot .e consideration
must be given to whether they are
specially designed for certain jobs,
with cast rotors, 9 points; syn- that is, for laking shock loads or
in this order: low or high load, low
making frequent starts. If you have
or high brush pressure, atmospheric chronous motors with t\vo slip
prior history of trouble, that Let
contamination, vibration, incorrect rings, 7; wound rotor motors with
would be considered in rating the
brush grade, open or shorted arma- 3 slip rings, 5; de motors with
motor for this factor.
ture coils, high-resistance riser con- commutator, 3, and a unit with both
nections, improperly set brush hold- slip rings and commutator, 1. Envil'onment: In rating environ-
ers or inter poles. Age : As indicated by the Life- rnent (15 points maximum), we
Failure Curve, the probability of take into account both the motor
Failure predictions molor failure changes with age, enclosure and the external condi-
To determine which motors are (10 poinls maximum) and thi s is tions. Obviously, an open motor in
likely to fail first, it is pertinent reflected by rating motors which a high-moisture environment will
to use failure ratings (on a point are less than 2 years old, 6 points; fail sooner than a totally enclosed
bas is) as criteria. These relative 2-12 years, 10 points ; 13-15 yeat·s, motor in the same environment. To
ratings are based upon s ix factors 6 points; lG-20 years, 11 points, and determine the rating in this cate-
which can be determined by inspec- over 20 years old, 2 points. gory, add the rating for motor en-
tion and analys is of application. If a motor has been repaired, then closure to the rating for environ-
Factors (and points relating to the point-rating referring to age ment, but do not assign more than
them) include Lype of motor, 10; should be revised to reflect the ex- 15 points.
age, 10; ..iuty, 15; environment, 15; tent. to which repair work has in- Motor enclosu res (and points)
findings Jf visual inspection, 30; creased life expectancy. are as follows : totally enclosed, with
and results of tests, 20. These fac- Duty: As to the lhird factor, drains, 10; totally enclosed, with-
tors have a maximum possible sum- duly, (15 points maximum) we con- out drains, 7; force-ventilated,
mation of 100 points. sider such factors as speed and using clean air, 10; forced-ventila-
Typ e: Each of these factors is loading. To compute this factor, as- t ion, using filtered air, from 4 to 6
evaluated in accot·dance with ex- sign l 0 points if the motor is never points; open, with sealed bearings
perience. F or example, considering fully loaded; if never overloaded, 7 and encapsulated windings, 6; open,
types of 111otors, (10 points maxi- poinls; if 10% overloaded, 3 poinls, nonhydroscopic windings with more
mum) the construction of a squirrel and if 25% overloaded, zero. Simi- l han one dip-bake cycle, 3; and
cage induction motor is relatively larly, if the speed is 1200 rpm or standard open or protected motor,
s imple compared Lo that of a de less, assign 5 points ; if between 2 points.
motor, so a squirrel cage motor is 1300-1800 rpm, 3 points; if between As to external conditions : when
less apt to fa il. Therefore, in con- 1900-3600, 1 point, and if over 3600 they are warm, clean and dry, as-
sidering motor types, induction mo- rpm, zero. sign 13 points; moist or hot, 3 to
tors with bar-type rotors are rated In considering overloads, it is 7; abrasive, 5 to 8; oily, dirty, 2 to
a full 10 points ; induction motors necessary to know the available 6 ; wet, corrosive, zero to 5 points.
59

Motor
failure
rote
I reached quickly.
~ "14
Premature
Normal life span
LI FE-FA ILU RE CU RVE is basically the some for all motors. This indicates that proba-
bility of failure diminishes during first few years, levels out for extended period, then
rises steadily. Failure due to age, however, con be delayed by regular maintenance
practices such as thorough periodic cleaning, dipping and baking the windings or
replacing worn brushes and bearings.
Again, points assigned depend
upon relative conditions. For exam-
ple, not many people realize how in-
efficient most filters are (with the
exception of electrically operated
precipitrons). Filter efficiency of
tilter-ventilated motors is low to
begin with, and decreases rapidly
if filters are not frequently changed,
a chore which frequently is ignored
or minimized.
Visual inspection: This probably
is the most impor tant factor in the
Motor Failure Expectancy rating
(30 points maximum), because an
experienced man can spot signs of
trouble in a motor which has passed
all electrical tests. Some conditions
of course may be too difficult to
check visually, and other conditions
may be included in the light of an
individual inspector's personal ex-
perience. In general, however, visual
inspections should check insulation
condition, winding tightness, lam~
ination condition, leads and con-
nections, cleanliness, air gap, slip-
rings and commutators, bands,
brushes and brush holders, bearings
and lubrication. These are sugges-
tions only.
Tests: There arc any number of
tests that can be applied (20 points
maximum), such as an insulation
resistance test, the polarization in-
dex, de leakage test, temperature
test, power factor test, cor ona test-
ing, vibration level analysis, a test
of winding resistance, especially of
field coils, a surge test, de over-
potential test, and an ac over-poten-
t ial test.
Several of these tests may be re-
jected because they can cause fail-
ure in a motor that has only a few
years of life remaining. Others may
be rejected because they take too
Old age
Jong or require more ability or
equipment than is normally found in
many plants. But, as a minimum,
three tests are definitely recom-
mended. These include insulation re-
sistance, temperature and vibration
analysis.
Recording insulation resistance
with a 500-volt Megger is useful ns
an absolute measure of ground re-
sistance, and for spotting any
change over a period of time. Re-
su Its are valued according to the
following formuln:
Insulation Resistance in Ohms
2000 x Rated Motor Voltage
Point rating (maximum of 7)
Any point value below one indi-
cates the possibility of imminent
failu re. Any appreciable change
from one test period to another also
indicates trouble.
A temperatiwe test can be quite
s imple and very indicative. Exces-
sive temperatures or appreciable
changes in temperature from one
test period to another indicate trou-
ble. Care must be taken to recog-
nize that a motor with Class II
insulation can run a lot hotter than
a motor with Class A insulation. It
no longer is possible to use your
hand as a reliable thermometer.
This category is worth 6 points,
the score depending upon bow much
lower the motor frame temperature
is than the rating of the insulation
system. Insulation systems are
rated as follows: Class A, 105°C;
Class B, 130°C ; Class F , 155°C, and
Class H, 180°C.
If the motor frame temperature
is the same as the rating of the in-
sulation system, you probably can
expect trouble because the inside of
60
the motor usually is much hotter
than the outside. This is indicated
by typical curves relating external
temperature rise of a motor to the
internal hot spot temperature.
Tests should be made after the
motor bas been running for several
hours at full operntion, for, as in-
dicated by temperature rise dia-
grams, full temperature is not
Small thermometers with mag-
nets for attaching them to frames
are available for this purpose.
Points should be assigned on a rela-
tive basis, with the realization that
every increase of 10°C in motor
temperature cuts motor life in half.
As for vibration analysis, it is
possible to obtain lightweight bat-
tery-operated analyzers that are
truly portable. Selling for about
$1500, these devices can be used not
only to record the level of vibration,
but to sort out the frequency of vi-
bration so that you can determine
the source of the problem.
They then can be used for in-place
balancing to correct any vibration
problem due to imbala nce without
the expense of sending equipment
out or hiring an expert.
Vibration problems due to mis-
alignment or component failures
usually are easy to correct and,
therefore, s hou Id be corrected ns
soon as any ser ious vibration is de-
tected. This category is worth 6
points, and again it is important to
note relati\·e conditions and changes
from one tesl period t o the next. or
course, it is nol necessary to have
a vibration annlyier to check vibra-
tion, because vibration can be heard,
felt and seen. However, the device
aids individual judgment.
The important consideration in
utilizing a rating system of this na-
ture is that you are working- up
values that will tell how one motor
rates in relation to another. This, of
course, does not automatically pre-
dict the exact date when a certain
motor should be repaired, but it
does determine which motor is the
poorest risk.
Half of the points in this rating
system have to do with appliC<'ltion
(type, age, duty and environment)
while the other half have to do with
actual cond itions ( ascertained
through visual inspection and test).
Zeros in the first half are not
critical, although zeros in the sec-
ond half should receive immediate
attention.
 Maintenance of Large
Motors and M-G Sets
In heavy industries such as steelmaking, production depends upon
reliable performance of all major rotating equipment. This
demands routine electrical maintenance plus scheduled shutdowns
for disassembly and overhauls, a combination ranging from lubri-
cation and care of bearings to fire protection and interpretation of
records.

BY V. E. SCHLOSSBERG, Director, Facilities Planning, Inland Steel Co.

Routine maintenance of large ro-

P
REVENTIVE maintenance is a
combination of routine and
planned operations. Routine as-
s ignments are those which follow
fixed schedules, daily, weekly or at
other fixed intervals. By contrast,
planned maintenance consists of ad-
ditional work which is performed
at irregular frequencies, deter-
mined by inspection or previous
operating experience or records.
Routine maintenance is per-
formed by normal work forces dur-
ing normal operations; that is, dur-
ing normal "down" periods, repair
"turns" or "running cycles."
tating equipment includes:
Inspection of bearings for tem-
perature, proper functioning of oil
rings and oil supply systems, check-
ing for oil or water leaks , water
flow and temperature of water-
cooled bearings.
Checking commutators for spark-
ing, high bars, low spots, glowing
brushes, or chattering of brushes
caused by improper seating.
Utilizing human senses such as
sight, touch, hearing and smelling
to detect unusual movements, frame
temperatures, noises or odors:
Inspecting knife switches and cir-
cu it breakers for overheating.
Noting unit load conditions, in-
cluding balance of loads on gener-
ators operating in parallel.
Checking system voltage and cur-
rent, also operation of speed regu-
lators and other control equipment
to verify intended operations.
Using various test panels,
equipped with voltmeters and tell-
tale lamps, to check for system
grounds.
Inspect operation of ventilation
features, including fan lubrication
and tilter contamination.

ACC URATE REASSE MB LY is insured by match marks and COLOR BANDS and narrow matching bars on brushholder
legends placed on frames, bearing pedestals and the like. yokes and si milar removable ports. ldenfificotion of re lated
This prevents upper sections from be in g reversed. Precise secti ons os~ures exact repositioning ofter unit hos been thor-
realignment also is guaranteed by . . . oughly inspected, cleaned and repaired.

61

MAIN DR IVE MOTORS ond gcncrotors ore completely disosscmbled, cleaned, re-
vornishcd ond repoired os required o t intervols from one lo four ycors, depending
u pon importonce of unit, severity of operating conditions ond work performed.
Men assigned to r outine mainte-
nance must be alert to take ndvan-
tage of short-interval "down" peri-
ods to inspect units not in
operation. This includes all electri-
cal auxiliary equipment.
Routine Maintenance
In the process of systematically
maintaining large motors and gen-
erators, these units are blown out
r egularly with clean, dry air, mak-
ing sure that air pressure is not
strong enough to disturb coils or in-
sulation.
In addition, brush holders, insu-
lators, windings and bus insulator s
are wiped clean. Riser connections,
V-rings and bands are checked for
damage, tightness and alignment.
Capacitors and lightning arresters,
located in motor pits, are checked
and wiped clean.
We also r emove end guards from
motors and generators every t hree
mont hs (approximately) lo clean
and inspect these areas more thor-
oughly. In so doing, field and pole
face connections are checked for
signs of excessive heating or loose-
ness. Windings are inspected :for
damage or looseness. Insulation re-
sis tance is tested by a megohm-
rnetet· for comparison with pre-
vious r eadings to detect trends of
deterioration. Banding wil'es a nd
wedges are checked for tightness.
Twice a year, air gaps and brush
spacings are accurately measured.
If necessary, these a re readjusted
to meet design specificat ions.
With production depending upon
reliable opemtion of major ro-
tating equipment , many mainte-
nance routines related to motors
and generators a r e performed at
more frequ ent intervals, such a s
weekly, 01· daily. In a few critical
instances, ma intenance checks are
performed hourly.
For example, each week brushes
a re checked for over-all length,
freedom of movement in their hold-
e1·s, broken or frayed shunts. When
wear is noted, even in "reasonable"
amounts, brushes ar e promptly r e-
placed and properly seated.
Commutators Ii k e wise are
checked weekly for grooving or
similar indications of wear. L-0ose
seals are r eplaced. Commutator
slots are cleaned of carbon.
Also as required, rheostat face-
plates are cleaned and lubricated.
Toggles and pins, worn shunts and
contact surfaces a re replaced. Con-
trol devices, air circuit breakers
and knife switches are inspected,
cleaned, adjusted or repaired.
Shou ld grounds be located on any
electrical system, they promptly
a re isolated, checked for cause and
c'leared.
Weekly mai ntenance of rotati ng
equipment also includes checking
all air filtel'in g equipment and oil
r eservoirs. Filters are cleaned or
replaced as necessary. Oil wells are
drained of sludge then brought up
62
to prescribed levels by addition of
new oil.
When maintenance per sonnel as-
s igned lo routine assignments note
condi tions which they themselves
cannot correct immediately, lhey
pr omptly notify thei r foreman. He
in turn reinspects t hose conditions,
to verify their importance, t hen he
checks with operat ions to see
whether normal downtime is sched-
uled suffic iently soon and sufficiently
long in duration to permit comple-
tion of necessary work without dis-
rupting production. Whenever feas-
ible, major repairs are scheduled
for planned periods of production
downtime.
Planned Maintenance
P lanned maintenance is far more
extensive than rou t ine work. For
example. ou r planned program in-
cludes yearly clean-and-varnish
schedules for all main dri ves a nd
supporting motor-generator sets.
These schedules are sent to all elec-
t rical for emen and mill superin-
tendents the first of each year.
Other major inspections and over-
hauls are scheduled at frequen cies
based on operating importance .')nd
conditions, records and t rends noted
during previous inspections.
Every three yea1·s, on t he aver-
age, main drive motors a nd gener-
ators a rc completely disassembled,
cleaned a nd revarnished. This av-
erage interval, however, is influ-
enced by equ ipment location a nd
des ign characteristics. For exam-
ple, in some instances where condi-
tions a re favorable, complete disas-
sembly intervals can be increased
to four years. Conversely, where
equipment is located in extremely
dirty envi rons or where oil vapors
a r e drawn into windings due to a
variety of causes, then major dis-
assemblies are scheduled annually.
Before disassembling any r otat-
ing equipment, precise match marks
are placed on couplings, frames,
brush yokes a nd similar parts. T his
assures exact repositioning of
stators in frames, brush positions,
etc., upon reassembly.
P r ecaution also is taken to pre-
vent leaving foreign objects or ma-
teria ls in machines. This includes
checking t he number of bolts, tools
and cleaning brushes before and
after overhauls . Anothe1· procedm·e
included before disassembly is to
measure insulation resistance for
future reference.
To assure thorough cleaning and
 varnishing, disassembly is carried
to the stage where complete accessi-
bility to all stator and rotor areas
is possible. This means that, on ac
units, stators are shifted on their
bases. On de machines having split
frames, the top half of the frame is
removed and the armatu re is taken
out completely. In certain cases
where these general procedures are
impossible, complete machines are
removed from their bases to permit
removal of rotors.
Oily windings are cleaned by
blowing with dry compressed air,
then using various types and sizes
of brushes (scrub and bottle) to
reach all areas. In some instances,
when it becomes necessary to use
toxic or flammable cleaning solvents
to completely remove oil deposits,
extreme care is taken to guard
against fire hazards and to protect
maintenance personnel against
overexposure to injurious fumes.
Cleaning continues until satisfac-
tory insulation readings are ob-
tained. If low insulation readings
persist, further checks are made to
determine causes, which then are
corrected.
DRY COMPRESSED AIR is hose-directed ot windings for generol cleaning, We also have successfully used
then various types of brushes and solvents ore used to reach all areas finely pulverized corncobs in porta-
and remove stubborn deposits of oil or gummy deposits. Mointenonce men ble blasting machines. This method
ore protected by suitable clothin g and respirator helmets. is effective for removing oil, al-
though care must be taken to pre-
vent the blast from disturbing the
windings or damaging the insula-
tion.
Prior to varnishing, all wedges,
bands, bonnets, stringing, connec-
tions and insulation are checked.
When inspections indicate the nec-
essity to replace or secure bands,
t ighten wedges, reinsulate leads or
resolder connections, these opera-
t ions are performed by men in our
own maintenance department hav-
ing training and experience in
those special categories.
Large rotating elements are var-
nished by means of spray guns. Two
coats of air-dry varnish generally
are applied to insure sealing of
cracks in insulation which may
have developed due to normal
shrinkage a nd drying. Varnish also
serves to hold wedges a nd insulation
supports in position. In our opin-
ion, two thin coats of varnish are
more effective than a single, heavier
application. In extremely oily loca-
tions, the second coat of varnish is
oil-resistant glyptal.
During these varnishing se-
PULVERIZED CORNCOBS olso ore used for cleaning, toking core that force of blast
Is not strong enOlJ9h to disturb windings or domoge insulation. Note ground wire quences, all p,rocedures are de-
on hoses ond guns, also presence of fire extinguisher and use of protective goggles signed to insure maximum fire pro-
and masks. tection. These precautions include

63
 grounding of varnish spray guns to
prevent static sparks, also the use
of vaporproof extension lights.
Fire-fighting equipment is tested
before varnishing begins, then is
positioned conveniently for instant
use. "No Smoking" signs are placed
in prominent positions to remind
vis ito1·s, production employees, elec-
trical maintenance personnel and
all other tradesmen of this danger.
During these periods of complete
disassembly, cleaning and varnish-
ing, we also carefully inspect bear-
ings, particularly the bottom linings
which seldom are r emoved during
routine maintenance work.
Insulated bearings are tested for
insulation fa ilur e. If necessary, in-
sulators are r eplaced. Also in-
spected during these periods are INSPECTION OF BEARINGS, keys, keywoys and couplings ore included in
keys, keyways and couplings. major disassembly and planned overhaul procedures. Worn or badly
After motors and generator sets scored linings ore resurfaced or replaced as necessary. Insulated bearings
are reassembled, insulation resist- ore tested for resistance and, if failure is indicated, insulators ore replaced.
ance is again measured. Bolts,
cleaning brushes and tools are
again checked to make certain that
none is left inside the machines.
For future reference, a report of
all work performed is recorded in
detail. This report includes such in-
formation as insulation measure-
ments, air gap widths, the elapsed
time and number of men required
to do the job, procedures followed,
special tools and slings required.

Grinding Proced ures

Other planned maintenance as-
signments include grinding of ro-
tor and field collector rings. This
is performed with a lathe-type
stone holder, rigidly supported.
Commutators of motors and gener-
ators likewise are ground and un-
dercut when considered necessary.
Before grinding, it is important
that mica is sufficiently undercut to
(1) facilitate final undercutting and
(2) minimize possibilities of high
01· flush mica preventing commu-
tators from being truly round.
During grinding procedures, ven-
tilating fans in the vicinity are kept
ninning. Adjacent machinery and
electrical equipment is completely
covered. The grinding speed is ad-
justed to coincide with the ma-
chine's normal running speed.
Those performing the grinding are
rec1uired to wear protective goggles
and respirators.
When grinding commutators of
generators, all brushes are raised
to clear commutator surfaces. When
grinding motor commutators, only
enough brushes are left in contact
BRUSH HOLDERS AR E REASSEMB LED and adjusted by maintenance man
equipped with necessary knowledge and tools to guarantee reliable work·
monship and operating results. During normal operation of machine,
weekly routine inspections check brushes for over·oll length, freedom of
movement in holders, also broken or frayed shunts.
with commutator surfaces to main- Commutators generally a rc un-
tain commutation and rotation. dercut with a motor-driven mica
Voltage is maintained at reduced undercutter having a long flexible
levels to prevent flash-overs from shaft equipped with U-type saws.
presence of copper particles. Saws of various widths are stocked
l\Iost of our grinding is per- for this purpose. Care is taken to
formed using medium-coarse use saws of correct width so that all
stones. Finishing is done with fine· feather and side mica will be re-
grained polishing stones. For grind- moved without cutting the bars
ing large commutators which are proper. To protect V-rings during
not truly round, and also for light undercutting procedures, they are
grinding jobs, we use hand stones. wrapped with narrow strips of
For smaller commutators which are fiber. After undercutting, commu-
out of round, we use lathe-type tator s lots are bevelled, using hand
stone holders, rigidly supported to tools having ! -in. sq. lathe heads
prevent chattering. which are properly V'd.

64
 Trouble-Remedy Chart for Induction Motors
The following maintenance and repair hints ore pre-
sented in check-list form for plant electricians. They
follow a trouble-cause-remedy outline.
MOTOR WILL NOT START
Overload control tripped: Wait for overload to cool,
then try starting again. If motor still does not start,
check the causes outlined below.
Open fuses: Test fuses.
Low voltage: Check nameplate values against power
supply characteristics. Also check voltage at motor
terminals with motor under load to check wire size.
Wrong control connections: Check connections with
control wiring diagram.
Loose terminal-lead connection: Tighten connections.
Driven machine locked: Disconnect motor from load.
If motor starts sa tisfactorily, check driven machine.
Open circuit in stator or rotor winding: Check for
open circuits.
Short circuit in stator winding: Check for short.
Winding grounded: Test for grounded wiring.
Bearings stiff: Free bearing or replace.
Overload: Reduce load.
MOTOR NOISY
Motor ·running single phase: Stop motor, then try to
start. It will not start on sing le phase. Check for open
circuit in one of the lines.
Electrical load unbalanced: Check current ba lance.
Shaft bumping (sleeve-bearing motors): Check align-
ment and conditions of belt. On pedestal-mounted bear-
ing check cord play and axial centering of rotor.
Vibration: Driven machine may be unbalanced. Re-
move motor from load. If motor is still noisy, rebalance.
Air gap not uniform: Center the rotor a nd if neces-
sary replace bearings.
Noisy ball bearings: Check lubrication. Replace
bearings if noise is excessive and persistent.
Rotor rubbing on stator: Center the rotor and replace
bearings if necessary.
Motor loose on foundation: Tighten hold-down bolts.
Motor may possibly have to be realigned.
Coupling loose: Insert feelers at fou r places in coup-
ling joint before pulling up bolts to check alignment.
Tighten coupling bolts securely.
MOTOR AT HIGHER THAN NORMAL
TEMPERATURE OR SMOKING
Overload: Measure motor loading with ammeter. Re-
duce load.
Electrical load unbalance: Check for voltage un-
balance or single-phasing.
Source of data: Generol Electric Co., Apporotus
65
Restricted ventilation: Cleon air passage and
windings.
Incorrect voltage and frequency: Check nameplate
values with power supply. Also check voltage at motor
terminals with motor under full load.
Motor stalled by driven machine or by tight bearings:
Remove power from motor. Check machine for cause
of stalling.
Stator winding shorted or grounded: Test windings
by standard method.
Rotor winding with loose connections: Tighten, if pos-
sible, or r~place with another rotor.
Belt too tight: Remove excessive pres.sure on bearings.
Motor used for rapid reversing service: Replace with
motor designed for this service.
BEARINGS HOT
End shields loose or not replaced properly: Make sure
end shields fit squarely and are properly tightened.
Excessive belt tension or excessive gear side thrust:
Reduce belt tension or gear pressure and realign shafts.
See that thrust is not being transferred to motor bearing.
Bent shaft: Straighten shaft or send to motor repair
shop.
SLEEVE BEARINGS
Insufficient oil: Add oil-if oil supply is very low,
drain, flu sh and refill.
Foreign material in oil or poor grade of oil: Drain oil,
flush and relubricate using industrial lubricant recom-
mended by a reliable oil manufacturer.
Oil rings rotating slowly or not rotating at all: Oil
too heavy; drain and replace. If oi l ring hos worn spot,
replace with new ring.
Motor tilted too far: Level motor or reduce tilt and
realign if necessary.
Rings bent or otherwise damaged in reassembling:
Replace rings.
Ring out of slot (oil-ring retaining clip out of place):
Adjust or replace retaining clip.
Defective bearings or rough shaft: Replace bearings.
Resurface shaft.
BALL BEARINGS
Too much grease: Remove relief plug, and let motor
run. If excess grease does not come out, flush and
re lubricate.
Wrong grade of grease: Add proper grease.
Insufficient grease: Remove relief plug and regrease
bearing.
Foreign material in grease: Flush bearings, relubri-
cate; make sure grease supply is clean. (Keep can
covered when not in use.)
~partment
FIG. 1-Brushes and commutator on large rotating direct- lions to insure good commutation and lo ng brush life
current machines should receive regularly scheduled inspec- for reliable performance.

Solving Commutation Problems Of

DC Rotating Machines
Here are practical procedures for effective brush and The commutator needs attention
when it becomes rough due to a
commutator maintenance. Commutation troubles such general unevenness, high or low
bars, flat sections, or eccentricity.
as brush chatter, commutator streaking and threading, If these conditions are not cor-
rected, they will result in poor com-
and short brush life are analyzed in detail. A handy mutation, overheating of the com-
mutator, rapid wear of the brushes,
chart speeds troubleshooting and repair. and greatly limit the machine's
ability to satisfactorily handle over-
loads.
Roughness of a commutator sur-
BY J\'l. J . PASCULLE, Engineer, DC Motor 1111cl Generator l~11gi11ecri11g
face can be detected by placing a
targe l~olllti11g A pparotus Division, W csti11ghousc Electric Corp.
pencil or sharp pointed stick on a
l~ast Pittsburgh, Pa.
brush while the machine is rotat-
ing. Any roughness can be detected
ITH proper care direct-current Commutator smoothness - The by feel; on a smooth commutator,

W machines perform faithfully

year after year. Direct-current
motors, generators, converters and
m-g sets, which are capable of meet-
ing very high power and horse-
power demands, have a proven long
life in many applications.
To perform reliably, however, the
de machine must. have good com-
mutation and be kept in this condi-
tion. To do this, it is essential to
understand the factors which affect
commutation and to know how to
apply this knowledge fo r effective
brush and commutator mainte-
nance.
commutator should be smooth and
concentric to insure good brush
rideability and intimate brush con-
tact. Commutator roughness is usu-
ally characterized by an abrupt
change from one bar to the next as
distinguished from an eccentric
commutator where the runout can
be measured with a dial indicator.
In general, for normally rated de
machines the commutator runout
should not exceed .003 in. Varia-
tions from one bar to another as
li.ttle as one ten-thousandth of an
inch are s ufficient to cause poor
operation.
no vibrntion will be felt. Take care
to stand on a board or insulating
platform of some kind, not to touch
any metal part of the machine, and
to use a wooden stick if the ma-
chine has voltage on it.
Commutator grinding should be
done with a grinding rig. The
grinding rig consists of an abrasive
stone arrangement similar to a
lathe tool in a rigging or carriage
which may be moved back and
forth in an axial direction and is
equipped with a radial feed. Sup-
port the rigging very rigidly so that
the stone is subjected to a minimum

66
 of vibration. When grinding large
commutators, such rigging can be
mounted on a brush arm by remov-
ing the brushholders on that arm.
Grinding should be done when
the machine is running in its own
bearings and at rated speed when
the unit operates at 1200 rpm or
less. When feasible, higher-speed
units should be ground at less than
rated speed to minimize the effects
of unbalance and vibration.
To prevent copper and ston·e dust
from entering windings, the gri nd-
ing rig should be equipped with a
vacuum-cleaner arrangement, fitted
over the stone to catch all dust
(Fig. 2). The commutator grinding
should continue until the commu-
tator is smooth, and runout does
not exceed .001 in.
Commutator bevel-After grind-
ing, clean out all commutator slots
thoroughly. Also, bevel the edges of
the commutator bars. This beveling
accomplishes two things-it re-
moves burrs caused by the stone
dragging copper over the slots, and
eliminates the sharp edge at the
entering side of the bar under a
brush. The bevel on bars should be
about :?2-in. chamfer at 45° for me-
dium thickness. For thinner or
wider bars, beveling can be changed
accordingly.
Commutator undercutting-All
modern machines have undercut
mica. Keep this undercutting -h-in.
deep plus or minus n in. If it is
apparent that the amount of cop-
per to be removed by grinding will
result in shallow undercutting, the
commutator should be re-undercut
before grinding. Re-undercutting
can be done with a small circular
high-speed saw furnished with a
blade about .003 in. thicker than
the nominal thickness of the mica.
When undercutting, take care to see
that a thin sliver of mica is not left
against one side of the slot. After
grinding, undercutting the mica,
and beveling the edges of the bars,
polish the commutator s urface at
rn ted speeds.
The roeker ring must be set. at
the predetermined factory position
as the interpole gap was determined
fo r this position. Never change
brush positions once the correct
brush position has been located. To
determine correct brush position
refer to the manufacturer's instruc-
t ions. Also, a method of locating
factory brush position is shown in
Fig. 3.
Brushes must be free to move in
the brushholder boxes. Sticking
BRUSH AND COMMUTATOR TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
TROUBLE POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY
I. Excessive brush l. Brushes stic~ing in holders 1. Checic brush fit; blow out
spa rking dust or dirt; check for
warped brushholder
2. Brush holders too far from 2. Set holder 3/32 in. to 'la in.
com mutator surface from commutator
3. Spring pressure incorrect 3. Adjust pressure to recom-
mended setting
4. High mica or mica fins 4. Chamfer bars; remove mica
by scraping
5. Foreign material on 5. Perform thorough cleaning
commutator
6. Defective e lectrical 6. Check and repair poor con-
connections nections a t equalizers, risers
to commutators, brushhold-
ers to brush arms
7. Brushes off recommended 7. S hift brushes to recom-
neutral position mended neutral positi on.
B. Overloads 8. Check current with am·
meter, reduce to nameplate
rating
9. Underloads 9. Increase load current or lift
brushes uniformly to obtain
brush current density of 35
to 65 amps per sq. in.
10. High spots or flat bars of 10. Grind or resu rface com·
eccentric commutator mutator
11 . Wrong brush grade 11. Install proper brushes
12. Machine vibration 12. Check armature balance,
foundation and mounting; in·
spect for d e fective bearings
13. Dark commutator film 13. Check environment for dust,
excessive humidity or other
contaminents; install cleaner·
type brush; frequent clean·
ing or burnishing of com-
mutator
II. Brush chatter 1. High friction caused by l . See 1-9, install cleaning-type
light loading brushes
2. High friction caused by 2. Adjust spring pressure to rec·
improper brush tension ommended setting; decrease
3. High, low or flat bars or brush pressure.
eccentric commutator 3. See 1-10
4 . High mica or mica fins 4. See 1-4
5. Dark commutator film 5. See 1-13, install cleaning-type
brushes
6. Wrong brush grade 6. See 1-11
7. Machine vibration 7. See 1-12
Ill. St reaking or 1. Dark or uneven commutator l. See 1-13
threading of film
commutator 2. Selective action (ove rload on 2. See 1-1, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-8, 1-10,
one or more brushes cousing 1-11, check terminal connec·
copper picking on brushes) tions, shunt-to-brush connec-
tions, brush grade
IV. Excessive brush l. High mica or mica fins l. See 1-4
wear 2. Wrong brush grade 2 . See 1-11
3. Improper spring tension 3. See 1-3
4. Rough commutator surface 4. Resurface or grind com mu-
or eccentric commutator ta tor
5. Uneven commutator film 5. See 1-13
brushes or short brushes can cause it enters the armature through the
brush selective action. This means commutator. Thus if the brush arms
that the total current carried by do not carry uniform curr ents, the
the brushes is not uniformly di- currents in the armature circuits
vided. The current from a brush will also be nonuniform. This is
arm divides into two paths when detrimental as the interpole flux is
67
 Center punch marks on end of frame

FIG. 2--Grinding rig is equipped with
vocuum·Cleoner arrangement to remove
copper and stone dust.
FIG. 3-Lccotion of factory brush posi tion on de motors end gene rators is
accomplished by scribing ores which intersect on edge of commutator bars.
Then o radial line is drown to th e commutator su rface. This line locates,
at the surface of the commutator, the factory brush p~si tion.

FIG. 4-New or replacement brushes must be fitted to com- FIG. S-Stogge ring brushes circumferentially provides several
mutator to obtain good contact. Sheet of sandpape r is drown advan tages. It gives the eHect of a wider brush; there is
under brushes while holding brushes against commutator. some brush contact on all brush arms a t any one instant.

uniform about the armature and
incorrect compensation would oc-
cur in some or possibly all of the
armature circuits.
Because of very close brns h-
brushholder tolerances, dirt or dust
can impair free movement of
brushes in the brushholders if the
machine is not kept clean and blown
out at regular intervals. If brushes
feel tight in the holders even
though they are thoroughly clean,
check the holders for warpage.
Brus h seating- Brushes s hould
be properly seated to ins ure in-
timate contact with the commutator
bars. Be sure that the brush face
is kept free of copper particles or
any foreign matter. The brushes
should have a full seat because
brush pos ition is determined by
the center of the brush fit. A partial
brui;h seat in the t hickness direc-
tion would have the effect of incor-
rect brush position. The brush-
holders should clear the commutator
by ~·~ in. to i in.
New or replacement brus hes
should be fitted to the commutator
so that they make good contact over
their entire bearing face. You can
accomplish this by fi tting the
brushes in each brushholder sepa-
rately and drawing a sheet of sand-
paper under the brushes in the di-
rection of rotation wh ile presstng
them firmly against the commuta-
tor. Keep the ends of the sandpaper
as close to the commutator surface
as possible to avoid rounding t he
edges of the brushes. The sandpaper
should cut the brushes only in the
direction of normal rotation.
Brush pressure-This pressure
should normally be 2 to 2! pounds
per sq in. of cross-sectional area of
the brush. Set the brush pressure
spr ings to the specified value and
check for uniform pressu re on
s prings about t he machine to pre-
68
vent selective act ion between
brushes.
Brush s hunts s hou ld be checked
to see that t hey are properly con-
nected to the brus hholder of the
machine and are arranged neatly to
provide adequate cleara nce from
any other parts of the machine.
Brush staggering- On some ma-
chines, brushes ar e staggered cir-
cumferentially by placing spacers
between the brushholder and brush-
holder bracket. Spacers are gener-
ally put on alternate brushholders
and placed on the sa me brush t rack
in each arm (Fig. G) .
Staggering is beneficial to com-
mutat ion for the following reasons :
(a) It increases t ime of commu-
tation, thereby reducing the react-
ance voltage.
(b) At the trailing edge of the
brushes where the bar leaves the
brush, the cross section of brush in
contact with t he bar is reduced re-
suiting in higher resistance which BRUSH FRICTION VERSUS BRUSH TEMPERATURE removing the glaze from the com-
is conducive to good commutation.
(c) Where rough or eccentric c Q30 - mutator after extended periods of
light-load running by using a rub-
commutator conditions occur, stag- ~u
ger gives the effect of a wider brush :!: 020 \ ber-bonded stone on the commuta-
tor. The undesirable film can also
and thus all brushes on a given arm
will not be affected simultaneously. g \ ~/
v be minimized by using a grade of
brush with cleaning action.
r-....
As a result, there is some brush g o.10 Streaking and threading of the
contact on all brush arms at any u... 0 commutator is another objection-
one instant. able condition which should be cor-
0 00
Operating condit ions-The op- · o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140160180 rected before extensive commutator
erating limits for de machine load- Brush temperature in degrees C. damage occurs. Streaking and
ing at various speeds should never FIG. 6-Brush friction increases drastic- threading is caused by breakdown
be exceeded. In addition to limiting ally a s temperature drops. Thus no-load or in paths of the film on the commu-
the peak loads, the entire cycle light-load operation over o period of time tator surface. When the film breaks
should be analyzed to insure that it should be avoided. Brush current density
should range between 35 to 60 omps per
down, the current has a tendency
is within the RMS rating of the sq in. to pass through the area where the
machine. If the machine is operat- film has been destroyed. This fur-
ing beyond its limits then a change ately. Brush chatter is caused by ther aggravates the condition,
in schedule is dictated to maintain high friction between the commu- which finally results in threads or
good commutation. tator and brush resulting in a high- streaks on the commutator bars
Commutator film-A requisite of frequency brush movement, which around surface of commutator.
good commutation is a proper com- is injurious to commutator, brushes, There are a number of different
mutator film. The commutator film and commutation in general. causes for this condition. One is
should be a uniform light-brown One of the most common causes that a very heavy film is built up on
color. The film should not have a of brush chatter is a commutator the commutator surface, us ually due
highly glazed or an extremely dull film produced by light-load or no- to some atmospheric condition. This
or dark finish. load running on a prolonged basis. heavy film is not a good conductor
Brush friction increases as the cur- and to permit passage of current
Solving Commutator Problems rent density in the brush is de- between the commutator and the
creased. This also reduces the brush brush it becomes necessary for the
When you observe that a de ma- temperature. Fig. 6 illustrates the film to break down. This breakdown
chine has poor commutat ion, you change in coeffici ent of friction be- occurs in just one spot, but it grad-
should first determine the specific tween brush and commutator versus ually develops into a streak or
cause of the problem, and then take brush temperatu re. It is apparent thread around the surface of the
proper remedial action immediately. that the desirable operating brush commutator.
If this is not done, commutator bar temperature is about 80°C, plus or This threading action and groov-
and brush burning will occur. As a minus 10°C. ing can also be caused by particles
result, brush life will be shortened Brushes which operate with cur· of copper imbedded in the brush
and the commutator damaged. r ent dens ities below 30 amps per face. These particles cut t he com-
When analyzing a commutation sq in. will in time develop a highly mutator fiim and because copper-to-
problem, consider theory of commu- polished glaze on the commutator. copper contact drop is compara-
tation, apply good judgment and This increases brush friction and t ively very low, these areas on the
call on past experience. Each prob- causes objectionable chatter. Chat- commutator surface carry more
lem must be studied carefully be- ter will produce the following ob- t han their share of the cilrrent,
cause any number of factors or con- jectionable results: (a) poor com- which further aggravates the con-
ditions can produce the same symp- mutation; (b) chipping and break· dition.
toms of malfunction. ing of brushes; (c) fraying and Selective action, the tendency for
Undesirable films due to atmos- breaking of brush shunts; (d) one brush or group of brushes to
pheric conditions are usually quite wearing of brushholder finger; and carry more than its share of the
dark or black. You can substantiate (e) grooving of the finger bearing load, is also a prime cause for
an atmospheric condition by noting surface of the brush. threading and streaking. Streaking
any discoloration in machine cop- There are two general approaches in particular can be attributed to
per other than that which comes in to curing brush chatter. The best selective action.
contact with the brushes. When at- solution is to increase the brush To prevent threading and streak-
mospheric filming occu rs, the best current density to a value of 35 to ing due to selective action it is
approach where practical is to pro- 60 amps per sq in. Brushes can be necessary to check the terminal con-
vide a new source of ventilating air. lifted in a uniform manner to pro- nections, spring pressure, shunt-to-
Another solu tion for undesirable duce this desired brush density. brush connections, brush freedom
atmospheric filming is the selection Occasional peaks on the brushes in the brushholders, spacing and
of a brush grade with sufficient should not exceed about 125 amps brush material for symmetry. Any
cleaning action to prevent the film per sq in., and about 100 amps unbalance which will make the elec-
buildup. Otherwise it is necessary per sq in. for frequently applied trical resistance in one path differ-
to clean the commutator frequently loads. ent from the other parallel paths in
with a rubber stone or with canvas. The other solution to brush chat- a machine will cause select ive ac-
Brush chatter constitutes one of ter is the periodic removal of com- tion. Mixing several different brush
the most destructive conditions, mutator fi lm before it becomes ob- grades on one machine frequently
and should be remedied immedi- jectionable. This can be done by causes selective action.
69
 .~
:
.
.. .:
./': .
I
How to Maintain Oil-Ring Sleeve
Here are latest maintenance techniques designed to
minimize troubles of oil-ring sleeve bearings used on
large rotating equipment.
BY R. C. RADTKE, Electrical Apparatus & Systems Div.
Alli.s-C/111lmers Mfg. Co., Milwaukee, Wis.
IL-RING s leeve bearings nor-
0 mally used on large rotating
machines provide an efficient,
reliable means of carrying a rotat-
ing load-if they are properly
maintained. Although recent de-
sign improvements have consider-
ably reduced maintenance r equired
on these bearings, inspections and
certain bearing maintenance pro-
cedures must be performed on a
regular basis to assure peak per-
formance.
A modern oil-ring sleeve bearing
is shown in a cut-away view in an
accompanying photo. The heart of
the assembly includes t he main
bearing surfaces, oil rings, and oil
reser voirs. In operation, the lubri-
cating oil forms a wedge which
separates t he journal and t he bear-
ing. The shaft rides on this oil film,
which allows no metal-to-metal con-
tact. Thus there is very little bear-
ing wear when the machine is run-
ning. However, if this oil film
breaks down, overheating and ex-
cessive wear will res ult. Therefore,
the object in effective sleeve bearing
maintenance is to minimize wear
by maintaining the proper oil film.
Maintenance Begins Before
Start-Up
Before placing a machine in serv-
ice, check the bearings carefully.
Bearings are usually coated with a
rust-preventive film before the ma-
chine is shipped, but no oil is placed
in the bearing reservoirs.
First, check the bearing for
moisture accumulation and remove
all traces of oxidation. Then fill
the bearing reservoirs and flush
70
I!. A R G E R 0 TAT I N G ma -
chines ore usually equipped
wi th oil- ring sleeve bearings.
Installation shown is o 3000-
hp, 4000-volt induction motor
driving o boiler feed pump.
To minimize bearing failures,
o well-planned preventive
ma intenance program of bear-
ing inspections and replace-
ment of worn ports should be
performed.
any oil p1pmg. Also, check that
the oil rings are in place. Rotate
the shaft several turns by hand to
distribute oil over the bearing
parts, and make sure the oil r ings
rotate freely.
After the first few days of oper-
ation, remove the oil and refill the
reservoirs with fresh or filtered
oil. This oil change is performed
because during the initial "run-in,"
metallic particles or other impuri-
ties may cause contamination of the
oil.
First Sign ol Trouble:
Overheating
The first symptom of bearing
trouble i s often a bearing which
operates at a temperature higher
than normal. The maximum safe
operating temperature for most
sleeve bearings is about 95° C
(203° F) at the babbit. Because this
temperature is too hot to judge
by feeling the bearing, you should
use a thermometer placed as close
to the babbitt as possible. If the
machine is ordinarily left unat-
tended, a thermostatic relay ad-
justed to actuate some kind of
alarm system is an effective means
of alerting you fo hearing trouble.
Or, if the motor is under continual
SEALED SLEEVE BEARING cut-away
shows components of bea ring assembly.
Contami nati on and oil leakage along the Single
shaft ore prevented by oil seals. Sight sell-aligning
port allows inspection of oil rings to check seat
for proper rotation.

Oil
reservoir

Bearings Atmospheric vent

chamber

observation, you may use an in-
dicating thermometer. And other
more specialized warning systems
are available to meet the require-
ments of any particular installa-
tion.
If the temperature of a bearing
changes considerably, check the
bearing immediately; the change is
more significant than the tempera-
ture itself. Shut down the machine
if a hot bearing is discovered. How-
ever, if the temperature is ex-
tremely high, keep the machine
turning slowly to prevent "freez-
ing" of the bearing.
Another bearing trouble is an
improper oil level. A high or low
oil level reduces the amount of oil
being carried by the ring to the
shaft surface and causes overheat-
ing of the bearing. A high oil level
may cause drag on the oil ring and
slow rotation. As a result, not
enough oil is carried to the shaft.
A low level of oil may cause the
bottom of the oil ring to skip along
on the surface of the oil, instead of
dipping into the oil. The ring then
loses its intimate contact with the
shaft ana its rotation slows down,
resulting in insufficient lubrication.
Remember, both high and low oil
levels may hinder ring perform-
ance, and cause an overheated
bearing.

BEARING OIL LEVEL INDICATOR on large induction motor
provides accurate means of determining oil level in sleeve
bearing. Unit hos low-level alarm contacts; leads will be
connected to annunciator system. Proper oil level should be
maintained. A high or a low oil level may hinder ri ng per-
formance and cause overheating of the bea ring.
BEARING INSPECTION includes checking the babbitt for
high spots (babbitt is a soft metal alloy bearing lining, which
flows or "wears" at any small spot of interference until on
oil film replaces the undesirable metal-to-metal contact).
Lorge interference spots must be removed to ovoid over-
heating of bearing.

71
 l
fl

Min. oil film 0.001" to 0.006" near this point when

operating normally.

OIL RINGS ore replaced on sleeve bearing ofter inspection.
When oil level Is low, bottom of ring may skip along surface
of oil, causing the ring to lose close contact with the shaft.
This slows down rotation of the ring, resulting in insufficient
lubrication. A high oil level may cause drag on the ring,
also slowing rotation and hindering proper lubrication.
BEARING RELIEF POCKETS hold small amounts of excess oil
and lead oil to all portions of the bearing. The pockets form
axial oil grooves ot top and sides of the bearing. Each relief
extends over about 60 degrees of the bearing li ning circum-
ference. Dimensions ore shown exaggerated for clarity.

Guard Against Unnecessary
Bearing Wear
A sleeve bearing shows no appre-
ciable wear during continuous oper-
ation if it is properly lubricated.
However, t he life of these bearings
varies widely, depending chiefly on
the frequency of starts and stops.
This is because there is no bearing-
to-shaft contact to cause wear ex-
cept when the machine is at rest,
during start-up or running at slow
speeds.
A common cause of sleeve bear-
ing wear is t he motor shaft thrust-
ing against the end of the sleeve
bearing. Keep the motor level so
that the rotor will not "slide down
hill" and cause continuous t hrust
against the bearing shoulder. Lim-
ited end-float couplings are recom-
mended by motor manufacturers
for use on some large high-speed
rotating machines to prevent motor
shaft thrusting.
Sometimes one defective part can
cause injury to other parts of a
machine. Excessive bearing wear,
for example, can result in air gap
changes, allow the rotor to rub
against stator, and thus damage
the machine windings. In addition,
a frozen bearing may lock the rotor
and the resulting high current and
heat could burn out the motor
windings. To minimize these wind-
ing failures, guard against bearing
wear and replace worn bearings im-
mediately.
On V-belt drives, the bottom side
of t he belt is normally the t ight
side. This results in a smaller
angle of shaft circumference for
distributing oil to the loaded area,
and can cause excessive bearing
pressures and subsequent bearing
damage. Wherever the top side of
the belt may be made the tight side
without sacrificing good perform-
ance, it should be done. Many V-
belt drives have short center dis-
tances and may have the tight side
at the top with little or no loss in
efficiency of the drive.
Keep Bearings Properly
Lubricated
Because proper lubrication of oil-
ring sleeve bearings is essential,
always use a high grade of indus-
trial oil: The recommended visco-
sity (Saybolt Universal Viscosity)
at 100° F is shown in the following
table, or refer to manufacturer's
instruction manuals.
150-250 High Speed
250-350 Medium Speed
350-450 Low Speed
Some operators prefer to stand-
ardize on one grade of oil for all
their machines. This is desirable
and can be done in most, but not in
all, cases.
At intervals of six months to one
72
year, remove the oil and refill the
bearings with fresh oil. Relubrica-
tion intervals depend on many
things, including the amount of
service, the nature of the sun-ound-
ing atmosphere, and the speed and
temperature of the machine. Sea-
sonal oil changes may be necessary
if the machine is subject to wide
variations in temperature.
Examine the oil periodically for
signs of deterioration or sludging.
Sludge blocks the passages or
grooves in the bearing and con-
tributes to overheating and ulti-
mately to bearing failure. Also,
check the oil level at regular inter-
vals. To avoid incorrect oil level
readings, never add oil while the
machine is r unning.
Keep sleeve bearings operating
efficiently by maintaining proper
alignment, providing sufficient oil
of good quality, and keeping
foreign matter out of the oil reser-
voirs.
Keep Oil Where It Belongs
Contamination and oil leakage
along the shaft are prevented by
an oil seal on the bearing. When
sleeve bearings are installed or in-
spected, clean the pedestal or hous-
ing partings of dried sealant and
oil, and cover them with a non-
hardening type of sealing com-
pound before the bearings are
closed. Also, seal the joints in the
oil seals at the ends of large bear-
ings with the compound. If neces-
sary, place a thin gasket between
the seal and the pedestal or hous-
ing.
The seals (someti mes called oil
guards or oil-and-dirt guards) are
bored to provide the proper clear-
a nce. Adjust t hem to give t he
proper clearance between the seal
and shaf t while the machine is
stationary. Keep side clear ances
uniform, and the seal partings
tight.
To prevent oil satu ration of
motor windings :
1. Maintain tht! oil level in the
bearing reservoir at, but not above,
the proper level. If only one level
mark is provided, it is usually the
oil level with the motor at stand-
still. The running level will be
lower clue to the amount of oil car-
ried up by the oil rings.
2. Do not fill the oil wells with
the motor running.
3. Keep oil well covers and pip-
ing tig ht.
4. Replace worn oil seals.
5. On large, high-speed motors,
maintain proper adjustment of
bearing reservoir pressure-balance
arrangements.
Maintain Correct Bearing
Clearances
P roper shaft clearances are vital
tend to break down the oil film,
metallic contact between the shaft
and the bearing occurs only at very
low speed when star ting and stop-
ping. Therefore, under normal cir-
cumstances, bearing wear is very
s mall.
Check bearing clearances by
measuring the shaft and bushing
bore with a micrometer. If t he
ends of the bearing are accessible,
you may measure the clearance at
the bearing ends with a s et of feeler
gauges.
It may be more convenient to
measure bearing clearance by plac-
ing a piece of soft lead on top of
the shaft (but clear of the top
bushing relief), and tightening the
bearing cap. This will squeeze t he
lead to the clearance thickness. The
lead can then be removed and mea-
sured.
T.o check the bearings for high
spots, coat the shaft with Prussian
bl'.le and rotate the bushing halves
around the journal. Scrape any
hig h spots, which will be indicated
by blue areas on the babbitt. Be-
cause of diametral differences, the
bearing and shaft should make con-
tact only in a straight, narrow line,
centrally located along the bottom of
the bearing.
0.033
0.032
A hot bearing is likely to result
if the babbitt is scraped to give
uniform contact with the shaft over
the entire bearing surface. For t his
r eason, it is best to scrape bearings
to an accurately machined mandrel
having a diameter approximately
0.001 in. less than the bore of the
bearing. For self-align ing type
bearings, scraping the bushing to
a mandrel gives t he best assurance
of proper fi t with the shaft journal.
This not only gives a more accu rate
indication of high spots, but serves
as a check on bearing clearances.
In scraping to a mandrel, the bear-
ing s hould s how contact over 75 %
of the load-carrying area, and this
contact surface should be uniformly
distributed over the load-carrying
area.
The goal in maintaining sleeve
bearings, as in any maintenance
program, is to elimina t e as much
emergency work as possible. This
can be done only through a well-
planned and conscientious program
of inspection and replacement of
worn parts. The large rotat ing ma-
chine equipped with oil-ring sleeve
bearings has a proven long life and
when given the proper care it will
provide efficient and reliable service
and reduce costly downtime.
I I
~

to efficient operation of sleeve bear-

ings, and must be periodically 0.030
/
checked to assure proper perform- 0.028
7
ance. Bearings a r e usually bored /
to an even dimension (such as 6 in., 0.026
3! in., etc.) and shaft clearance re- ~/ _.
0.024
sults from making the journal -;;; 0.022 ~/ ~/
s lightly sma ller t han the bearing
dimension. Typical bearing clear- ..."'
.c
/ /,
ances for various bearing diameters
a re given in an accompanying
.!:
..."'c
0.020
0.018
v /
graph.
E
0
...
:J:! O.ot6
I/ /
Axial oil grooves at the top and O'
.£
~/
sides of the bearing jou rnal hold 0 0014 / ~/
small amounts of excess oil, and "' 0.012
CD
•
lead oil to all portions of the jour-
nal. The pockets a re formed by 0.010
I /'
reboring the central portions,
nearly to the ends, with offset cen-
ters and a s maller radius. Usually
0.008
0.006
- u, /
~'
each r elief extends over about 60
degrees of the bearing 'lining cir- 0.004
cumference (see accompanying il- 0.002
lustr ation) .
During normal oper ation, the 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
shaft is supported on an oil film Bearing bore (inches)
near t he bottom a nd extending BEARING CLEARANCES must be periodicolly checked to assure proper performance.
over approximately t he lower third Groph shows typical sha~ clearances for bearings up to 30.in. dia. Bearing clear-
of the bearing surface. Unless ance may be checked with micrometer, feeler gouges or by measuring thickness of
some adverse conditions exist which soft lead pressed between shaft and bearing,

73
Preventive maintenance program assures ...
Reliable operation of fire alarm
Here's how to organize and operate a preventive maintenance program de-
signed to make sure your fire alann system works when needed. Operating
p1·inciples, testing, troubleshooting, and inspection techniques are described.
F FIRE should strike your fa-
Itemcility, would your fire alar m sys-
perform properly? Would you
receive ample warning and have
enough time to take the required
steps to prevent a possible disaster?
If you cannot give a positive "yes"
to both of these questions, your fire
alarm system-no matter how so-
phisticated-may fail when it is
needed most.
The only way you can be sure that
your fire alarm system will function
as designed is through an orga-
nized, well-planned program of test-
ing and preventive maintenance.
Such a program is imperative
RELAYS
~
Two types of
co n tr o I relays
often used in fire
fl(f alarm syste ms
are sealed plug-
in relays, and
nons.ealed plug-
in r elays. Main-
tenance and adjustment of sealed
relays usually are performed only
by the manufacturer. Because or
this, spare relays must be kept on
hand for replacement of malfunc-
tioning units. Occasionally, relay
contacts are burned or pitted by a
circuit fault or transient high-cur-
rent. When this happens, the relay
shou ld be sent back to the manufac-
ttirer for repair and readjustment.
When it returns, it should be kept
in reserve as a replacement part.
A major objection to the sealed
plug-in relay is the reluctance of
many users to maintain an adequate
inventory of spare units for emer-
gency use. The chief advantage of
this ty~ of relay is that it is im-
pervious to contamination and it is
highly reliable.
whether the facility is a hotel, office
building, hospital or school where
hundreds, poss ibly thousands of
lives, mus t be protected; or an in-
dustrial plant ot warehouse where
human lives, which are the primary
concern, and millions of dollars of
property and equ ipment, must be
preserved.
Moreover, preventive mainte-
nance of a fire alarm system is es-
sential whether t he system is basic,
serving a small installation or is
complex, incorporating supervisory
circu its in a large, multiftoor build-
ing. Although modern fire alarm
equipment is highly reliable, com-
MAINTENANCE OF CENTRAL
Nonsealed plug-in relays have t he
advantage of permitting adjust-
ment in the field, although they are
more susceptible to contamination.
In general, relays require readjust-
ment after many months to a few
years of service. The adjustment
may be one of armature gap, arma-
ture spring tension, contact gap or
contact spring tension.
To clean relay contacts, use a
contact burnishing tool, except
where excessive pitting or burning
has occurred. To remove pits or
burns, a fine steel file shou Id be
used.
Armature spring tension on some
relays can b~ varied by a screw or
knurled nut with or without a Jock
nut: on others by bending a soft
brass or steel arm to which a spiral
retractile spring is attached. In
some instances, it may be necessary
to slightly stretch the spring to re-
duce tension, or cut off a turn or
two to increase tension.
Contact spr in gs s h ould be
straight. Any excessive belly or
waves can be removed by a spring
bender or duck-bill pliers. Use a
74
ponents can wear out or corrode in
poor environments. Also, circu it
parameters may change, and relays
can go out of adjustment. The small
investment of t ime and effort ap-
plied to p1·eventive maintenance of
your fire alarm system will be re-
paid many times over on but one
occasion when it must detect and
sound an alarm of an actual fire.
Because fire alarm systems are
essentially electrical systems, they
usually are maintained by the elec-
trical department in a facility.
Often, electricians experienced in
control work are assigned to fire
alarm system maintenance. Most
gram gauge to check gram tensio11
as recommended by the relay manu-
facturer. Tension should never be
less than 6 to 8 grams. Contact gap
can be changed on some relays by
set screw and lock nut; on others
by bending the spring tab which
rests on the coil spool head or arma-
ture actuator insulator. Set contact
gaps according to the manufactur-
er's specifications.
PILOT LAMPS
Where lamps
@0
are only occa-
sionally illumi-
nated, such as in
an annunciator,
their life will be
essentially un-
limited unless
lamps are subject to considerable
vibration from nearby equ ipment.
Where lamps fail often because of
vibration, install circuits and lamps
rated at 6 or 12 volts because these
lamps will outlast 24, 32, or 48 volts
since their filaments are physically
stronger.
 Alarm
Combination bells,
detectors buzzers,
horns Automolic
Rote -of- t ronsmitt e

systems rise
detectors
Q
Fixed - Coded
lempero I ure manual

a
detec tors
Ily EDWARD S. RUTH,
Manager, Fire Alarm Dept.,
Simplex Time Recorder Co.,
Gardner, Mass. Non codec
Photoelectric
smoke manual·
detectors station

maintenance procedures are simple,

can be performed in minimum time, Ionization
and frequency of most inspections detectors
and tests are not often.
The key to a successful mainte-
nance program is good organiza-
tion. This can be achieved by set-
ting up schedules for testing and
inspections in Jog books or some
I I I I
similar record system. The record Supervisory Presignal Municipal
system should include identification system circuits and Annunciolor fire slation
of all components, test and inspec-
tion results, spare parts lists and trouble alarm components alarm circuit
simi lar data. The following pro-
vides a guide to maintenance of
most commonly used fire alarm RE LIAB ILITY of fire alarm system components, such os those shown in b lock diagram
system components. above, is assured by regulor, thorough testing and maintenance program.

PANEL COMPONENTS
When pilot lamps are on contin-
uous operation, such as lighting a
colo~d bulls-eye lens or a back-
lighted panel, it is advantageous to
use lamps rated at a higher voltage
than the actual supply voltage. This
greatly increases lamp life. Typical
examples are: 32-volt lamps sup-
plied at 24 volts or 145-volt lamps
supplied at 120 volts. This variation
of rated lamp voltage to supply volt-
age permits ample illumination.
CAPACITORS.
Paper capaci-
tors require lit-
tle maintenance
other than a pe-
riodic inspection
to see that ter-
minals are free
of dirt, grease
or moisture, and to check electrical
connections. Failure of this ty.pe of
capacitor is very infrequent. When
a capacitor malfunction is sus-
pected, the capacitor may be tested
with a ohmmeter or, at rated volt-
age, with a voltmeter.
Electrolytic capacitors have a
definite life, which varies depend-
ing on quality. The best grades
s hould last for at least seven years.
Ambient or working temperature
has a direct effect on capacitor life
-the higher the temperature the
shorter the life.
They can be tested in a manner
similar to the dry paper capacitors;
however, polarity must be observed
on full-voltage tests. Terminal areas
and electrical connections should be
checked when trouble is suspected.
And the terminal areas should be
kept clean to facilitate inspection
and service of connections.
RES ISTORS AND RH EOSTATS
Resistors and rheostats require
little maintenance. Usually loose or
broken connections or an actual
broken resistor will be the cause of
trouble. During inspection, terminal
screw connections s hould be checked
for tightness.
Slide bands on resistors and the
wiping brushes of rheostats should
make positive contact with the ex-
75
posed turns of
wire. These ex-
posed turns
should be kept
clean . Carbon
resistors which
have been over-
heated because
of operation at
power levels beyond their rated
value will change resistance sub-
stantially. In such instances, they
must be replaced.
Diodes-Diodes may be checked
with an ohmmeter or a de voltmeter:
and a de source. When using the
ohmmeter, switch to the lowest
scale and connect the diode so that
a very low resistance reading is ob-
tained. If a s ignificantly higher
reading is obtained when the meter
leads are reversed, the diode checks
out properly. If only a low resist-
ance can be obtained, the diode is
shorted. If only high resistance
readings can be obtained, the diode
is open.
Using the diode principle of uni-
directional current flow, a de volt-
age test can be set up.
 TRANSISTORS
Transistors
require very lit-
tle maintenance,
except for check-
ing lead connec-
tions. Transistor
leads go directly
to silicon crys-
tal junctions. Therefore, when sol-
dering, excessive heat must be pre-
vented from reaching t he crystal
junction. A .pair of pliers grasping
the lead when applying heat should
prevent this. In addition, when sol-
dering, quick application of the iron
tip and immediate removal from the
lead are important.
Trans istors are very susceptible
to trans ient voltage spikes that may
occur in the supply power line. Ex-
cessive spikes can cause undesirable
transistor conduction as well as
damage to the component. Double-
anode zener diodes or similar volt-
age clippers effectively prevent
these spikes from reaching the
transistor.
OVERCURRENT
DEVICES
Important
steps in fuse
maintenance in-
clude a periodic
check of fuse
clips to make
sure t h at fer-
rules are in good contact with clips.
Also look for corrosion or overheat-
ing at fuse clips. Hot fuses or clips
usually indicate either poor contact
or an overloaded fuse, probably
close to blowing. A supply of fuses
of proper ratings should always be
kept on hand for fast replacement
of blown fuses.
Molded-case circuit breakers re-
quire little maintenance. They
0
should be kept free of dust and
grime to assure proper mechanical
operation. Regu lar inspections of
circuit breakers should be made,
including dynamic tests. Every
three or .four years, operating trip
:;ettings may .be checked with spe-
cial load-testing instruments. These
tests are often performed by elec-
trical maintenance contractors or
special service organizations. When
these tests are performed, it is ad-
visable to load-test overcurrent pro-
tective relays.
BATIERIES
Batteries
should be located
in a clean, dry
place preferably
on shelves or
racks, or in a
cabinet. Mainte-
nance includes
regular checking of battery electro-
lyte level, specific gravity, voltage
output, "ball" floats and the battery
exterior for dirt or corrosion of
terminals.
When the electrolytic is low,
bring the liquid up to proper level
by ~dd ing distilled water (never tap
water). Specific gravity and voltage
should be checked at least twice a
year. Batteries furnished with
transparent glass or plastic cases
often are equipped with colored ball
floats which indicate discharge con-
dition of the battery. When balls
a re floating at the top of the cell,
t he battery is in a fully or nearly
fully charged condition. When the
balls are "down," the battery is
nearing complete discharge.
Be su re the battery is kept clean
and dry. Terminals should be tight
and free of corrosion. Terminals of
lead-acid cells may be cleaned with
a cloth moistened with aqueous am-
monia. A coating of petroleum jelly
will retard further corrosion of bat-
tery terminals.
Battery chargers should receive
regular inspections to head off trou-
ble. The need for more detailed
maintenance will become apparent
when batteries are not maintained
at full charge. For example, lower
than normal charge rates will cause
the batteries to slowly discharge.
When this happens, check input
voltage to the charger, and inspect
components such as selenium recti-
fiers for aging and rheostats for
loose or corroded slide bands.
WIRING
The key to re-
liable operation
of circuits be-
tween panels and
remote devices
is proper instal-
lation. Be sure
conduits will not
be subject to water or other con-
tamination which could cause in-
sulation breakdown. In addition,
proper wire stripping and connec-
76
tions at ter minals are important.
Improper stripping someti mes re-
sults in nicks in solid conductors
which later break from vibration or
handling at terminals.
When an installation is com-
pleted, insulation resistance tests
prove the initial reliability of the
installation. Use a 500-vol t tester.
The insulation resistance ·shou ld be
at least one megohm and preferably
higher. Annual insulation resistance
tests should be made and records
kept for comparison of readings.
A continuing downward trend of
readings over a period or a few
years indicates failing insulation.
If frequent grounds or partial
grounds are causing erratic opera-
tion, make a 500-volt RMS or a
1250-volt RMS oreakdown test.
These tests, with voltage applied
between conductor and conduit,
usually will break through weak
spots in the insulation revealing the
faulty conductor for immediate re-
placement. On circuits of 50 volts
or less, use the 500-volt test level;
on 51- to 125-volt circuits, apply
the 1250-volt test. Portable test sets
for the purpose are available. In-
structions should be carefully fol-
lowed to avoid damaging good wir-
ing or components and t o assure
safety.
Prior to the test, be sure to dis-
connect all equipment. Also, make
certain t hat the normal power sup-
ply is removed and that all precau-
tions are taken to prevent physical
contact with conductors under test.
CONTROL
..... ~
CABINETS
Control enclo-
- 0 sures should be
kept free of dust
and grease on
the face of the
panel as well as
inside. Dirt can
cause ·faulty relay operation and
can be a source of corrosion of
metal parts. Connecting wires com-
ing from conduits and cables should
be neatly arranged at terminating
points and laced into a fanned cable
form with skinners opposite the
terminals they serve. This saves
time when looking for a wire dur-
ing troubleshooting or replacement
of circuits.
Be sure control panel enclosure is
Of proper type for its environment.
 MAINTENANCE OF FIELD DEVICES
NONCODED
r- MANUAL
STATIONS
Maintenance
of various types
of noncoded
manual fire
alarm statio ns
cons ists primar-
ily of periodic operational tests, re-
placement of "break-glass" windows
or glass . rods, and inspection of
terminals for loose or corroded
connections. In supervised fire
alarm systems, a b1·oken connection
will sound a trouble signal.
A test program should be set up
in which one station is operated
each month (or in accordance with
local codes). A different station
should be operated each month
t hereafter unt il all stations have
been tested within a period of a
year or two depend ing on the num-
ber of stations installed. Where
stations are installed in a presignal
system, be sure to test both the
presignal and general alarm func-
tion. In systems that send the alarm
t o a municipal fire department,
check transmission of the alarm to
the fire department if arrange-
ments can be made for the test.
When this is not possible, the alarm
system should incorporate means to
check this feature without actually
transmi tting the alarm to the fire
department. Identification of each
station, location, results of tests,
etc., should be kept in a mainte-
nance log.
Some stations are furnished with
open-type contacts which should be
checked and cleaned every year or
two, depending on environment. In
some stations, contacts are enclosed
in dust-tight hous ings, which pre-
clude dust and dirt and eliminate
contact cleaning procedures. Al-
ways keep on hand spare glass rods,
plates and extra hammers, where
applicable, for replacement.
Coded manual stations - Two
general types of coded stations are
the spring-driven type and the
motor-driven type. When operating
a spring-driven station, the pull
handle usually winds a clock spring,
which when released, unwinds and
drives a gear train and code wheel.
The code wheel makes or breaks
contacts which transmit code pulses
to the control unit. These compo-
nents are usually enclosed in trans-
parent glass housings, which pro-
vide good protection from dirt.
However, some dust can penetrate
the enclosure and the parts should
be oiled with "watch oil" at least
every five years. At t his time, in-
spect terminals and conductors for
tightness and corrosion and clean
contacts, if required. Be sure to
check extra contacts for annuncia-
tion if the station is furnished with
this feature. Usually, these contacts
must be reset af ter operation.
Some coded stations must be
wound by a key to set the spring-
driven operation. On these stations,
pulling t he lever, s imply releases
the spring t hat drives the code
wheel. These stations mu st be re-
wound after operation.
Maintenance of motor-driven
coded stations is s imilar, except
that some are furnished with mo-
tors that may require attention.
These motors are usually fractional-
horsepower types rated in inch-
ounces. They consume only 4 to 25
watts of power. Those stations fur-
nished with synchronous (hystere-
sis) motors will not require addi-
tional maintenance because these
motors do not have brushes and
normally bearings are the sealed
type. However, stations equipped
with de mot ors should be checked
every one to two years. Inspect
brushes and commutator. Badly
worn brushes will cause excessive
sparking and erratic operation.
Pitted commutators may be
smoothed with an emery cloth or
turned down in a lathe, polished
and mica undercut. If motors do
not have sealed bearings, they
should be oiled as recommended by
the manufacturer.
A test program, log of records
and general maintenance proce-
dures similar to that described for
noncoded stations should be ob-
served.
Automatic transmitters -These
units are essentially manual sta-
tions but they have the additional
feature of an electromagnetic trip
circuit to initiate operation. These
transmitters, which can be operated
either manually or electrically from
a remote location, should be tested
for both modes of operation in a
program similar t o that described
previously.
Some transmitters are equipped
with a local trouble buzzer, an in-
77
dicating light and a silencing
switch. Others have auxiliary con-
tacts to close a circuit to a central
annunciator. Some have both fea-
tures. When inspecting t ransmit-
ters, be s ure to check these func-
tions. On transmitters that sound
a one-r ound signal as a trouble in-
dication, be certain that the unit is
reset after operation or testing.
HEAT
DETECTORS
One type of
fix ed-tempera-
ture heat detec-
t o r o p er a t e s
when a low-melt-
ing-point metal
allows electrical
contacts to energize the alarm cir-
cu it. Maintenance consists of a
testing program and periodic in-
spect ion of terminals and connec-
tions for looseness or corrosion. It
is important that the detectors be
replaced if t hey have been painted
several times- to an extent that the
paint has created excessive delay in
operating time of the thermostats.
This can be checked during testing.
The testing program should re-
quire that at least two of every 100
detectors be sent to a test ing lab-
oratory each year ( after an initial
no-test period of five years) . Test-
ing agencies such as Underwriters'
Laboratories or a similar facility
will perform the prescribed tests.
This type of detector is a "one-
operation" device and must be dis-
carded after testing; however, re-
placement cost is low and reliability
of detectors is proved. If either of
t he first two detector s are faulty,
more detectors must be tested to
determine if a general condition of
faulty detectors exists. A record of
detector location, test results, etc.,
s hould be kept in a log.
The bi-metal type of fixed-
temperature detector can be tested
without removal from the ceiling or
disconnection from the alarm cir-
cuit. These units operate on the
principle of heat-expansion of dis-
similar metals to energize the alarm
circuit; they return to their normal
position aiter cooling ready for an-
other operation.
These detectors may be tested
using a portable cord and lamp

socket furni shed with a 60- or 75-
watt incandescenl lamp. The lamp
is held within a fow inches of the
detector and the heat from the lamp
,;hould cause operat ion of the unit
after a few seconds.
RATE·OF·RISE
DETECTORS
Rate - of - rise
detectors oper-
ate their con-
tacts when the
ceiling tempera-
ture rises faster
than 12-15 de-
grees per minute. This a ssures op-
eration over a wide r ange of val"i-
able ambient temperatures depend-
ing on rating of the detector.
These 1·ate-of-ri sc detectors may
be of the line type or s pot type.
Line-type detectors consist of small
diameter copper or alumi num t ub-
ing which is attached to ceilings or
walls near the ceiling . Both ends
of the t ubing terminate at a bel-
lows-like switch assembly. which
closes alarm circuit contacts on in-
ternal pressure increase. A slow
increase of pressure is bled off
through a small orifi ce ; however, a
rapid rise of pressure generated by
a heat rise of 15 degrees per mi nu le
or mor e expands t he bellows, and
closes the contacts to the fire alarm
ci rcuit.
To test for proper ope rati on. use
the portable inca ndescent lamp set,
previously described, held close to
the tubing. Make this tes t at least
twice a year. Annually, check the
tubing for pin-hole leaks with a
special testing de,·ice provided by
the manufactu rer. These systems
can be furnished with the fixed-
tempcrature feature with the addi-
tion of special fittings installed in
the tubing at 15-ft intervals.
Spot-type r ate-of-rise heat detec-
tors are available. One type uses
t he melting solder principle of op-
erati on; the other uses the bi-metal
principle. Another type of detector
is t he rate anticipation heat detec-
tor. These are s imilar l o rate-of-
rise detectors ; however, they have
no thermal Jag beyond the instant
that operating tempernture is
reached. The fixed-temperature de-
tectors do have this lime Jag.
All heat detector s discussed
should receive period inspection for
corros ion and loose connections, nnd
testing as previously de:-;cribed.
Spr inkler ~yste m actuators in-
clude pres:-u r e-operated waterftow
,;wi tthe;;. paddle-type switches in-
;;talled in pipe risers. hi gh a nd low
water-level switches installed in
gra\·ity water tanks, and differ en-
tial pre:;sure switches on excess
prc>:surc pu mp :<ystems. In gener al,
contact~ on thc:<e de,·ices are well
protected; howe,·er mechanical link-
age:' are ;;ubjcct to corros ion and
s hould be checked e,·ery year or two.
SMOKE
DETECTORS
One type of
• p ho toc lect ri c
~ s m n k c detector
~ con,; is ls of a pho-
to e I e c tr i c cell
and an external
light sou r ce.
When liS!ht recei,·ed by the cell drops
to a predetermined n1Ju e (such as
when :<moke blocks the light from
the light source). relays will cause
the alarm to sound. Because of this.
it is important to keep the light
sou rce and cell Jens clean. Also, the
lamp in the light sou rce should be
replaced regularly before failure.
Another type has an internal
light sou rce f eeding into a laby-
rinth. Any dust accumulation in the
labyrinth may be removed by direct-
ing compressed ai r into the un it.
This type is furnished with a G-volt.
5000-hr lamp which should be re-
placed before end of life.
The balanced-bridge type of
smoke detector should be cleaned
two or three times a year, or after
being actuated by s moke a few
times. The unit shou ld be carefully
disassembled a nd components
cleaned wi th ethyl alcohol.
Ionization detectors will discover
fire s where fl nme predominates and
smoke generation is negligible.
This is because in\"isible gas-com-
bustion products become ionized
when t hey strike the detector head.
triggering the detector mechanism.
These units should be kept free of
dust accumulation.
Smoke detectors should be tested
at least once a year. The test is
accomplished s imply by blowing
smoke from a cigar, pipe or other
smoke generator toward the cciling-
mounl ed unit. A Jog s hould be kept
to assure that all detectors a r c
tested on scheclule.
78
HORNS
AND
BELLS
Ala rm h orns
may be de or ac.
The de horns arc
alarm horns are
usually of the
vibrating dia-
ph rngm type .
These horns are actuated by an ar-
mature which r apidly strikes a dia-
phragm. Connected in series with
the armature actuating coil is n
pair of contacts. The armature
makes and br eaks these contacts,
alternn t<'ly energizing and de-ener-
gizi 11g the coil creati ng the vibrat-
ing motion. A tub ular capacitor is
generally connected across the con-
tacts lo ~ uppr ess arcing. To obt:'l in
desired sound-level output. an ad-
jusli11g screw can be set to obtain
minimum to maximum strnke of the
armature that strikes the dia-
phrai.tm.
The horns should be tested r egu-
lar!\", contacts inspected and any
exi~ting pits or bu rrs removed with
a fine file . Contact gap should be
chetkcd and set accor ding to manu-
facturer's specifications.
Some de horns ha,·c a small high-
~pecd de motor which drives a
wheel with projections that str ike
a diaphrag m. Maintenance of this
type of horn includes inspection of
brushes for excessi\·e wear and com-
muta tor for pitting or burning.
Most a c-powered vibrating dia-
phrngm horns require no mainte-
nance other t han a periodic test.
These horns do not have contacts
because the zero and peak voltage
created by the 60-cycle sine wave
will alternately energize and de-
cncrgize the armature.
Trumpet-type ac horns are usu-
ally furnished with contacts to ob-
tain the right armature speed and
stroke force for their characteristic
resonant operation. These contacts
will require attention more fre-
quently than contacts on de dbrat-
ing diaphragm horns .
Alarm bells. both ac and de types,
operate on the same princi ples as
described for ac a nd de horns. Con-
s tn1ction of operating mechani sms
is s imilar to horns except that the
armature drives a striker th at
strikes a gong shell. Testing, ad-
justment and mai ntenance are simi-
lar to that recommended for horns.
Based on a paper delivc;·ed a t the
l!)(i7 l'lant Engineering Confercnt·e.
 Capaci tor -IE- Commutating f ield

Circuit breaker -""'- Direct current

armature

2 or 3 phase squirrel cage

Operoti ng coil induction motor
Wound rotor
Thermal element induction motor @
Fuse 3-phose
synchronous motor

Control Normally open (NO) ~I-- Potential transformer ~L

con tacts t-----------1------------1 Transformerst----- ---1-----------1
Normally closed (NC) ~k Current transformer ::::J=tof*'L

Norma lly open Half wove

Time
t ime closino (TC)
rel ay Rectifiers
con tacts
Normally closed
Full wove +~C­
t ime opening (TO) -yAC"
-L Single pole
No rmal ly open sing le throw (SPST) \Y""""'o
0 0
Pushbuttons,t - - - - -- -----i-- - - -- - - - _ _ _ , Swi tches
Normally closed Double pole
doubl e throw (DPDT)
Open ond closed .o..Lo. Ammeter
Pushbulionst-- - -- - ---l- - --o.;.._..;.
o"="_ _--l Me t ers
Maintained contacts
,.---.:...t__
O"TO o'o Voltme ter

Fixed resistor Limit Normally open

Resistors
Adjust able-top switches
Norma ll y clo sed
resis tor or rheostat

Liquid Normally open

Series field level
switches Normally closed

Fl ow Normall y open
Shunt t ie Id actuated
switches Normally closed

FIG, 1- Symbols for electric control equipment,

Troubleshooting AC
Motor Control Circuits
A working knowledge o f electrical symbols and· dia- ROUBLESHOOTING modern

grams, basic control circuits, and fundamental trouble- T motor controls can be a tedious,
time-consuming procedure. Or it
can be as s imple as A-B-C. The dif-
shooting techniques provide a solid foundation essen- ference lies in the approach. When
t rouble occurs in a motor controller,
tial to skillful control troubleshooting. the electrician may hunt -and-peck
trying to find the difficulty in a dis-
. organized fashion. As a result, the
By Robert J . Lawrie motor starter, the machine it con-
trols a nd all related apparatus and
systems suffer excessive downtime
causing general dissatisfaction. On

79
 the other hand, a practical sys-
tematic approach is the key to con- Accele ra ting contact(s) A Neutra l N
sistent, effective troubleshooting. Armature shunt AS O ve rcurrent oc
Although there are several basic Au xiliary devices X, Y, Z O verlo a d Ol
troubleshooting approaches, a com- B
bination of those methods that
Brake contact(s) O verspeed OS
Ca pacitor C,CAP Plugging p
will suit individual preferences
will provide the most satisfying re- Circuit breaker CB Plugging forward PF
sults. Efficient troubleshooting in- Closing coil cc Plugging reverse PR
corporates all or most of the follow- Control switch csw Potential interlocking Pl
ing basic techniques. Current transformer CT Potential transformer PT
1. Troubleshooting backed by a Eme rgency stop ES Power factor PF
thorough knowledge of system and Fie ld contact(s) FC Pressure switch PS
component operation. Field a ccelera ting FA Pushb utton PB
2. Visual inspection and simple Field d ece le rating FD Rectifie r REC
operational tests without tools. Field loss (fa il ure) FL Resisto r RES
3. Comparison of operation, volt- Field protective FP Start s
age and resistance readings with a Fie ld wea ke ning FW Switch SW
properly operating unit. Forwa rd F Ti me closing TC
4. Circuit analyzing with electri- Full fleld FF Time opening TO
cal diagrams and voltage, current Fuse FU Time rel~y TR
and resistance readings. Jog (inch) J Time switch TS
5. The halving principle: localize li mit switch LS Trip coil TC
the difficulty by halving the circuit; Line contactor M Und e rvo ltage UV
ascertain which half is improperly line switch LSW Unloader coil UC
functioning, then divide this por- Master switch MS Voltage v
tion in two. This process of elimi-
nation is continued until the source
of trouble is localized to a few com- FIG. 2-Device designations on the electrical drawing help to identify functions and
ponents. characteristics of components.
6. Substitution of easily replaced
components.
7. Troubleshooting log of past I.I nes FRONT VIEW
difficulties and repair procedures. L1 L2 U
The troubleshooter is guided by th is
log ; and by records of proper in- -- - --- ----- ---., 2-Wi re pi lot device
I --G--,
sulation resistance, voltage, cur- L3 I ~ L_:y_o
rent, and resistance readings; rec- I
ords of overload relay settings, I
time delays and other similar data. I
I
I n addition, there are other gen- I 3-Wire pilot device
eral techniques designed to facili- I
1.::a:.1 r.:..::,
tate rapid troubleshooting such as I
I 2~1SJ<!ftu
3 ---n- j II
use of special diagrams, controller
·~·i::= ·=~~~~J
I
relay charts, troubleshooting charts I
and instructions. IA I
Although successful troubleshoot- When more than one push-
button stolion is used connect
ing of motor control circuits is pos- per dolled lines omitling
sible without a full understanding connector "A"
of the circuitry, consistent rapid
troubleshooting is dependent on a
t horough understanding of opera- 2
tion. Also, a general knowledge of --.. Elementary diagram
I I 3 I
motor controllers is essential. This T2 I I I
includes a working knowledge of I I I
types available, their applications, '----- ~~
T3 _..J_J_..J
I I
characteristics, and considerations I I
such as proper installations, Na- I I
I I
tional Electrical Code requirements, Tl ~L-Jl
ratings, types of enclosures, etc. :~.
'- -- -~

Indicoling
Symbols and Diagrams light
Wiring diagram (i f used)
Fig. 1 shows basic symbols for
electric control apparatus. These
symbols, which help to identify
functions of components, were FIG. 3-Wiring diag ram and elementary diagram for o reduced-voltage, resistonce-
standardized by the American type starter ore shown in o single drawing. The elementary diagram illustrates con-
Standards Association (ASA) troller operation; the wiring diagram shows component location within the controller.

80
 ~JPMB1 ~ -®-f~~
Li
A 6
FIG. 4--Bosic cont rol circuits. (A) This circuit forms o typical
2 -wire control circuit commonly used with mainta ined-contact
switches, float switches, pressure and temperatu re devices.
When the pressu re switch closes, coil M energizes causing
main contacts M to close. This circuit also provides low-
voltoge release. This means that once the switch is closed
and the coil energized, o power failure will de-energize the
coil ond its con tacts will open. Upon restoration of power,
the contacts will immediately reclose. (Bl This circuit a rrange-
ment is known os o 3-wire control circuit because three wires
ore required to connect o remotely located pushbutton to the
controller. Pressing the start button allows current to flow
through the stop button con tacts, the start button contacts
CR2
Start
__!_
Stop
A B
FIG. S-Bosic con trol circuits. (Al This circuit arrangement
introduces the control relay. The circuit is simila r to Fig. 4B.
Here, however, pressing the start button wi ll energize the
control relay coil CR causing its "holding" contacts CR 1 and
its auxiliary contacts CR2 to close. This, in tum, energizes coil
M, the main contoctor. (8) This is o typical 3 -wire thermostat
control. The movable center orm in the thermostat travels
between the open ond close positions according to tempera-
ture. When the movable orm makes contact with the "close"
contact, o circuit is formed through the resistor, coil M, ond
the thermostat to the other side of the line. Because coil M
is now energized, its contacts M 1 close forming o holding
Automatic
--®----<>o~
Monuol
A 8
FIG. 6-Bosic control circuits. (A) This diag ram shows o
typical 3-position selector switch control with positions desig-
nated monuol-off-outomotic. In the manual position, coil M
is energized directly. In the "off" position, it is de-energized.
And in the automatic position, coil M is controlled by the
float switch. (B) Providing forward ond reverse motor control,
this circuit features both electrical ond mechanical interlock-
ing. As the "forward" start button is pressed, the mechani-
cally linked "reverse" stop button opens preventing closure
of the R (reverse) contoctor. When the "forward" start button
Is entirely depressed, coil F (forward contoctor) is energized,
ond its normally open auxiliary contacts Fl close forming the
holding ci rcuit, and its normally closed a uxilia ry contacts F2
81
~~ ~ M1
c
ond through coil M. Thus coil M is energized ond its auxilia ry
contacts M 1 close. The start button may now be released
because contacts M 1 form o "holding" circuit, which keeps
coil M energized. This ci rcuit provides low-voltage protection.
A power failure will de-energize the coil ond its contacts will
open; however, the equipment cannot be placed in service
ogoin until the start button is depressed. <Cl This typical cir-
cuit is similar to Fig. 4B, except that it shows connections
when it is desired to control equipment from more than one
location. Stop buttons ore connected in series and the start
buttons ore connected in porollel with the coil "holding"
contacts. Any number of additional pushbutton stations con
be connected in o similar manner.
Inch PB
t;1ji ~
~
-0-t:; CR2
~
c
circuit through the resistor, coll M ond contacts M 1. Coil M
remains energized as t he moving arm travels towa rd the
"open" contact. When contact is finally mode, coil M is
shorted out of the circuit causing Its contacts to open. The
resistor in the circuit prevents short circuiting the line when
the coil is short circuited. (Cl This is o good basic inching
circuit. It is o 3-button circuit having the normal start-stop
function of controlling CR relay. This energizes the "M"
or main contoctor. When the stop button is pressed, the CR
relay drops out. Inching is obtained by pressing the inch
button, energizing the main contoctor without bringing in
the CR contacts.
SS I
open. The F2 contacts prevent coil R from energizing, pro-
viding the electrical Interlock. (Cl This diagram shows the
basic circuit for control of two-speed motors. When the slow-
speed start button <SS PB) Is pressed, current flows through
the normally closed CR 1 contacts, through the slow-speed
contoctor coil (SSl and through SS PB to the other side of the
line. This energizes coil SS causing its contacts SS 1 to close
and form o holding circuit. Contacts SS2 also c(?se readying
the fast-speed circuit for operation. Pressing the fast-speed
start button <FS PB> energizes control relay CR. This causes
normally closed contacts CR 1 to open and contacts CR2 ond
CR3 to close. As o result, the slow-speed contoctor drops
out, ond the fast-speed contoctor is energized.
and the National Electrical Manu-
facturers Association (NEMA) to
provide a universal method of
representing control equipment.
To specifically identify each con-
tactor, relay or other device which
is included in the control scheme,
standard device designations are
marked on the diagram. Fig. 2 lists
the most commonly used designa-
tions. Note that the designations
are indicative of the device func-
tion. Also, designations may be
combined and prefixes added to
identify a specific function. For ex-
ample, accelerating contactors are
marked lA, 2A, SA, etc. Or, the
designations lAX, 2AX, 3AX are
used to denote accelerating relays
used in conjunction with accelerat-
ing contactors, lA, 2A and 3A, re-
spectively.
Of significant value to the
troubleshooter are the elementary
or "schematic" diagram and the
wiring diagram, sometimes called
the connection diagram. On large
multi-panel systems incorporating
complex control circuitry, physical
layout of the entire system, inter-
connection diagrams, cable and
wire identification-number lists,
cable point-to-point lists, and com-
ponent location lists and charts pro-
vide valuable guidance when cir-
cuit tracing and troubleshooting.
An elementary diagram for a re-
duced - voltage resistance - type
starter is shown at the right of Fig.
3. In the elementary diagram,
physical relationships of compo-
nents are usually disregarded; com-
ponents and circuit lines are drawn
to show most clearly the function
of each device and sequence of op-
eration. For example, when the
start button is pressed, current
flows from Ll through the stop and
staxt button, through coil M,
through the normally closed over-
load device contacts (OL ) to the
other side of the line, L2. When
current flows thTough coil M, its
main contacts "M" close and auxil-
iary contact "Ml" closes. When
contacts "M" close, the motor will
start and run; when contact "Ml"
closes, the start button may be re-
leased because contact "Ml" acts
as an interlock, holding coil M
energized.
The wiring diagram at the left
of Fig. 3, shows the actual physi-
cal relationship of the components
and wiring within the controller
enclosure. After the troubleshooter
has examined the elementary dia-
gram and has ascertained how a
TOOL OR EQUIPMENT APPLICATION
Voltage indicator magnetic Portable, rugged instrument for measuring circuit
voltage up to 600 volts.
Multi·meter Portable instrument for measuring circuit voltage,
resistance and current.
Insulated test leads with Used to facilitate fumpering of components during
alligator dips circuit tracing; temporary grounding; extend meter
leads.
Electrical diagrams Facilitates understanding of circuit operation; loca tion
of components; essential for rapid troubleshooting.
Troubleshooting charts and Provides guidance and information to facilitate efficient
maintenance records troubleshooting. .
Insula tion resistance tester Tests insula tion resistance; detects low-resistance paths.
Tachometer Checks rotating machinery speeds.
Variable autotransformer Allows testing of circuits at reduced voltage.
Ground detectors and locators Indicates and helps to locale circuit grounds.
Phase sequence Indicator Determines phase sequence of polyphase circuits.
Clamp-on ammeter Portable, rugged instrument for simple measuring of
circuit current.
Potential and current trans- Increase rang e of test instruments to permit reading
formers, meter shunts of high·voltage and high-current circuits.
Protective device analyzers Provides simple means of te sting protective devices.
Portable capacitance and Provides accurate readings of capacitance and re·
resistance bridge sistance.
Electricians standard tools Troubl eshooting, disassembly or repair of electrica l
(fuse-pullers, screwdrive r, etc.) equipment.
FIG. 7-Troubleshooting tools and equipment.
circuit operates, he may wish to monly used ones are listed in Fig.
check the circuit operation. Using 7. As mentioned earlier, one of the
the wiring diagram as a guide, he most important troubleshooting
will be able to locate each compo- tools is the electrical diagram, in
nent in the controller, or trace con- particular, the elementary and the
necting wires. wiring diagrams. In addition, ef-
The numbered terminals, "l,'' fective troubleshooting can be ac-
"2," "3,'' on the controller are desig- complished with such simple tools
nated in this manner to show the as a magnetic voltage indicator, a
proper control wiring connections small, rugged instrument that will
to the correspondingly numbered indicate voltage level up to 600
terminals on the pushbutton pilot volts; a multi-meter, which allows
devices. This numbering method the troubleshooter to check voltage
is often used when a large number level, resistance values and circuit
of connections must be shown. continuity; insulated jumper leads,
Modern motor controllers as well which consist of a 3-to-4 ft length
as complex motor control circuits of insulated, stranded No. 14 wire
are basically combinations of with insulated alligator clips at-
fundamental circuits. To facilitate tached at each end. With the
a quick understanding of ac motor jumper leads, the troubleshooter
control circuitry, a brief review can short-out or jumper certain re-
of basic circuit configurations is lays or contacts facilitating con-
presented in Figs. 4, 5 and 6. tinuity checks on a de-energized cir-
cuit. They can also be used on
Troubleshooting Tools energized circuits, but only by an
experienced electfician using ex-
There are many practical tools treme caution. Also, they can be
which help increase troubleshooting used to extend meter leads, or for
efficiency. Some of the most com- temporary grounding while testing.
82
 480 vol ts
3 phase

Fl F2 F3
Control L1 L2 L3
LI z
L tronsf.
~ 4801120,olts
LI I Ll2

Fii
Stop
I

CRI \ I

Fost speed con tociors

a over load element~
CONTRO L CIRCUIT POWER CIRCUIT
ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM
FIG. 1-Elem en to ry doogrom for o typico t mu ll ispeed co ntroller is o major too l in the ono1y1icol
t rc')ubleshootong tcchn1Qu c. Con tro lle r is a two·sp ecd ma gnetic s ta rte r for o si ng lc· wind ing,
con sta nt-horsep owe r moto r.

Effective
Motor-Control
Troubleshooting
Practical, step-by-step procedures combined with a common-sense
approach are the key to expert control troubleshooting. A detailed
discussion of a typical motor-control troubleshooting situation illus-
trates the technique.

By Robert J . Lawrie

ow dues the exper t control trou- cir cuit concepts. (See ''Trouble- t hat they have on cm ch other and

H h.es hoot er approa<'h a t r ouble-

s ho1>ting s it untion '! What are
hi:> techniques? What was his pr ep-
a r ation? And, most impor tantly,
how does he pla n his immedi ate
a ctions . which must. quickly r e-
mo\'C the roadblocks t hat invari-
a bly appear in his sea rch for the
source of trou ble?
The expl!r t t r oubles hooter ap-
plies a combina t ion of ma ny tec h-
niqu es and has mastered basic
shooting AC Motor Cont rol Cir-
cuits," El C & M, June ]!)63.) But
his chief t roubleshooting asset is
the abi lity to apply common sense
when nnalyzi ng cont r ol operation.
He :i pplies a n orde rly, step-by-
step procedure, in which cir cuit
ope1·at ion is separated in logical
pa r ts, a nd ci rcuits a nd components
are didded in to 11ma lle r parts to
determine their fun ctions, relation-
ship to one another, a nd t he effect
on over-nil contr ol-syst em opera-
t ion. Each st ep he makes is calcu-
la ted to conve rge on t he source of
the diffic ul ty, fin a lly pinpointing
t he problem a ccurately and
qu ickly. This technique is best
illust ra w d by a typica l trouble-
s hooting s itua tion.
Assume t ha t a two-speed motor
starter a s s hown in F ig. 1 cont r ols
a large fan ins tallation in a n in-
dustr ial plant.

83
 To
F11 LI L2
T1 T2
FIG. 2-Wiring diagram for the multispeed controller shows physical arrangement of com-
ponents and wiring, locates components and test points to facilitate troubl eshooting.
You are notified that the fan
installation is not operating prop-
erly and you are called to trouble-
shoot and remedy the difficulty.
Gather preliminary information
-The first step in troubleshooting
any motor control, which has de-
veloped trouble, is to understand
circuit operation and all related
machine functions. In most cases,
the operator can describe proper
machine operation and indicate at
which point the machine does not
function properly. In this instance,
the operator points out that the
fan provides equipment ventila-
tion, and that fan operation is in-
itiated manually at a remote push-
button station. He also indicates
that the unit has been installed
for several weeks and had been
operating properly.
Next examine the elementary
diagram (Fig. 1) and the wiring
diagram (Fig. 2) . From the ele-
mentary diagram, note that the
control is a two-speed magnetic
starter, which provides compel-
ling control. (Compelling control
makes it necessary to increase
speed from rest through each suc-
cessive s peed step. The motor can
be started only at the lowest speed.
To reach each higher speed, each
respective pushbutton must be
operated.)
Circuit operation-When the
slow pushbutton is pressed, coil S
is energized, causing its five-pole
To
L3 lost PB
11
r
: 7
I
I
I
T3 T6
WIRING DIAGRAM
main contactor in the motor power
circuit to close. This starts the
motor on slow speed. At the same
time auxiliary contact 82 opens,
providing an electrical interlock
that prevents closing the fast (F)
contactor. In add ition, contacts Sl
close, energizing the control relay
(coil CR). This causes control-
relay contacts CRl to close, form-
ing a holding circuit for coil S
through contacts CRl and Sl.
Also, contact CR2 closes, readying
coil F for operation.
As the fast pushbutton is
pressed, t he circuit to coil S is
interrupted. Therefore, coil S is
de-energized and its main and con-
trol contacts resume their normal
positions. When the fast pushbut-
ton is completely depressed, cur-
rent flow s from Lll through fuse
11, the stop-button contacts, the
fast-button contacts to point 5,
and continues through the now
closed CR2 contact and the nor-
mally closed (NC) 82 contact,
and finally through coil F and the
four NC overload relay contacts to
the other s ide of the line. Thus,
coil F is energized and its main
contacts close. This causes the
motor to run at the fast speed.
Simultaneously, contact Fl closes
forming a holding circuit for coil
F. Also contact F2 opens to pro-
vide an electrical interlock, which
prevents closure of connector S.
Major trouble sources-Next,
84
To
OL -----iost
PB
T4 TS
ca
note the major components of the
installation, which include a fused
disconnect switch, motor control-
ler, remote pushbutton station,
motor and belt-driven fan. At the.
same time, consider the possible
causes of trouble at this type of
installation. This includes binding
or unbalance of the fan blades,
which may result in tripped over-
load relays; a temporary overload,
which may have caused overload
relays to trip; a temporary power
system disturbance, which cou ld
cause t he overload relays to trip
or fuses to blow; con tac tors or re-
lay contacts, which are not open-
ing or closing properly or have
become o:iridized; loose connec-
tions; opens ; shorts or grounds.
Check for additional data -
First, check operation of the fan
to determine whether any impor-
tant factors have been overlooked.
It is discovered that although the
unit will run at low speed, it will
not operate at high speed.
Analyze known factors-Before
beginning actual troubleshooting
procedures, first consider pertinent
known factors. It is known that
the fan operates at low speed. This
greatly decreases the possibility of
mechanical t1·ouble at the load.
Also, it follows that the main fuses
Fl, F2, F3 (Fig. 1) , the control-
circuit fuses Fll and Fl2, and the
series-connected overload relays are
operating properly. Thus the prob-
ability is that the difficulty lies in
the fast-speed windings of the
motor, or in the fast-speed con-
troller circuitry.
Select simple procedures- To
localize the trouble, select logical
procedures which can be simply
and quickly accomplished.
As an example: because t his
starter provides compelling con-
trol, start t he motor on low speed,
and press the fast pushbutton to
see if t he fast-speed cont.actor
closes. If the fast-speed contactor
does close, the probability is that
the trouble is located at the fast-
speed main contacts, the motor or
at the motor leads. But in this
case, it is found that coil F of the
fast-speed contactor, does not op-
erate. Thus, the trouble is iso-
lated to the fast-speed circuit in
the controller.
Converge on t he source of
t rouble-Next, examine the con-
trol-circuit elementary diagram
and study t he operation of the
fast-speed circuit. Note that the
portions of the circuit t hrough
the stop button (points 1 to 4)
and through the overload relays
(points 8 to 9) are common to both
the slow-speed and high-speed cir-
cuits. Because the motor operates
at slow speed, these parts of the
circuit can be eliminated. This in-
dicates that the trouble is most
likely between points 4 a nd 8 in
the remaining part of fast-spee d
circui t (Fig. 3).
Determine most effective proce-
dures-Before proceeding, stop fo r
a moment to analyze what has
been learned. Then, determine the
best possible course to pursue.
From the inspection so far, it ap-
pears that the motor is not at
fault, and that the trouble most
likely is in the controller fast-
speed circuit between points 4 and
8. As noted on the elementary dia-
gram, t he fast-speed circuit from
point 4 extends t hrough the fast-
pushbutton NO contacts, the NO
contact CR2, NC contact S2,
t hrough coil F to point 8. Thus,
the probable sou rce of trouble is
limited to a relatively few compo-
nents (Fig 3).
Of these components, the most
significant is coil F, which is not
being energized as indicated by
the elementary diagram. There-
fore, attention should be focused
on coil F. Why doesn't it pick up 1
Is it physically jammed or mis-
aligned ? Are the coil windings
burned or opened ? Is the proper
control voltage reaching the coil?
Are t he relay contacts in the cir-
cuit to the coil in the proper posi-
tion? These question s and those
of a similar nature help guide the
choice of subsequent action.
Safety must be considered first
- Because there are only a few
components to check, a quick vis-
ual inspection of each component
may spot the trouble. First, how-
ever, it is essential to consider all
possible physical dangers as well
as possible damage to the equip-
ment. Be s ure to observe all nor-
mal safety standard!', and make
certain that all safety interlocks
are functional.
On this control, t he magnetic
safety interlocks are contacts S2
and F2. Be sure both interlocks
function even though the unit may
have a mechanical interlock. While
the motor is running at low speed,
refer to the wiring diagram ( Fig.
2) for the location of contact S2
(poin ts 11 and 7) . Be sure that it
is open. To check interlock F2,
stop the motor, open t he discon-
nect switch, check with a voltage
indicator that the controller has
been de-energized, and inspect
contact F2 to see that it is physi-
cally intact and will open when
coil F is energized.
Make a visual inspection-Wit h
the safety inspection complete,
proceed with visual troubleshoot-
ing. First ins pect fast-speed con-
tactor F. Check that the armature
moves freely and look for signs of
burni ng or loose connections. In-
spect contacts CR2 and S2 for
signs of burning, arcing, or metal
bu ild-up, which may cause im-
proper closure.
In t his case, the inspection re-
veals that all components and con-
tacts are in good condition. Now,
other means must be used to lo-
cate the trouble.
Note that all procedures, since
troubleshooting started, have re-
quired only common-sense think-
ing plus a few simple operations.
8
i
Fast
·~L . 1--'1~
.
CR2 52
FIG. 3- Using the onolyticol, trouble.
shooting procedure, the source of trouble
is localized to this portion of the fost-
speed circu it without the use of tools.
85
The difficulty has been localized to
a small area without the use of
tools and, a lthough the related
discussion here was lengthy, ac-
tual time spent on t his part. of t he
troubleshooting process should be
very brief.
Voltage check- Since \'isua l in-
spection did not locate the trouble,
select the next simplest procedure
-a voltage check of the circuit.
Attention is still focused on coil
F. Have the coil windings opened
or burned out? Is proper voltage
reachi ng the coil? Referring to
the elementary diagram, note that
contact CR2 must be closed in
order to energize coil F. To ac-
complish this, start the motor on
slow speed. Having done this, note
that relay CR picks-up and that its
contacts CRl and CR2 close. Note,
however, that contact S2 opens.
Thus, the next simplest procedure
is to determine whether proper
voltage is reaching at least the line
side of contact S2.
Pinpoint t he problem- The next
procedure is to check that contl'ol
voltage reaches each component in
the circuit to contact S2. Place one
lead of a voltage indicator at
point 8, where it should remain
for t he remainder of the voltage
tests; place the other lead at point
4. The tester indicates that full
voltage is reaching t his point.
Next, move the tester lead to point
5 and press the fast pushbutton to
complete the circu it. Here it is
discovered that the voltage has
dropped considerably, perhaps to
10 or 20 volts. From the elemen-
tary diagram, it appears that volt-
age is not getting through the fast
pushbutton. Thus, stop the motor,
open t he disconnect switch, and
inspect the fast-pushbutton con-
tacts in the remote pushbutton
station. This inspection reveals
that the contacts are in excellent
condition but that t he connection
point of control wire C5 to the fast
PB is discolored and heavily oxi-
dized. A slight movement of the
wire reveals that the connection
is loose. It can be deduced that
the original connection in this re-
cent installation had been loosened
during installation. And t hat this
did not affect operation immedi-
ately, but after several weeks of
arcing, the resultant oxida tion had
built up to form a high resistance.
Repair is made by cleaning or
replacing all affected current-car-
rying parts and by making a new,
tight connection.

PREVENTIVE MA INTEN ANCE INSPEC-
TION of motor controls should be per-
formed on o regularly scheduled basis.
Inspections include clconing, checking
contacts, contact spring pressure, coils,
fuses, relays, interlocks, and main and
control conductor connect ions.
How to
Maintain
Motor Controls
Here are practical considerations in serv1cmg motor
controls including care of contacts, coils an d re/,ays .
T roubleshooting charts and a controller preventive
maintenance guide point up modern techniques de-
signed to minimize motor-control tronbles.
BY ROBERT J . LAWRIE
UCCESSF UL motor - control
S maintena nce starts w ith the
recognition-and the eventual
elimination-<>f the chief sources
of motor controller troubles. After
years of experience, control experts
agree that the three major causes
of motor-control failures are ( 1.)
improper application, (2.) an inade-
quate electrical system a nd (3.)
lack of systematic maintenance.
I mproper application results, for
example, when wrong overload re-
lays are selected; and when wrong
size, wrong starting voltage, or
wrong enclosures are used. In addi-
tion, misapplication occurs when
locations with poor environments
are selected for controller installa-
tion. Improper locations include
overly dusty or dirty areas, or loca-
tions which subject the motor con-
trol to severe vibrations or exces-
sive heat. To insure cor rect
applicat ion, always obtain and fol-
low the control selection, operation
and installation instructions, wh ich
arc available from the manufac-
turer of the control equipment.
An inadequate electrical system,
in particular one which is charac-
terized by low voltage, is a common
source of motor-control t r ouble.
If the supply voltage is low, motors
will draw higher currents causing
frequent tripping of the overload
relays. In addition, during the
starting period, control voltage
could drop to a point where the
starting contacts may touch but
are unable to close completely
86
against the spring pressure. As a
result, contact pressure is below
normal causing higher contact re-
sistance and arcing, resulting in
overheating and possible welding
of the contacts.
Systematic maintenance consists
of the application of effective con-
trol maintenance procedures within
the framework of a well-planned
electrical preventive maintenance
prngram. It will detect early symp-
toms of trouble and help ward off
costly major breakdowns and at-
tendant production downtime.
Control Maintenance Practice
Personal safety is a primary con-
s ideration when servicing motor
controllers. Always observe all
standard safety precautions. When
adjusting or repairing a control,
be sure the supply voltage has been
removed from t he motor s tarter.
Tag operating handles, remove
fuses or block out circuit breakers
personally-never rely on others
for these procedures where you1·
safety is concerned. Before opening
01· closing a switch, make certain
that the switch is designed to op-
erate under the particular circuit
conditions. (Some safety discon-
nect switches are not designed to
operate under load. ) Always use
proper safety equipment and tools,
and have protective equipment
( rubber gloves, mats, grounding
sticks, etc.) checked periodically
to assure that proper insulation
 levels are maintained. Also, make MOTOR-CONTROL PREVENTIVE MAI NTENANCE GUIDE
sure all control safety interlocks
are functional, and that equipment What ta Inspect Whal to Inspect for
ground connections are tight. 1. Exterior and Surroundings Dust, grease, oil; high temperature; rust end corrosion;
Keep motor controls clean- mechonlcol damag e; condition of gaskets, if any.
Dust, dirt and grease must be re-
2. Interior of Enclosure, Nuts and Some os for No. 1 plus: excess vibrat;on which may hove
moved periodically from the con- Bolts loosened nuts, bolts o r other mechanical cormedions.
troller. This is important because
dust or grease can become lodged 3. Contactors, Relays, Solenoids Ch eck control circuit voltage; inspect for excess heating of
A. Generol ports evidenced by discoloration of metal, charred insu-
in auxiliary relay contacts or inter- lotion or odor; freedom of moving ports; dust, grease,
locks and may prevent a circuit and corrosion; loose conn ections.
from functioning. In addition, dust
may contain conducting materials, o. Contact Tips Check for excessive pitting, roughness, copper oxide; do
not Ole silver contocls.
which could form unwanted circuit
paths resulting in current leakage c. Springs Check contact pressure ; Is pressure some on ell tips.
or possible g1·ounds or short cir- D. Flexible leads look for fro yea or broken strands; be sure leod is
cuits. Dry dust may be blown out flexible-not brittle.
with dry compressed air. Sticky
E. Arc Chutes Check for bre aks or burning.
dust and grease will require more
thorough cleaning with a suitable F. Bearings Ch eck for freedom of movement; do not oil.
solvent. Also, check the surround-
G. Coils look for overheating, charred insulation or mechonlcol
ing area for sources of dust, oil, or injury.
corrosive vapors. If the control is
exposed to a poor environment, re- H. Magnets Cl eon faces; check shading coil; inspect for misalignment,
bonding.
locate the control in a less severe
environment, install a protective 4. Fuses and Fuse Clips Check for prop er roting, snug flt; if copper, polim ferrules;
shield, or change the enclosure to check fuse clip pressure.
one designed for the particular en- s. Overload Relays Check for proper hea ter size; trip by hand; check hea ter
vironment. coil end connoctio~; inspect for dirt, corrosion.
Moving mechanical parts should
operate easily without binding or 6. Pus h button Stations and Pilot Ch eck contacts, inspect for dirt, grease end corrosion.
Dov Ices
excessive friction. Check operation
of each contactor and relay by 7. Doshpot-Type Timers end Check for freedom of movement; check oil level.
Overload Relays
hand, and, at the same time look
for loose pins, bolts or bearings. 8. Resistors Check for signs of overheating; loose connections; tighten
Do not lubricate bearings. Bear- slid ers.
ings on electrical controls are de- 9. Connections Tighten main line and control conductor connections; look
signed to operate without lubrica- for diKolorotion of currenl-<arrying ports.
tion. Oil or grease on the bearings
will cause dirt to accumulate, re- 10. Control Operation Check sequente of operation of control relays; check
re lay con tacts for sp arking on operation; check contoclors
sulting in sluggish action and pos- for Aosh wh en dosing; if so, ad just to eliminate contact
sible failure. bounce; check limit switches, pressure switches, temp erature
Check terminal screws for tight- switches, etc.
ness. Loose connections may de-
velop at any time. Therefore, check
main line connections and control
connections on a regularly sched-
uled basis.
Contactors need the most atten-
tion. Be sure contact springs main-
tain the proper contact pressure.
If contacts are allowed to wear too
thin, spring pressure decreases and
overheating of the contacts results.
Spring pressure should be
checked with a scale in accordance
with t he manufacturers' recommen-
dations. A typical procedure is as
follows: With the contactor in the
closed position, the scale is attached
to the movable contact. (Size of
scale required will vary according
to size of relay or contactor.) A
steady pull is exerted. At the point
where the contacts begin to sepa- MODERN HIGH-VOLTAGE MOTOR CONTROLS for 200- and 400-hp
motor-generator drives in a large paper mill ore equipped with recording
r ate, t he spring pressure reading kilowatt meters to monitor power demands. For safe ty, door handles ore
is taken and recorded. Readings interlocked with control circuits. Note that handles ore furnished with
should fall within recommended pod locks.

87
 MOTOR-CONTROL TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
Troublo Poss ible Couse Remody
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-

CONTACTS 1. Broken pole shader. 1. Replace.

Conto ct Chotte r 2. Poor contact in control drcuit.2. Improve contact or use holding
circuit interlock (3·wlre control).
3. low voltage 3. Correct voltage condition.
Check momentary voltage dip
·during starting.
We lding or Froning 1. Abnormal inrush of current. I. Use larger contoctor or check
for grounds, >horts or excessive
motor 'load current.
2. Rapid jogging. 2. Install forger device roted for
jogging service or caution
operator.
3. Insufficient tip pressure. 3. Replace contact springs; check
contoct carrier for damage.
4. low voltage preventing mag · 4. Correct voltage condition.
net from sealing. Ch eck momentary voltage dip
during starting.
5. Foreign matter preventino con- 5. Cleon contacts with oppoved
tacts from closing. solvent.
6. Short circuit. 6. Remove short foult and check
to be sure fuse or breaker size
is correct.
Short Contact Life 1. Filing or dressing, 1. Do not Ille silver-faced con-
or O verheating of tacts. Rough spots or discolor•
Ti ps o tion will not harm contacts.
2. Interrupting excessively high 2. Install larger device or check
currents. for grounds, shorts or excessive
motor currents. Use silver·
faced contoch.
3. Excessive jogging 3. ln1toll forger d evice rated for REDUCED - VOLT AGE AUTOTRANS·
jogging or caution operator. FORM ER TYPE motor starter controls o
4. Weok contact pressure. 4. Adjust or replace contact 200-hp, 440-volt, 3-phose induc tion mo-
springs. tor. Contoctors ore the vertical-lift type
5. Dirt or foreign matter on con- 5. Cleon contacts with approved
solvent.
equipped with silver-faced contacts,
t act surface.
6. Short drcuits. 6. Remove >hort fault and check which never require filing. Mointenonce
for proper fuse or breaker size. procedures include checking oll moin
7. loose connection. 7. Clean and tighten. line ond control conductor connections
8. Sustained overload. a. ln1tall larger device or check for tightness.
for excessive loo d current.

COIL, OVER HEATED 1. Overvoltage or high ambient 1. Check application and circuit.
t emperature.
2. Incorrect coil. 2. Check roting and If Incorrect,
replace with proper coll. limits (from ounces for small re-
3. Shorted turns caused by m&- 3. Replace coll. lays to many pounds for large con-
chanlcal damage or corrosion. tactors).
4. Undervoltage, failure of mag· 4. Correct system voltage,
net to seal in. Another test that can be made
5. Dirt or rust on pole feces in- 5. Cleon pole face s. is to check that spring pressure is
creasing air gap. the same at all contactor poles. If
OVER LOAD RELAYS I. Sustained overload. 1. Check for grounds, shorts or pressure at one pole is consider-
Tripping excessive motor currcnrs. ably lower t han that at the other
2. loose connection on load wires. 2. Cleon and tighten.
3. Incorrect heater. 3. Relay should be replaced with poles, the spring is weakened and
correct size hooter unit. should be replaced.
Fa ilure to Trip 1. Mechanlcol binding, dirt, cor· 1. Clean or replace. Copper contacts should be re-
(Coualng Moto r rosion, etc.
Burn-Out) 2. Wrong heater, or heaters 2. Check ratings. Apply proper placed when worn thin or when
omitted and jumper wires used. heater. badly burned or pitted. Always
3. Motor and relay in different 3. Adjust relay rating accord· replace both the moving and sta-
temperatures. ingly, or make temperature
same for both. tionary contacts. In many in-
4. Wrong calibration or improper 4. Consult factory. stances, operation of a new contact
calibrotion adjustment. in conjunction with an old contact
MAGNETIC & MECHANICAL PARTS has not been satisfactory.
Noisy Magnet 1. Broken shading coil. 1. Replace shading coll. When copper contacts become ex-
(hummlns) 2. Magnet feces not mating. 2. Replace magnet assemb'y or cessively rough, they should be
realign.
3. Dirt or rust on magnet faces. 3. Clean and realign. smoothed with a fine file. &so, any
4. low voltage. 4. Chec.k system voltag e end volt- copper oxide on the contact surfaces
age dips during starting.
1. low voltage. 1. Check system voltage and volt-
should be removed because it acts
Failure to Pick-up
and Seal age dips during starting. as a high resistance and could
2. Cail open or shorted. 2. Replace. eventually cause overheating. When
3. Wrong coil. 3. Check con number. filing, particular care should be
4. Mechanical obslrvction. 4. With power off, check for free
movement of contact ond taken to maintain the surface shape
armature assembly. or contour of the original contact.
Failure lo Drop-Out 1. Gummy substance on pole 1. Clean with solvent. This is important because the orig-
feces.
2. Voltage not removed. 2. Check coil circuit. inal contact shape was selected for
3. Worn or rusted parh causing 3. Replace parts. best operation.
binding. Silver contacts should never be
4. Residual magnetism due to 4. Replace worn magnet parts.
lack of air gap In magnet path. filed except in extreme cases when

88
 Coil
terminals -~~----.-..·'.

CUSTOM-DESIGNED MOTOR CONTROL
provides outomotic control for o 100-hp,
240-volt, 3-phose induction motor, which
drives a fire pump at a steel plant. Auto-
motic controls will start motor when plant
sprinkler system is octuoted. Exerciser
control provides for automatic testing
of motor opera tion once eoch week. Note
wiring dlagrom and operating and main-
tenance instl'\lctions toped to inside of
enclosure door.
TYPICAL VERTICAL-LIFT magnetic sta rter is shown with contact protective block
re moved. Movable moi n contact is being pointed out. Cross section of contoctor
and magnet assembly shows arrangement of essentiol components. Preventive main·
tenance inspection calls for a general examination of the contoctor for wear, and
the contoctor and all other ports for loose connections. Also, look for excess heating
of ports, which is evidenced by discoloration of metal, charred insulation or odor.
Operate plunger by hand to check for freedom of movement. Check contoct tips
for excessive pitting, roughness or copper oxide; do not file silver contacts. Check
contact spri ng pressure with scales in accordance wit h manufacturers' recommenda-
tions. Be sure spring pressure is some on all contoct tips.

they have become severely rough-
ened. Silver oxide, which some-
times forms on the contact surfaces
does not have to be removed be-
cause it is a good conductor.
Operating coils for ac contac-
tors function satisfactorily over a
range of 85 to 110 % of their rated
voltage. Higher voltages will cause
coils to operate at a higher tem-
perature, which results in a shorter
coil life. In addition, the contactor
or relay wilJ operate with unneces-
sary force causing more mechanical
wear and bounce when closing.
An excessively low voltage s up-
ply to a coil causes contactors and
relays to operate sluggishly. Be-
cause of the weakened magnetic
force, contacts may not "make"
firmly, which could result in over-
heating and welding together of
contacts. Also, if the voltage is too
low to allow complete closure of a
contactor ( or if the contactor or
relay is blocked open) , the coil
wilJ draw an excessively high cur-
r ent resulting in coil burn-out.
Overload relays foun d in motor
controllers ·include t hermal types,
s uch as the bimetallic type, solder-
ratchet type, and res istance-wire
heater-coil type ; magnetic over-
load relays, which can be adjusted
over a wide range to provide ac-
curate protection for t he controlled
motor; dashpot types, which afford
varia ble inverse-time tripping (as
the overcurrent becomes larger, the
relay will t rip faster).
In general, maintenance r equire-
ments for t hese relays include
checking that: (1) the rating of
the relay was properly selected;
(2) the rating or trip setting takes
into account ambient tempernture ;
(3) contacts are clean and free
from oxidation; ( 4) the relay will
operate dependably when necessary.
To insure reliable operation, relays
should be tested and calibrated
every one to three years. Special
equipment is available for testing,
or an outside service company can
be called in to perform the relay
tests.
Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance of motor
controls consists of regularly sched-
uled inspections, required minor
maintenance repairs, and a system
of inspection r ecords for future
referenc.e. An effective motor-con-
trol preventive maintena nce pro-
gram heads off major equipment
failures by simple inspections and
minor repairs; it is practical and
economical to operate; and above
all, it results in dependable equip-
ment operation, less downtime,
longer equipment life and lower
over-all costs.
To be effective, the maintenance
program must be tailor-made to ht
the various requirements of any
specific industrial plant. Key fac-
tors which dictate t he scope of t he
motor-control preventive mainte-
nance program include reliability
required of the equipment; type of
process or production (continuous
process, job-lot, etc.); age of
equipment; environmental; condi-
tions; and t ype of duty.
In addition, frequency of inspec-
t ions must be determined. This will
depend on past performance of the
controller; operating frequency ;
cost of inspection compared to cost
of a failure ; environment and simi-
lar factors.
An accompanying table outlines
a typical preventive maintenance
inspection guide for a motor con-
trol. Also, a control troubleshoot-
ing guide lists major troubles and
remedies.

89
 Typical applications include con-

Troubleshooting veyor drives, film processing drives,

paper slitters, pulp washe1·s, extrud-
ers, corrugator drives, machine-tool
systems, printing presses, paper

Solid-State machines, etc.

Fig. 1 shows a control panel,
rated 230 volts ac input, for speed

Speed Controls control of de motors. Thls control

panel is made up of an output
bridge rectifier and three plug-in
circuit modules called cardpaks. A
typical cardpak, with components
Modern de rnotor-speed controls incorporate silicon mounted on a plug-in printed-cir-
cuit cord, is shown in Fig. 2. These
rectifiers, SCRs, transistors and other solid-state com- circuits are shown in Fig. 3.
At first glance., the schematic
ponents for better, more reliable operation. Here are may appear quite complex; how-
ever, if you immediately break it
latest trou,bleshooting and maintenance techniques. down into separate circuits, you
will find it is much easier to follow
BY GERALD D. LONC, C1womer Training Direct.or and understand.
and ART H UR J. PARKEH, ilfointe11n11ce Scl1ool Director
The basic circuits are shown in
block-diagram form in Fig. 4. Es-
Reliance Electric nrul E11gi11ceri11g Co., Cleveland, Ohio
sentially, the motor speed increases
as the speed pot (potentiometer) is
increased. The signal from the
ODERN speed controls for de The control selected is a versatile, speed pot causes the output of the

M motors are of solid-state de-

sign. Because of recent im-
provements in the operating char-
all-semiconductor speed control for
de motors ranging in size from 5 hp
to 125 hp. Continuously variable
controller to increase. This increas-
ing signal from the controller is
fed to the driver cardpak, which
acteristics of SCRs (silicon con- motor speed is obtained by con- causes a transistor (J29) to con-
trolled rectifiers). transistors and trolling motor armature voltage duct less collector current through
other semiconductor components, and current. It also provides such three saturable reactors (D5, 024
solid-state control systems have features as acceleration rate con- and Yl). This results in less reset
gained widespread acceptance and trol, maximum armature current, (essentially decreased saturation)
are being installed in hundreds of IR drop compensation; to mention through the three saturable reac-
industrial plants. only a few. Magnetic contactors and tors. The less the saturable reactors
In application, static speed con- associated circuitry arc provided are reset the earlier they can be
trols offer many advantages over for starting. saturated with the opposite polar-
other types. They provide high ac-
curacy of control, arc compact and
lighter in weight, are more depend-
able with no moving parts and with
no tubes to burn out or to cause
drifting, and they are easier to
maintain because module construc-
tion is easily incorporated and be- Output
cause they are resistant to adverse bridge
s1t1con
atmospheres. recti fi ers
Although static controls afford and SCRs
reliable operation, t hey can get out
of adjustment, or a component may
fail resulting in lost production.
When this happens, the plant elec-
trician or maintenance man must
be able to make repairs surely and Controller -+t,......------..1
quickly. Driver -+-,_.------""--..I
Using common-sense thinking, a Amplifier -r--~----+=---1:=-'
troubleshooter can locate and repair
many control malfunctions; how-
ever, rapid efficient troubleshooting
requires a thorough understanding
of principles of operation.
To help you to understand opera- FIG. 1- MoJor components of the solid-state control ore the output bridge circuit,
tion of solid-state drive systems, a which consists of silicon rectifiers and silicon controlled rectifiers connected in o
typical up-to-date static control will 3-phose bridge configuration, and three plug-in cordpoks (printed-circuit boards).
be described in detail. Practically a ll of the complex COf'\trol circuitry is contained on the cardpoks.

90
 ity; ther efore, t he earlier in the
cycle the amplifier cardpak transis-
tors can conduct. The earlier the
transistors in the amplifier can con-
duct, the earlier they produce firing
pulses to the silicon controlled recti-
fier (SCR) in the output bridge.
And the earlier in the cycle the
SCRs conduct, the greater the out-
put voltage to the motor armature.
Thus, the greater the rmatu r e
voltage, the greater the motor
speed. The motor field is a fixed 140
volts de.
If the motor tries to draw over
125 % current, the current feedback
into the controller cardpak causes
the controller output to drop, which
FIG. 2- Typicol plug- in cordpok with cove r removed shows plug-i n type terminals drops the armature voltage causing
a nd semiconduc tor components, which include tra nsistors and diodes. Control system a decrease in armature current.
may use up to eight cardpaks to provide special features. T he above explanation of basic
oper ation p rovides t he groundwork
3</> oc input for a clearer understanding. Now
we will study each circuit in detail
Amplifier beginning with the output bridge
MoI or
field
circuit.
Speed Conlroller Driver
pot. Motor
armature Output Bridg e Circ uit
Armature voltage feedback The output section is a 3-phase
Armature currenl feedback bridge consisting of s ilicon rectifier
diodes, silicon controlled rectifiers,
FIG. 4--Bosic control operation is illustrated in simplified block-diagram form . Speed fuses and protective circuitry. The
pot a pplies desi red voltage signal to co ntroller circuit; armature voltage and current circuit is shown in the upper por-
feedback signals ore also applied. Signals o re compared to a bias or reference signal
tion of Fig. 3.
and resultant vo ltage applied to d rive r circuit. Drive r sets firing point of pulses for
phase-control of SCRs in bridge ci rcuit. From driver, pulses ore amplified and peaked As shown in Fig. 3, the ac input
in the amplifiers and applied to gates of the SCRs. The amount of time that the phase rotation to this bridge is im-
SCRs ore gated determines output voltage providing control of motor speed. portant. At the input, the circuit
made up of lC, IR, 2R and lT is a
phase-sensitive network to insure
ISR 2SR 3SR + proper phase rotation. If the incom-
230 Volts oc Motor ing phases are incorrect, l '1' will not
St ...______.,.___,..___,.
82+ field supply enough voltage to energize

83- -----4..... -+--------i------.. . . ....__, ~--

CR. CR contacts a r e w ired into t he
stop-star t pushbuttons, such t hat
the CR con tact.s must close for t he
drive to run. Therefore, if the pha se
3SCR
rotation is incorrect, the drive will
not start. If such is the case, any
two ac input wires must be re-
A. Oulput bridge-motor field circuit
versed.
In series with the CR coil is a
temperature sensitive device. The
2SR bridge diodes and SCRs could be
230 Volts oc
destroyed with excess temperature.
81
82
83
+--...-....----·
- --~-·
Motor
armat ure
If the heat sinks to which the d i-
odes a nd S CRs are connected be-
come too hot, the temperature sens-
ing element opens, de-energizing
2SCR CR, stopping the drive.
lL, 2L and 3L are line "soften-
ing" reactors, but more impor tant
B. Output bridge - motor armature circuit they offer line reactance to assist
the commutation of diodes and
FIG. S-ln A, current from 230-volt oc terminals is rectified by silicon diodes to
provide a constant 140 volts de for motor field. Circuit path denotes electron flow. SCRs.
A simila r path exists when terminal 81 is positive with respect to terminal 83. In lSSR is made 'up of three tran-
B, electron flow through output bridge and motor armature is shown. Current flows s ient-voltage suppressors i one
only when pulses ore applied to gates of silicon cont rolled rectifiers. across each phase of the ac line.
91

FIG. 3 -Schematic diagram of basic
speed con trol appears complex; but when
broken down in to smaller circuits, it is
much easier to follow and understand.
The schematic divides into four major
circuits-controller, driver, amplifier and
output bridge. These circuits ore shown
sepa ra ted In la ter illustrations.
Con I roller
llSvac ~I
inpol LI·
Ll9
57 ~9
: Limil Molor leedbock
1 input
i'---L.5!
p™ ______________ J57~
These clip off any transient volt-
ages that might appear on the ac
input; hence, they protect the
bridge components.
Bridge circuits-The motor field
receives constant 140 volts de exci-
tation from the diode section of t he
bridge. Fig. 6A shows electron flow
( reverse of conventional current
flow) . When 83 is negative with re-
spect to 82, electrons can flow in on
83, up through the motor field, down
through 2SR and out on 82. A simi-
lar path exists when 83 is minus
and 81 is plus. 3SR serves as a
back rectifier to discharge any in-
ductive kick from this motor field.
In Fig. 6B, electron flow through
the bridge for armature excitation
is shown. Electrons flow in on 81,
down t hrough lSCR if a gate pulse
is present, up through the motor
armature, down t hrough 2SR and
out on 82. A similar path could be
repeated for any chosen polarity.
Current flow and the resulting
motor armature voltage depends on
when the SCR gates receive a pulse
or are fired. If no pulses are pres-
ent on the gates of t he SCR, there
is no armature voltage.
SCR operation-The output
bridge is a full-wave configuration,
but as you will find, it is used here
as a half-wave circuit because of
l:"'"l Line sequence and heol sink
+
Thtrrnol ~ lemperolure conlrol relay
proleclor_....... ~
Conl lransf
Driver
41
Error
=Tm~1-::M:33 inpul
...f.;R
57
(~)
vollo9e
the firing angle. If the three SCRs
are each fir ed 120° late in the cycle,
the output is as shown in Fig. 6A.
(Shaded portion is conduction time
of the SCR.) If the SCRs are fired
90° late in the cycle, the output
armature voltage is higher as
shown in Fig. 6B. Fig. 6C shows
full 240-volt de armature output by
firing the SCRs at 65°. Only if the
SCRs were fired at 30° could this
become a full-wave bridge. How-
ever, the firing circuit does not per-
mit firing earlier than 50°.
From the above, you can see that
the earlier the SCRs are fired, the
higher the output armature volt-
age.
It is important, then, to see how
the phase of the firing pulses is con-
trolled. Some manufacturers choose
to use a relaxation oscillator to sup-
ply firing pulses. This specific panel
uses saturable reactors in a reset
circuit. Reset essentially means to
take reactors out of saturation.
When reactors are out of satura-
t ion, they present a high circuit im-
pedance.
Plug-In Circuit Boards
SCR firing cont1·ol-Fig. 7 is an
abbreviated sketch of the plug-in
driver cardpak. As t he input signal
92
MolOt
held
Oulpol
blid9e
Molor
arrnalure
45
120v -20v
230vac 39 __...------oti ver
81 82 83
2T-~
from the controller becomes larger,
the base current of t ransistor J29
becomes smaller; therefore, the col-
lector current is less. The collector
voltage of J29 comes from trans-
former 2T, through saturable reac-
tor Yl. Reactor Yl has a quite rec-
t-angular hysteresis curve, which
provides for the switching action
of the reactor. For example, when
2T is positive on top, the incoming
signal could cause J29 to have
enough collector current (electrons
down through Yl) to reset Yl
(take out of saturation)only one-
fourth, as shown in Fig. 8B. When
the top of transformer 2T becomes
negative, J29 cannot conduct, but
now there is correct polarity for
base current of V28 through Yl.
Yl is high impedance until it satu-
rates. This takes one-fourth of a
cycle because it was one-fourth re-
set. After one-fourth of a cycle, Yl
becomes low impedance (completely
saturated) and base current flows
in V28 causing a collector current
through R80.
The signal on R30 is coupled
through capacitor Y29 and resistor
X22 causing a base current in tran-
sistor Xll. As a result, collector
current flows in Xll through T35.
Then T85, which is a peaking trans-
former, provides a sharp rise in its
 secondary voltage delayed one-
fourth of a cycle because of the in-
put signal effect on Yl. The firing
pulse developed on the secondary of
T35 is supplied gate-to-cathode of
lSCR. lSCR fires one-quarter late
I I
II in the cycle for near maximum
I I
armature output, resulting in near
I \
x I maximum speed.
,_/ \ \._,/
I
If the incoming signal had been
sufficient to reset Yl by one-half,
(Fig. 8C) , V28 could not conduct
during the first half of the half
cycle, 90° late; therefore, the out-
put pulse would be delayed and
l SCR would fire at 90° and conduct
for a half of the half cycle, result-
Output voltage waveform Output voltage waveform Output voltage waveform ing in a lower output voltage and
for resistive load for resistive load for resistive toad
lower speed.
A. 120° FIRING 8. 90° FIRING C. 55° FIRING As the incoming signal becomes
FIG. 6--0utput de voltage to motor armature is directly proportional ta the amount smaller, J2g conducts to reset Yl
of time por holf cycle thot the SCR conducts. Shaded portion of cycle Is conduction perhaps by three-fourths (Fig.
time of SCR. Firing point (flrinQ ongle) of SCR is accurately controlled by saturable 8D). The firing pulse is then three-
reactor circuits to provide close control of armature voltage, thus providing accurate
speed control. As shown, the earlier the SCR is fired, the larger is the output voltage,
fourths late in the half cycle. lSCR
resulting in higher motor speed. would conduct for only one-quarter
of the time, resulting in a low arma-
ture output voltage and a low speed.
The amplifier has two additional
identical pulse-output circuits,
which function in the same way
off the common reset transistor
J29.
Controller circuit-Now, opera-
XI I tion of the controller circuit ( Fig.
g) will be described to illustrate
V22 how t he signal into the driver cir-
P22 Ul6
cuit is controlled. Key to this cir-
YI cuit is the voltage on capacitor P9,
co which is deternlined by the setting
Q: of the speed control pot (potentiom-
J29

~
eter). When the system is turned
~
Input
sigrol t T35 R on there is no charge on pg; how-
Bios ever, pg immediately t ries to charge
+ _pot.
to the full 50 volts de at an RC
t imed rate of X5 and pg, However,
FIG. 7- ln the driver circuit, pulses are developed to fire SCRs. Duration of pulse the speed pot sets the maximum
Is determined by reset of saturable reactor YI. (Reset means to toke out of so turo- voltage that can be on pg, If the
tion.l When ou t of saturation, reactors present a high impedance to circuit. speed pot is set at 0 volts, as soon
as pg has a 1 volt charge, diode X3
starts to conduct t-0 keep the voltage
of P9 down to 1 volt. If the speed
pot were set at 10 volts, pg could
charge to about 11 volts before XS
conducts to keep the voltage of pg
down to 11 volts. Thua, the voltage
on P9, through summing resistor
4-r l <f>r .,,, R3, is the turn--0n signal, positive
to line 41, \vhich is applied to the
A c 0 driver circuit input.
If - - - Forward current 4'1___ Forword flux
(soluroting current) An armature-voltage feedback
I , ___ _Reset current <f>, ___ Reverse flux circuit serves as a regulator to
maintain a constant armature volt-
FIG. 8-Soturoble reactors have a nearly rectangular hysteresis loop, which facili- age. As the armature voltage builds
tates switching action. In A, o fully saturated reactor is shown; B shows tho reactor up, the armature-voltage feedback
reset for V.. cycle; at C, for Y.2 cycle; ond at D, for 3A cycle. The effect Is such
that for B, current cannot flow in the control circuit for the first V.. cycle, resulting
is fed back into the circuit through
in firing pulse ot 45°; in C, current connot flow during the first half of tho cycle, J5 and the maximum-volts pot. The
resulting In a fi ri ng pulse at 90°; etc. Reset of the reactors Is continuously variable armature-voltage feedback is a
according to the Input signal from the controller circuit. turn-off signal, negative to 41. If

93
+ spect motor, magnetic controls and
other components with moving
parts ; 2. perform visual check of
solid-state panel; 3. check output
41 bridge circuits; 4. voltage test the
cardpaks in order : controller,
50volts Speed driver, amplifier.
DC control Do not attempt to speed trouble-
pot. X3 shooting by simply changing card-
J2 paks. These components are highly
reliable. In most cases the trouble
will be found exterior to the solid-
state control system.
57 After inspecting the motor and
J17
99 exterior connections, make a thor-
ough visual check of the drive cabi-
L20 net as follows :
'----4---nTo emitter of J29
1. Connections (for loose, open,
FIG. 9-Controller circuit supplies the continuously variable signal voltage to the shorted or broken connections) .
driver. Key to this circuit is the voltage across capacitor P9, which is determined 2. Overloads and protective de-
by sett ing of speed control pot. Desired vo ltage on P9 is applied through resistor R3
ond line 41 to tho driver inpu t. T he armature volta ge feedback through JS and
vices (in the case of selenium surge
maximum-volts pot serves to maintain a constant vo ltage at the level selected. protectors a characteristic odor
will be present).
3. Resistors, capacitors, trans-
Fus e Armature Fuse Armature Fuse Armature Good Armature
Blown Volta ge Blown Voltage Blown Voltage Fuses Voltage formers and coils for discoloration
or other indications of overheating.
4. Control pot settings to be sure
1 210 3 & 4 135 2,3&4 55 1 & 2 0
2 180 3 & 5 125 2,3&5 125 1 & 3 0 the original settings have not been
3 210 3 & 6 170 2,3&6 100 1 & 4 85 changed and/ or misadjusted.
5. Phase relation of ac power.
4 180 4 & 5 135 2, 4& 5 100 1 & 5 0 (Should cause CR to energize.)
5 210 4 & 6 100 2, 4&6 0 1 & 6 55 6. l\I and RR contactors (M ener-
gized on jog- M and RR on run) .
6 180 5 & 6 135 2,5&6 85 2 &3 50
Before making any further tests
1 & 2 155 1, 2&3 50 3,4&5 55 2 & 4 0 on the panel, it is necessary to dis-
1 & 3 125 1, 2&4 85 3,4&6 85 2 & 5 85 connect the motor armature and put
a dummy load on the armature out-
1 & 4 170 1, 2&5 85 3,5&6 85 2 & 6 0 put. (This disables the drive to pro-
1 & 5 125 1,2&6 50 4,5&6 55 3.& 4 0
tect the rotating equipment and any
personnel who may be working on
1 & 6 135 1,3&4 85 3 & 5 0 the machine.) A 100-ohm, 500-watt
resistor or two 60-watt, 120-volt
2 & 3 135 1,3&5 0 3 & 6 85 light bulbs in series will function
quite satisfactorily as a dummy
2 & 4 100 1,3&6 I 125 4 & 5 1 50
load. Also, t he lamps serve nicely
2 & 5 170 125 4 & 61 0 as a visual indication of output volt-
l,4&5 1 I age.
2 & 6 100 1,4&6 100 5 & 6 I 0
Output Bridge Check
FIG. 1 0-Voltoge check chart for output bridge circuit speeds troubleshoo ting when
o malfunction occurs. Specific readings of armature voltage indicate which fuses ore The most probable cause of fail-
blown (or failure of associated SCR or diode). ure in this speed control system is
in the output bridge-fuses, SCRs
this armature voltage is low, the shooting requires a planned, meth- or diodes. A table of armature out-
charge on P9 increases the arma- odical approach using common- put voltages (Fig. 10), quickly
ture voltage. If the armature volt- sense thinking. identifies which fuse has failed (or
age is high, its feedback decreases When trouble occurs, determine associated open diode or SCR).
the armature voltage. Also, there is which control function has failed. In addition, much information
an armature-current feedback from This often indicates which circuits can be derived from a motor-field
terminal 99 to prevent t he motor or components are faulty. Next, voltage check, terminals 35 to 37.
from drawing excessive current. make a quick visual check and per- The motor field output should be
form other tests that are simple 140 volts de. If fuses IFU or 3FU
Troubleshooting Techniques and quick to accomplish. These blow or if diodes lSR or 2SR open,
tests include checks of line fuses, the field output drops to 95 volts de.
Once you have a good under- overload relays and other associ- If 5FU or 3SR open,' the field out-
standing of circuit operation, ated magnetic control circuits. put drops to 0 volt de.
troubleshooting will be greatly sim- For this control, the following
plified . However, effective trouble- approach is usually effective : 1. in-
94
 Testing and Maintenance
Of Protective Relays
And Circuit Breakers
TESTING PROTECTIVE RELAYS on-site
without de-energizing the power circuit
is performed by qualified personnel using
special test eq uipment. Effective mainte-
nance of protective devices inc ludes a
thorough inspection plus electrical tes ts.
Inspectio n includes chi::cks for dust, cor-
rosion and binding of mechanical ports.
Electrical tests provide ossuronce that the
reloy wi ll operate when required; will trip
fast enough to prevent damag e; ond is
coordinated with other protective devices
to provide selective tripping ond minimize
the extent of power outages.
How to test and maintain protective relays, motor
overload relays, molded-case circuit breakers and
low-voltage power circuit breakers.
BY HENRY S. ORTH, Director of Education,
Multi-Amp Corp., Cranford, N. ].
N MANY industrial plants, elec-
I trical protective devices are often
neglected. In some instances, pro-
tective relays and circuit breakers
remain idle for years without an
operational check, calibration or
proper cleaning. Motor overload re-
lays may get out of adjustment,
corrode or otherwise become inop-
erable. Then, when t his equipment
is called upon to clear a fault or an
overload, they can fail to operate.
As a result, human life is jeopard-
ized, equipment is destroyed or
damaged and valuable production
time is lost.
However, t hese losses can be
avoided by providing proper care
and attention for electrical protec-
tive equipment. This includes not
only routine inspections and clean-
ing but also r egula rly scheduled
testing and calibration. Inspections
can reveal most potential trouble
sources, such as contamination, cor-
rosion or loose connections, but
only through electrical tests can
you be sure that a protective device
will trip properly.
Special testing equipment is
available to test all types of protec-
t ive devices. This equipment is safe,
economical and comparatively easy
to use, although some formal train-
ing in its use is des irable. P lants
without qualified personnel often
contract this work out to mainte-
nance service companies.
Maintenance of Electrical
Protective Relays
Although there is a great variety
of electrical protective relays in-
95
stalled in modern power systems,
basic types include: 1) overcurrent
-time delay and instantaneous; 2)
over/under voltage-time delay and
instantaneous; 3) directional over-
current; and 4) percentage differ-
ential. Because the operating prin-
ciple of most of t hese relays is
similar, inspection and testing are,
in general, also similar. However,
to provide effect ive maintenance of
this equipment, the inspector or
tester should have a thorough
knowledge of the operation and
functions of each type of relay in
the system. In addition, he should
have a good understanding of the
operat ion of distribution system.
How often to ins pect and test-
Frequency of inspection and testing
depends on individual circum-
stances. If t he protective relays
installed are subjected to an ad-
verse environment - corrosive
gases, dust, excessive heat, etc.-
inspect ions and tests may be re-
quired every three to six months.
Under normal conditions, relay
maintenance may be performed
every one to two years. Ideal con-
ditions might allow the mainten-
ance cycle to be extended to every
three to four years. The best guide
can be derived from inspections and
test records made in previous years.
Plan ahead-Before starting the
maintenance procedures on protec-
tive relays, obtain the required test
data, settings, records, test equip-
ment and relay tools (tools recom-
mended for inspection and adjust-
ment of protective relays are listed
in an accompanying table). In-
form operating personnel of work
to be done so that, if possible, cir-
cuits to be checked can be de-
energized. However, if circuits
ca nnot be de-energized, proceed
wi th caut ion bearing in mind that
a relay is temporarily out of serv-
ice and that some of that circuit's
protection is removed. Therefore,
a relay job should never be started
unless it can be finished before leav-
ing the work area.
Also, action to be taken .in case
a circuit is inadvertently tripped
shou ld be worked out with operat-
ing personnel before star ting work.
Always consider safety - Safe
work habits and use of common
sense cannot be overemphasized.
Never use metal ladders or step
stools around switchgear. If safety
helmets are required, always wear
a fiber or plastic helmet. Loose key
chains, tool pouches, or other tools
should never be allowed to hang
from the body. Remove rings and
metal watchbands. Whenever pos-
sible, power circuits should be de-
energized a nd properly tagged to
conform with approved procedures.
Always be careful when working
on or near current transformers.
A current transformer reduces the
current in the power circuit to a
value that can be handled by the
protective relay, and insulates the
relay from the power circuit. How-
ever, there is a danger associated
wi th a current transformer. If its
secondary circuit is opened while
prima ry cu rrent flows, a very high
and dangerous voltage appears
across its secondary terminals.
Therefore, never open the second-
ary of a current transformer while
the primary is carrying cu rrent.
Perform a visual inspection--
First, double check the identifica-
tion of relays on the panel. When
work on relay terminals must be
done behind a large complex board,
posit ive identification of a relay at
the rear of t he board can be accom-
plished if an assistant turns the
ammeter switch from the front of
t he pa nel, while you obser ve which
switch arm turns in back of the
board. This quickly locates the
proper panel. Then consult wiring
diagrams. Also, have ava ilable the
manufacturer's instruction book for
each type of relay. These instruc-
tions provide necessary informa-
tion concerning connections, inter-
locks, adjustments, repairs, etc.
1. Refer to the manufacturer's
instructions to determine how to
remove relay without tripping the
circuit breaker. Open trip circu it
according to instruction. Also,
check for proper operation of t he
mechanism that shorts the current
transformer when the relay is re-
moved.
2. Remove foreign material, s uch
as dust, filings, etc. from the relay.
Be sure the rotating disc and mag-
net gaps are clean. Dust can be
removed with a small hand syringe
for blowing air. Dry compressed
air 50 PSI or lower may be used.
Higher air pressure may damage
small parts. Remove any rust or
filings from disc or magnet poles
with a magnet cleaner or fine brush.
3. Hold relay up to t he light to
make sure the disc has good clear-
ance between magnet poles.
4. Inspect relay for the presence
of moisture. If moisture is pres-
ent, or rust spots are noted, it may
indicate that the relay is in an
improper atmosphere and presents
a design problem.
5. Check bolt connections, solder
joints and taps for tightness.
6. Check bearings a nd springs
for proper operation according to
the instruction manual.
7. Inspect contacts. Pitted or
bu rned contacts should be cleaned
with a contact burnisher or fine
file. Be sure to maintain contact
face configuration. Never use a
solvent on these contacts or touch
with fingers because the residue
left may cause improper operation.
8. Check for proper operation of
the indicating target.
9. Inspect fit of relay cover, glass
and gaskets. Tight fits are impor-
tant to keep out contaminants.
Perform electrical tests-Elec-
trical tests provide a positive in-
dication of relay condition.
There are three standar d meth-
ods of t esting relays : 1) Testing
with t he relay disconnected from
the current transformer. This al-
lows testing to be accompli shed
without de-energizing the power
system. 2) Testing across the
secondary of t he current trans-
former with the primary de-ener-
gized. This test is used whenever
primary power can be disconnected.
Also. this test checks relay connec-
t ions as well as the relay and oper-
ation of the circuit breaker, etc.
3) P rimary circuit testing, which
uses hign current and low voltage
(called primary injection). In this
test. the complete protect ive system
related to a particular relay is
checked. Because test connections
are made on primary conductors,
96
this test requires that caution and
safety practices be closely observed.
Typical tests for an overcurrent
relay include : 1) insulation-res ist-
ance tests of relay conductive com-
ponents to ground ; 2) zero-set
check, which determines that the
relay contacts close when the dial
is set to zero; 3) pick-up test,
which determines minimum operat-
ing current of the relay ; 4) time-
current characteristics test, which
checks that a relay closes its con-
tacts within a specified time for
given value (s) of current as de-
termined from the time-current
cu rves for that specific relay; 5)
pick-up on instantaneous ; and 6)
main contact seal-in.
Maintenance ol Low-Voltage
Power Circuit Breakers
Low-voltage power circui t break-
ers have wide application and pro-
tect utilization voltage circuits up
to 600 volts ac or 250 volts de.
When used as a direct-acting cir-
cuit breaker, a dashpot (o il or air)
or a mechanical-escapement mech-
anism is generally used to provide
t ime delay before tripping. These
breakers have several kinds of clos-
ing and tripping devices: 1) man-
ual closing, which employs an oper-
ator with handle or lever. Often
a loaded spring mechanism is pro-
vided to assure rapid closing of
contacts; 2) electrical closing,
which employs a solenoid or small
motor togethe r with mechanical
linkage; 3) protective-relay trip-
ping, which employs a protective
relay to init iate tripping; 4) series
tripping, in which a ser ies trip
element carries load current; a nd
5) auxiliary tripping methods, such
as shunt or undervoltage tripping.
Trouble source s - E ffective
maintenance of low-voltage power
CBs requires recognition and elimi-
nation of the major sources of
trouble. These include:
1. Frozen contacts a nd/or oper-
ating mechanism (will not open
automatically or manually), or ex-
cessive force to operate manually.
Freezing of components may be
due to corrosive atmosphere or to
an extensive· period of inoperation.
Check operation of CB manually;
remove effects of corrosion a nd pre-
vent further contamina.tion ; oper-
ate breaker periodically.
2. Improper calibrat ion (trip is
too fast or too s low). Considered
most dangerous of CB malfunc-
tions. Can be revealed a nd cor-
rected only through electrical tests.
 3. High contact resistance. Pos-
sible causes are adverse atmosphere
and inoperation. Can be revealed
by electrical tests. Clean contacts
and make recommended mechanical
adjustments.
4. Open contacts ot· serjes trip-
ping elements. Revealed through
inspection or tests. Operate breaker
manually.
5. Low leakage resistance (ter-
minals to ground) . Caused by dust,
moistu re or carbon contamination.
Revealed by insulation resistance
tests. Remove sou rce of contamin-
ation or dry out.
6. Broken or cracked arc chutes.
Revealed through inspection. Re-
place damaged arc chute.
In general, maintenance of low-
voltage circuit breakers follows
procedures outlined for mainten-
ance of protective relays-inspec-
tors and testers should be qualified
personnel; proper test equipment
must be used; inspection and test
procedures should be carefully
worked out in advance; and safety
must always be considered first.
Circuit breaker inspection pro-
cedure--Safety rules and coopera-
tion with operating personnel must
be strictly. observed.
1. Be sure circuit is dead or that
breaker can be racked out.
2. Inspect primary fingers at
back of breaker. Check fingers for
excessive wear, burning or dis-
coloration. Look for broken or
missing springs. Clean out dust.
3. Inspect arc chutes for cracked,
burned or broken parts.
4. Inspect and clean main and
arcing contacts in accordance with
manufacturer's instructions. Com-
mercial products are available to
resilver contacts, if necessary.
5. With arc chutes removed, me-
chanically close breaker to check
contact action and alignment. Take
care to keep clear of breaker con-
tacts and moving mechanism be-
cause these parts are actuated by
stored-energy devices which can
cause serious injury.
6. Open and close breaker several
times to determine that operation
is smooth and without binding.
7. Perform lubrication according
to manufacturer's instructions.
8. Tighten a ll scrt:iwed or bolted
connections.
9. Blow dust and dirt from
breaker and arc chutes using low-
pressure dry air.
10. Determine that the breaker
trip mechanism and the various
trip-device mechanisms operate
TOOLS FOR SERVICING PROTECTIVE RELAYS
Tool
3 thin open-end wrenches, 3/ 16", 11 / 32", 3/ 8"
1 screw-holding screw driver
1 thin-l;>lade screw driver (6" shonk, 3/ 16")
1 stubby screw driver
1 standord-blade screw driver
1 Phillips screw driver
1 optician's screw driver
l pair needle-nose pliers
4 small socket wrenches, 3/ 16 11, 5/ 1611, 11 / 32 ", 3/ 8''
fine contact Ale
burnishing tool
1 dental mirror
1 small-bulb air syringe
1 soft 1 " Aat paintbrush
1 magnet cleaner
1 magnet brush
properly. Check that the breaker
position indicator shows the proper
positions of the breaker.
Electrical tests - The circuit
breaker is tested using special test
equipment that supplies a high cur-
rent at low voltage to s imulate
actual operating conditions. The
test equipment is safe to operate
and does not damage the breaker in
any way. Breaker trip devices are
tested one phase at a time. Test
made includes : 1) pick-up current
(all elements) ; 2) timing (Jong-
and short-time delay elements) ; 3)
resettable delay (long- and short-
time elements) ; and 4) instanta-
neous trip. All test results should
be recorded for future use.
Molded-Case CBs
Motor 0Yerload Relays
The small molded-case circuit
breaker provides a relatively in-
expensive method of protecting
branch circuits. Depending upon
their application, most of these
small breakers employ a pure ther-
mal trip element or a thermal-
magnetic tripping mechanism.
Thermal-type breakers should be
tested at least every two years.
In adverse atmosphere where over-
load elements may corrode, more
frequent tests are recommended.
There are many different types
of motor overload relays; however,
they can be categorized into three
general types:
1. Thermal solder pot-In this
97
Use
Disossembly, ossembly
and adjustments.
Smooth current-carrying
contacts.
Examination of rear or
"hidden" portions of
components.
Remove metal fllings,
dust or other contami-
nation.
type, a heater coil, carrying motor
line current, will heat up on over-
load. The generated heat melts a
special alloy allowing spring-held
contacts to open, shutting down the
motor.
2. Thermal bi-metallic strip-
This type employs a contact-holding
device made up of bi-metallic strips
with different rates of expansion
under heat. The principle of opera-
tion using a heater coil which gen-
erates heat to initiate operation is
the same as described for the ther-
mal solder-pot type.
3. Magnetic type-The magnetic
overload relay operates on the basic
transformer principle to operate a
damped plunger device or moving
iron core arrangement, which is
employed to provide adjustable time
delay and circuit tripping.
In some instances, when a motor
keeps tripping out, it is not un-
usual to find the next larger size
heater installed in a relay. If this
is done, a careful investigation of
the motor, motor circuit and over-
load relays should be performed to
prevent the motor from being over-
loaded. The best check for proper
operation of the overload r elays is
through electrical testing.
Regularly scheduled inspection
and tests will reveal potential
troubles and assure reliability of
overload relays. When installed
over a period of time, these relays
get out of adjustment, corrode or
otherwise become inoperable.
RELI ABILITY of o voriety of e lectricol equipment can be weakness without breaking down the insulation. Often, prior
evoluo ted th rough de overpotentiol testing, In thi s controlled to de overpo tent ia l testing, the insulat ion receives an insula-
overvoltoge test ing technique, the trained operator observes tion-resi stance test. DC overpo tential testing is applicable to
test currents and frequently is oble to detect an insulation t ransformers, cobles, swi tchg ea r and rotating apparatus.

DC Overpotential Testing of
Electrical Equipment
Investigation of electrical failures reveals that most LECTRICAL faults can be very

electrical malfunctions can be prevented by a thor- E costly to industrial operations .

f.'or example, in one recent in-
stance, a fau lt in plant main dis-
ough maintenance program incorporating electrical tribution switchgear causerl com-
bined losses in physical damage and
tests. T esting of switchgear, transform ers, cable, ro- production downtime totaling $2 ~
million. A similar fau lt at another
tating apparatus and protective devices are discussed. industrial facility resulted in $300,-
000 loss. Although the larger inci-
dent may be considered exceptional
in magnitude of loss, thousands of
electrical accidents occu 1· annually.
DY W . A. WEDDENDORF,
Chief Hlectricnl E11gineer and M.1mager of T ec1111ic11l Ser11ices, I t is estimated that accidents
Mutrwl Doiler a11<l llfocli inery lnsur1111ce Co., IT/11/tham, Mnss. caused by malfunct ions in electri-
cal syst ems cost industry some-
where between $1 and $3 billion

98
 each year. This includes physical
damage, productive downtime and
compensation for personal injury
and loss of life.
Investigations of such incidents
by our inspection and engineering
service have shown that most elec_.
tl"ical faults can be prevented. On
the other hand, it is not economi-
cally feasible, nor possible, to pre-
vent all electrical failures. Some de-
velop between the recommended
periods of inspection and testing
due to abnormal transient smge
conditions. Others result from a
deficiency in design or construction.
And some electrical failures are
purely accidental occurrences.
Electrical fau lts that can be pre-
vented are those which can be an-
ticipated because of a laxitv in
proper and effective mainten~nce.
Regardless of whether the fault can
be prevented, the fact remains that
the destrnctive, devastating after-
math of sustained electrical arcing,
common to many failures, can be
minimized.
The key to minimizing electrical
faults is an effective electrical
maintenance program. This in-
cludes searching out and eliminat-
ing potential sources of trouble;
proper applicaJion of apparatus;
periodic cleaning and testing; re-
placement of unreliable, inadequate
equipment; use of adequate protec-
tive devices, properly set and in re-
liable operating condition; and in-
struction in safety of operation.
DC Overpotential Testing
Because the majority of electri-
cal faults arise from a breakdown
in insulation structure, de overpo-
tential testing is a significant and
essential part of a maintenance
program that will prevent many
electrical failures. DC overpoten-
t ial testing can be used to good ad-
vantage in evaluating the insulat-
ing structure of electrical apparatus
for continued rel iable operation. It
offers several advantages over test-
ing with an ac voltage in that the
test set is much smaller and hence
more portable. An experien~ed op~
eralor can usually discover an un-
satisfactory insulation condition
without actually breaking down the
insulation from the behavior or pat-
tern of measured current.
As the name implies, this dielec-
tric test is made at a potential in
excess of that normal to the ap-
paratus but at a value below t hat
which would be harmful to insula-
tion in reliable operating condition.
The purpose of the test is to dis-
cover inherent weaknesses which,
if not corrected, could in time lead
to serious trouble. The test voltage,
usually a fixed percentage of the
init ial factory dielectric test, is
selected in accordance with ac-
cepted industry standa rds.
Switchgear-A dielectric test
on a new sw itchgear assembly is
made in lhe factory at voltage
levels recommended in ASA Stand-
ard C37.20. This standard suggests
subsequent periodic proof testing
at 75 % of factory test values to
dete1·mine the practicability of
placing or safely continuing the
equipment in service. This is a test
at power frequency, usually 60
cycles, for a duration of one min-
ute.
When using a de voltage, the gen-
eral practice is to apply the peak
value of the rms suggested ac test.
Table I s hows the suggested values
for periodic proof tests on switch-
gear in service. A dielectric test
in this order of magnitud~ will
show up leakage paths which could
lead to trouble. An insulation re-
sistance reading taken with a 500-
volt instrument on a medium-volt-
age switchgear assembly could be
of questionable value since it may
not reveal a high-res istance leakage
path.
Cable Circuits- The reliability
of primary distribution cable cir-
cuits is most important to a plant's
productive operation. Cable manu-
facturers highly recommend cus-
tomer acceptance testing on a new
installation before it is energized
at the equivalent of 80 % of the ac
factory test. Thereafter, the cable
can be periodically maintenance
proof-tested at an equivalent of
60 % of the ac factory test. Table
JI gives the suggested de accept-
ance nnd subsequent periodic proof-
test voltages for cables having
ozone-resistant rubber insulation.
Simi lar standardized test values
have been develop~d for cables hav-
ing other than rubber insulation.
Transformers-ASA Standard
C57.12.DO-Hl58 recommends that
periodic ac insulatl~n tests on dis-
tribution und power t ransformers
should not be in excess of 65% of
factory test voltage. If a de voltage
test potential is used, it should not
exceed the origi nal factory test rms
alternating voltage. Table III gives
values suggested for periodic de
99
overpotential proof tests on distri-
bution and power transformers in
evaluating their insulation struc-
ture.
Rotating Apparatus-DC volt-
age overpotential testing is appli-
cable for evaluating the insulation
structure of rotating electrical ap-
paratus. A periodic proof test be-
tween 125% and 165% of voltage
rating times a 1.7 ac to de conver-
sion factor is used, depending upon
the type and condition of the insu-
lation. A formula commonly used in
developing the value for the de volt-
age periodic proof test is 2 times
rated voltage plus 1,000 (factory
ac test) times 0.65 (age factor),
times 1.7 (ac to de conversion fac-
tor) . Additional data can be ob-
tained from IEEE No. 95, Guide
for Insulation Testing of Large AC
Rotating Machinery with High Di-
rect Voltage.
The de voltage dielectric test val-
ues suggested are intended as a
guide. The test enginee1· should be
fully familiar with pertinent indus-
try standards and manufacturer's
recommendations when developing
the test values for a type of appara-
tus and particular application.
When conducting de overpoten-
tial tests, we use a variety of test
sets, which range in output from 5
to 100 kv. For acceptance and proof
testing of cable circuits, we use a
small portable de voltage test set.
The unit has an output of 100 kv
but weighs only 65 lbs, which
makes it ideal to tl"ansport from job
to job. Each test set we use was
carefully selected for each type of
application.
Application and Testing of Pro-
tective Devices-This is a very im-
portant phase of electrical accident
prevention since much of the costly
destruction from sustained electri-
cal arcing could be avoided with
properly applied protective devices.
In some instances, the protective
device which would have seen the
fault had not been installed. In
others, the investmen t was made in
the proper protection, but it fa iled
to function due to too high a set-
t ing, or it was found to be defec-
tive.
Many serious faults are trig-
gered from a minor incident. For
example, in a recent case, a turn-
to-turn fault occurred in the
primary of a small potential trans-
former in a 2400-volt motor con-
trol center. The ampere rating of
the protective fuses was too high,
 Table I-Test Voltages for Switchgear allowing t he tl'ansformer to over-
heat and ignite the encapsulating
compound. This gave olf heavy cal'-
Standard 60·Cycle Suggested Periodic
Roted Operating fodory Dieledric Test Ma intenance Proof Test
bonized s moke which caused a
Voltage• in Kv (ASA·C37.20) Kv flashovc1· in the bus structure. The
control center was fed from a cir-
AC DC cui t common to two loadcenter
transformers. This required rather
2SO 1.5 1.12 1.6
high settings on the .definite time
480 2.0 1.5 2.1
600 2.2 1.65 2.3 3
overcurrent relays to enable the cir-
2400 15 11 15.5 cuit to carry the total load require-
4160 19 14 19.8 ments. The relays did not have
7200 26 19.5 27.5 instantaneous elements to immedi-
13800 36 27 38 ately see t he fault. The net result
was the destruction of the eight-
• The standard• for certain auxiliary apparatus, such as current and potential tronsformen, may unit motor control center, plus a
coll for a lower test voltage than 1uggested above. If 10, they should be diJConnected from the costly production interruption. In
tut circuit or the voltage limited to thot allowed for this opporot us. this instance, a lower rated fuse in
the potential transforme.r circuit
would have prevented the initial
trouble. However, proper protection
Table II- Test Voltages for Ozone-Resistant Rubbe r-Insulated Cable in the feeder circuit would have
saved t he destruction of the motor
Insulation DC field Test Voltage, Kv
control center.
Voltag e Condudor Size Wall Thltkneu Acceptance Test Periodic A rather extensive engineering
Roling AWG or MCM in Miis Before Ene rgizing Proof Tests study is required to properly ana-
lyze the protective aspects of a
600 1- 4/ 0 78 18 13.5 plant's electrical distribution sys-
225- 500 94 20.5 15.5 tem. The subsequent phase of ap-
525- 1000 109 24 18
over 1000 125 27.5 20.5
plying the proper settings and
testing the performance of each
sooo 8- 4/ 0 1S6 33.5 25 protective d..vice is another time-
225-1000 172 37 28 consu ming operation. This is a com-
over 1000 188 40.5 30 bination service badly needed by
47.7
industry which only a few short
15,000 2- 1000 297 63 .5
over 1000 312 67.2 50.4 years ago was not readily available.
This motivated our company to es-
tablish a separate activity, which
offers lo industry a specialized form
of accident-prevention engineering,
inspection and testing service for a
Table Ill- Suggested Values for Pe riodic DC Proof Tests of Power and
nominal fee. One facet is that of
Distribution Transformers
making coordination studies of dis-
tribution systems and the setting
Nominal Syste m Insulation •Dc Test Voltag e in Kv and testing of protective devices.
Voltag e In Kv Cla n Kv Oii-immersed Dry-Type In addition, service organizations
offer relay testing and testing of
1.2 1.2 10 4
2.4 2.S 15 10 series lrip devices of low-voltage
4.8 5.0 19 12 circuil breakers. They have pur-
8.32 8.7 26 19 chased the necessary test equip-
14.4 15 34 31 ment. trained technicians and are
34.5 34.S 70 eager to offer this testing service
as part of a contract maintenance
• Somo values as factory oc test. operation.
Before embarking on a testing
projccl, a coordination study shou ld
be made of the system. This in-
volves a study of the rating and
loading on the· components an·d cal-
culating the available fault current
contribution from each source.
Then, dul"ing testing, necessary ad-
justments can be made on protec-
tive equipment to fit their perform-
ance inlo the coordination study.
Based on a paper pre.s ented at the
1965 Plant Engineering & Mainte-
nance Con/ erence, Detroit, Mich.

100
 DATA SHEET

Power transformer
preventive maintenance
A handy guide to inspection, testing and 11iaintenance of ?nodeni powe1·
transformers presented in capsule fonn for easy ?'eference.

ROUTINE INSPECTION SCHEDULE CRITICAL MAINTENANCE INSPECT! ON SCHEDULE

ITEMS TO INSPECT RECOMMENDED SCHEUDLE ITEMS TO INSPECT SC HED ULE

I I l ood Current- (Amperesl. . . . . . . . . Hourly or uso Recording lnstrumon l 1) Tonk, Fittings, and Gaskets f or leaks,
21 Voltoge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hourly or use Recording Instrument Rusi, e tc.. . . . • . . . . . • . . • . . . • • . . . . . . . Seml·Annuolly
31 Ambient Tempero lure .•..•••..... Hourly or use Recording ln1lrumenl 2) Pressure Relief Devices.. .. . • • • . . . . . . . Q uarte rly
41 W inding Temperature . . • • • . • • • . . . Hourly or u•e Recording ln1trument 3) Bushings.. . . . . . . . . . . . • . • • . • • • . . . • . . Semi·Annuolly
5) liq uid Temperature . . . . . • . . . . . . . . Hourly or u1e Recording Instrument ~) lightning Arresters . . • . • • • • . • . . • • . . • . Seml·Annuolly
6) Gos Pressure (Tonk) ....•...•.•.. Hourly or use Recording Instrument 5) Top Changers ....... ....• , . • . . . . . . . Semi·Annuolly
7) liquid level ...•................ Doily 6) Control Equipment, Relays and Circuits . . Monthly
8) Aulomatic-G o •·Sool Equipmon t 7 ) Ground Connections . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . Semi-Annually
o) Transformer Gas Pressure Gouge Dolly 8) Protective Alo rm• . . • . . . . • • • • . . • . . . . • Monthly
b) Gos Cylinder Content . . • . . . • . . Dolly 9) Gos Analysis ..... ............... ... Annually
cl low Pressure Alarm Circuit .. . • . . Quarte rly 10) Pre ssure Test of Cooling Coils or Exte mol
d) External Gos Equipment and Hea l Exchanger. • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • Annually
Hard ware ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Semi-Annually
9) Wate r Coolfng Equipm ent
o) Wate r Temp e rature In and Out W eekly
bl Water Flow Rote ..•.• •. : ..... Semi-Annually
cl Wate r Pumps ...... ... ....... Monthly
d) Oil Circulating Pumps.... . • . • . . Monthly
101 Cooling Equipme nt
al Fon1- Blodes and motors for oc·
cumulation of dirt . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Monthly
d) Fon Beorings -lubrlcolion ..•... Eve ry (2) years or o fter 6000 hours of
opera tion - whicheve r comes first
cl Heat Exchonger- (Rodlo tor Coro) Annually
11) Dry·Typ e Tron1form e rs (Forced Air
Coole d)
o l Air Tempera ture In and Out . . . . Hourly

Oi l TE ST DATA MAINTENANCE TEST SCHEDULE

TEST LIMITS FOR MINERAL TYPE Oil MAINTENANCE TEST SCHEDULE

I) Insulating liquid
SHOULD BE DISCARD
al Dielectric Strength .•.•• .••• .• • . ••.... Annually
TEST SATISFACTORY FILTERED ANO REPLACE
b) Neutralization Number .••• • .••..•. ... Annually
Dielectric Strength cl Color ...........• ...• .••••••• • .•. . Annually
(ASTM 0-8991 . ....•.••.• 23 KV Le u than 22 KV 2) lnsulotion Resistance .. .•.••. •••.•• . ...•. Annually
Neutralization N umber .•••.. 0.4 Mor<. 0.4 to 1.0 Grea ter than 3) Polarization Ind e r< .. ...••••• .• • .. •• •• . •• Annoully
1.0 4) Powe r Factor .... ....•• • .••.. •••••••• •. Annually
Color ....... ......... .•.• 3 \/1 Mor<. Above 3\/2 5) AC Hi-Pot ...... .... .• • •••••••. ••••• •. (5) Yea rs
6) Induced Voltage Test •• • ••• • •••••• • •••• • (SI Years

TEST LIMITS FOR ASKAREL TYPE LIQUIDS

SHOULD BE DISCARD
TEST SATISFACTORY FILT ERED AND REPLACE
Oiolectrlc Strength
(ASTM [).899) .. . •..• . ••. 26 KV l ess than 25 KV
Neutralization Numb e r .••••• 0.05 Grea ter than O.OS
Color .• •••• • ••••••• • •• • • • 2.0 Above 2.0
Base d on p a per presente d at 1966 Pion! Engineering and Molntonance
Confe rence by J. E. Ritche y, Jr., Gene ral Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y.

101
 SEM ICONDUCTORS con be tested with the multimeter using Anode
the ohms scale. The term inal marked "+" or "positive" on
most multimeters is generally ot o positive potential when the
instrument is used os on ohmmeter. This con be checked
with another meter. Silico n rectifier ce lls and silicon con-
trolled rectifiers should be tested ot roted voltoge and cur-
rent values to provide o positive operotionol check. The low
voltoge a nd current output o f the ohmmeter tests these
unit s in a region for be low their normal ope ra tion. Howeve r
Convenllonol
the tests illustrated o t right will reveal opens, shorts, e tc.
Stud mounting Symbol Curren t flow
Before testing, make certain that the current avai lable from
the ohmmeter (particularly on the lowest scales) will no t Silicon Rectifier Cell
exceed the curren t roting o f the component under test.
Test Procodure

Dotormine polority of ohmmeter leods. Conned the

positive lood of the ohmmeter olternately to the
onode ond cothode of the cell os shown. A shorted
coll wi ll indica te zero or equally low resisto ncos in
both directions; on open cell will hove infinite or high

Electrical resi stance in both d irections; and a good co ll will

hovo a reverse resisto nce considorobly greo tor thon
tho forward rosistonce. See diogrom below.

Testing With
Test for OHM
Portabie good silicon
rect ifie r
MTR

Indicating
+
Instruments o• •c
Test I
....-.
Conventionol current flow forward
resistance is lower

Here are practical hints on the use of portable indi- OHM

MTR
cating instruments when testing or troubleshoot-
ing electrical equipment. Techniques to use with
the rnultimeter and clamp-on volt-ammeter are de- Test 2
Reverse resistance 1s higher
scribed in detail.

(The o hmmeter should be used only to reveal open

BY JlOBER T J. LAW RIE or shorted co ils, or lo determin e polarity. For o
positive check, lest rectifiers ot roted voltage ond
curren t values.)

TESTING SILICON RECTIFIERS

ORTABLE indicating instru- ing techniqu e is not applied. trical department s hould have a full

P ments a re often taken fo r

granted. Plant electricians, when
assigned to PM testing or trouble-
shooting, often select the nearest or
handiest instrument without regard
to its capabilities or limitations.
Or, in some instances, the electrical
depa rtment does not have the
proper instrument available. And
when us ing test instruments,
proper care in the test or measur-
As a result, inaccurate readings
are taken, PM records are incor-
rect, t roubleshooting diagnoses are
wrong or misleading, and valuable
time is lost.
To avoid these problems, the
plant electrician should know and
apply modern test techniques and
have a good understanding of the
characteristics of the basic test in-
struments. In addition, the elec-
complement of modern portable in-
dicating instruments.
Although there is a great variety
of portable test instruments, the
most common are the volt-ohm-
ammeter and the clamp-on volt-
a mmeter. Because these instru-
ments are both versatile and easy
to use, t hey have become essential
to effective troubles hooting and
maintenance of industrial electrical

102
 Cathode b b b e
Gote Cathode

Gate

SCR

Anode
Common Transistor Pin Connections
Side View Schem'1.1C
Silicon Controlled Rectifierlstud type)

Tosi Proceduro
I. Determine the polarity of
the ohmmeter leads.

2. Connect the ohmmeter be-

tween the anode (a) and PNP Transistor NPN Tronmtor
cathode {c) as shown. The
resistance should exceed 1
Test is for PNP type germanium transistors. Reverse
megohm.
meter leads for NPN type germanium transistors.

3. Reverse the ohmmeter leads

as shown. Tho resistance 1. Determine the polarity of
should again exceed 1 meg- the ohmmeter leads.
ohm.
2. Put the ohmmeter between +Leod~Lead
the emitter (e) and the col-
4. With the ohmmeter leads
c - Lead
lector (c) as shown. Tho re- ! 8 !
connected as in Step 3, short
the gate (g) to the anode as
sistance read ing shou ld bo
between I 0 0 ohms and SOK ,~,
shown. Tho resistance ohms. {This read ing is not
should drop to loss than significant by itself.)
b
1000 ohms. +Leod~Leod
3. Leave the ohm meter con-
0 nected as in step 2, butshort +~ +
5. Leave ohmmeter leads connected. Set meter to a
low range. The resistance reading will stay low
the Base (b) to the collector
as shown. The value of the 'Ve
~hart
resistance sh"Ou Id become
ofter the jumper Is removed, indicating that the
Iess than ii was In Step 2.
gale is functioning properly. (However, In some
Instances, the lest circuit resi stance may be too +Leod~Leod
4. Again leav e the meter con·
high for a positive check of ga te operation. Then,
an external gate firing pulse will be required.)
nected as in Step 2, but this +~ +
lime, short the base lo the ewe
emitter as shown. The resist-

(The ohmmeter should be used only to reveal open

ance should become much
greater than in Step 2. Short~
o r shorted units and operation of gale. For a positive
check, test SCRs a l roted voltage and current values.)

TESTING SI LICO N CO NTROLLED RECTIFI ERS TESTIN G TRA N SISTO RS

systems. I n many plants, two or
more of each of these instruments
with different ranges and capabili-
ties are on hand for different appli-
cations and to meet the possibility
of troubleshooting or testing in dif-
ferent locations at the same time.
Another instrument basic to good
electrical maintenance is the insula-
tion-resistance tester. This instru-
ment helps to detect, diagnose and
prevent troubles in electrical equip-
ment by providing a good indica-
tion of the condition of electrical
insulation. Insulation - resistance
testers should always be included in
the complement of portable test in-
struments.
Two additional instruments,
which only recently have gained
widespread acceptance, are the re-
cording meter and the motor over-
load relay tester. Many types of
recording meters have been avail-
103
able fo1· some time; however recent
des igns offer more advantages at
lower costs. The motor overload
relay tester, a relatively inexpen-
sive compact unit, provides a safe
and simple means of testing motor
protective devices. As a result, mo-
tor failures due to faulty overload
relays can be minimized.
In addition, there are many other
indicating instruments which help
increase electrical troubleshooting
 and maintenance efficiency. These
include relatively inexpensive but
very useful items-phase-sequence
indicator, magnetic voltage indi-
cator, transistorized stethoscope,
and tachometer. Other useful in-
struments include ac and de volt-
meters ; industrial analyzers; porta-
ranges; wattmeters; power factor
meters; industrial analyzers, porta-
ble capacitance and resistance
bridges; oil dielectric test sets and
protective relay testers.
For electronic testing and trou-
bleshooting, portable high-imped-
ance meters (20,000 ohms per volt),
vacuum-tube voltmeters, oscillo-
scopes, signal tracers, tube and
transistor checkers, and oscillo-
graphic recorders are popular in-
struments utilized.
To complete the complement of
portable indicating instruments,
many special types of test equip-
ment are available for specific ap-
plications.
Cf:~·:e
'~' 11t1t141r
Phase sequence adopter
Voltage leads
3 phase line
Volt -Ohm-Ammeter
The volt- ohm - ammeter, often
called a multimeter or VOM, is a
highly versatile test instrument
capable of measuring voltage, re-
sistance and low values of de cur-
rent. When us ing this instrument,
it is essential to know its character-
istics and limitations.
Accuracy-Meter accuracy is de-
termined by the amount of current
required to drive the pointer or
needle full scale-the smaller the
current, the more accurate and sen-
sitive the meter. Another way of
expressing meter sensitivity (which
determines accuracy) is in ohms-
per-volt. This indicates the imped-
ance the meter presents to the cir-
cuit when used as a voltmeter. Most
multimeters are rated 1000, 5000 or
20,000 ohms-per-volt. Meters hav-
ing a sensitivity of 20,000 ohms-
per-volt have higher accuracy be-
cause their higher impedance least
CLAMP-ON RANGE EXTEND ER permits
measurement of high currents beyond the
range of the clomp·on volt-ammeter. Unit
shown extends current range ten t imes-
ollows actual current reading of I 000
amps oc on 0-100-omp meter scole.
CUR RENT MULTIPLIER permits current
measurement on low-current equipment.
Device multiplies load current IX, 5X, or
I OX. Diagram A shows connections for
measuring current on permanently wired
motor. For this connection, shorting cop
must be attached to device. In B, line cur-
rent of plug-connected motor is easily
measured using the current multiplier.
PH ASE SEQUENCE INDICATING AT-
TAC HMENT is used in conjunction with
the voltmeter circuit of the clomp-on volt-
ommeter. To determine phase sequence,
the circuit voltage is first measured. Then,
connections ore mode os shown in the dia -
gram. If the meter reading is higher than
the origi nal circuit voltage, the phase
sequence is block-yellow-red. If the meter
reading is below original circuit voltage,
the phase sequence is red-yellow-block.
104
loads the circuit under test. How-
ever, most available multimeters in
all three ratings provide readings
accurate enough for general use in
industrial plants.
El ecfronic circuit testing - Be-
cause many electronic circuits have
a very high impedance, a multi-
meter having a sensitivity of 20,000
ohms-per-volt should be used to ob-
tain accurate voltage readings.
Electronic testing with low-imped-
ance meters will not provide satis-
factory results. If, for example, a
5000-ohms-per-volt meter is used, it
will draw a portion of the current
from the circuit or component un-
der test. Because the current
through the test circuit is lowered,
it follows that the IR drop of the
test circuit is also lowered, which
res ults in inaccurate voltage read-
ings. If a high-impedance meter is
not available, the accuracy of a 1000
or 5000-ohms-per-volt meter can be
improved by using the highest prac-
tical scale during the test. This
provides additional impedance in
the meter circuit, decreasing the
loading effect the meter has on the
test circuit.
Using the mtdtimeter - When
using the multimeter always con-
sider your personal safety first.
Know the voltage levels and shock
hazards related to all equipment to
be tested. Be sure your meter has
been tested and calibrated (port-
able test instruments should be in-
spected and calibrated at least once
a year).
Never try to take voltage read-
ings on distribution circuits rated
over 600 volts. Measurement of
high voltages is accomplished by
permanently installed instrument
transformers and meters. To ob-
tain indication of high voltage, a
high-voltage neon indicator may be
used.
When making measurements, be
sure that the meter selector and
range switches are in the correct
position for the circuit to be tested.
To prevent damage to the needle,
always use a range that insures
less than full scale deflection of the
needle. Also, a ~ to mid-scale de-
flection of needle provides the most
accurate readings.
If possible when making meas-
urements, de-energize the circuit
under test before attaching the me-
ter leads to the desired test point.a.
Then, energize the circuit to take
the readings. To disconnect the
meter, again de-energize the cir-
cuit.
CURRENT MEASUREMENT wi th o
clomp-on volt-ammeter requires core
when toking readings. Stroy magnetic
fields from relay magnet coils or trans-
formers con cause erroneous readings.
Frequency of test circuit must be within
the calibrated frequency range of the
instrument.
Capacitors can be tested with a
multimeter using the ohms scale.
Set the . meter selector switch on
ohms and the resistance range se-
lector on R x 10,000. Lift one ca-
pacitor lead from the circuit, and
short capacitor terminals for one to
two minutes to drain off any re-
maining voltage charge. This not
only eliminates the shock hazard
but also prevents damage to the
ohmmeter from excessive voltage.
When the meter test leads are
touched to the capacitor terminals,
a shorted capacitor will cause a
large deflection of the needle. A
capacitor with a high leakage will
cause a partial deflection of the
pointer.
Capacitors of 0.05 mfd and
smaller should have a resistance
not less than 10 megohms. Large
capacitors (1 mfd and larger)
should have a resistance of at least
1 megohm. Usually, a capacitor is
good if the needle swings up scale
and then back again when the meter
leads are touched to the terminals.
Electrolytic capacitors are more
difficult to check because they have
low leakage resistance. If you can
obtain a reading of at least 100,000
ohms, the electrolytic capacitor is
usually good. The best check for an
electrolytic capacitor in the absence
of a capacitance bridge is by direct
substitution of a good capacitor.
Simple tests for solid-state recti-
fiers and transistors using the ohm-
MOTOR OVERLOAD RELAY TESTER
provides o safe and efficient means of
testing thermal and magnetic motor
overload relays and small circuit break-
ers. This relatively inexpensive instru-
ment tests protective devices for proper
operation ond time-delay tri p and allows
calibration adjustment.
meter are described in an accom-
panying illustration. The ohm-
meter is also useful for circuit trac-
ing in de-energized control circuits,
and to take resistance readings of
circuit components. These resist-
ance readings can later be used for
comparison during troubleshooting.
Many multimeters are equipped
with a de current scale for reading
low values of direct current. Usu-
ally, the current range has a max-
imum of 500 milliamperes. This
function is useful when testing or
troubleshooting electronic equip-
ment. For higher current readings,
the clamp-on volt-ammeter provides
an easy means of measuring cur-
rent.
Clamp-On Volt-Ammeter
Most clamp-on volt-ammeters arc
designed to read alternating cur-
rent only, although some types are
available which will read direct cur-
rent as well. Also, most are pro-
vided with plug-in leads so that the
instruments can be used as a volt-
meter. Some models can also be
used as an ohmmeter.
Using the clamp-on volt-ammete1·
- Although the clamp-on volt-am-
meter is easy to use, care must be
taken to obtain accurate readings.
For example, be sure that the fre-
quency of the circuit under test is
within the range of the instrument.
105
RECORDING AMMETER monitors motor
running current at motor controller. In.
termittent overcu rrent prompted use of
recorder to determine source of trouble.
Recording meters which provide con-
tinuous records of voltage, wattage,
power factor, or frequency, etc. ore val-
uable aids in troubleshooting.
Many of these instruments are cali-
brated at 60 cycles.
Also, take care that stray mag-
netic field s do not affect the cur-
rent reading. When taking current
readings, try to arrange conductors
so that they are as far removed as
possible from the conductor under
test. If testing is being done in a
control panel, try to take the current
readings at a location remote from
relay magnet coils which could in-
fluence the accuracy of the reading.
Also, avoid taking current readings
on conductors at a point close to a
transformer.
If current readings must be taken
on high-voltage conductors, always
use a hot-line e.id:ension pole spe-
cifically designed for use with the
clamp-on volt-ammeter.
To read currents higher than the
highest current range of the clamp-
on volt-ammeter, an accessory
clamp-on current transformer can
be used. This device extends the
instrument cunent reading capa-
bilities. As an example, one type
provides a 10-to-1 current division
-an actual current flow of 1000
amps will indicate 100 amps on the
clamp-on volt-ammeter. Then the
known multiplication factor of 10
is applied resulting in a reading
of 10 x 100 amps = 1000 amps.
For measuring very low currents,
similar current-transformer acces-
sories are used.
 DATA SHEET
Know Bearing Types
And Functions for
Proper Replacement
SELF-ALIGNING BALL BEAR INGS
The self-aligning boll bearing, with two
rows of bolls rolling on the spherical sur-
face of the outer ring, compensotes for
ongulor misalignment resulting from errors
in mounting, shaft deflection and distor-
tion of the foundation. It is impossible for
this bearing to exert any bending influ-
ence on the shaft, o most importont
consideration in opplicotions requiring
extreme occurocy, at high speeds. Self-
oligning boll bearings are used for radia l
loods and moderate thrust loads in either
direction.
SINGLE-ROW, DEEP-GROOVE
BALL BEARINGS
The single-row, deep-groove boll bearing
will sustain, in addition to radial load, o
substantial thrust load in either direction,
even at very high speeds. This advantage
results from the intimate contact existing
between the balls and the deep, continu-
ous groove in each ring. When using this
type of bearing, careful alignment be-
tween the shaft and housing is essential.
This bearing is also available with seals
and shields, which serve ta exclude dirt
and retain lubricant.
ANGULAR-CONTACT BALL BEARINGS
The angular-contact boll bearing supports
a heavy thrust load in one direction, some-
times combined with a moderate radial
load. A steep contact angle, assuring the
highest thrust capacity and axial rigidity,
is obtained by o high th.rust-supporting
shoulder on the inner ring and o similar
high shoulder an the opposite side of the
outer ring. These bearings can be mounted
singly or, when the sides are flush ground,
in tandem for constant thrust in one direc-
tion; mounted in pairs, also when sides
are flush ground, for a combined load,
either face-to-face or back-to-bock.
DOUBLE -ROW, DEEP-GROOVE
BALL BEARINGS
The double-row, deep-groove boll bearing
embodies the same principle of design as
the single row bearing. However, this
bearing has a lower axial disp lacement
than occurs in the single-row design, sub-
stantial thrust capacity in either direc-
tion, and high radial capacity due to the
two rows of bolls.
Doto Sheet compiled by SKF Industries, Inc., Philadelphia, Po.
106
Each bearing type has characteristics which
make it the best choice for a certain applica-
tion. Replacement should be made with the
same type bearing. The following list of fun c-
tions provide a basic understanding of bear-
ing application, a guide to analysis of bearing
troubles due to misapplication. and emphasize
the importance of proper replacement.
SPHERICAL·ROLLER BEARINGS
The spherical-roller bearing, due to the
number, size and shape of the rollers, and
the accuracy with which they ore guided,
hos maximum capacity. Since the bearing
is inherently self-aligning, angular mis-
alignment between the shaft and housing
hos no detrimental effect, and the full
capacity is always available for useful
work. The design and proportion · ore such
that, in addition to radial load, thrust
loads may be carried in either direction.
CYLINDRICAL-ROLLER BEARINGS
The cylindrical-roller bearing hos high
radial capacity and provides accurate
guiding of the rollers, resulting in a close
approach to true rolling. Consequent low
friction permits operation at high speed.
Those types which hove flanges on one
ring only, allow o limited free axial move·
ment of the shaft in relation to the hous-
ing. They ore easy to dismount even when
both rings ore mounted with a tight fit.
The double-row type is particularly suit-
able for machine-tool spindles.
BAll·THRUST BEARINGS
The boll-thrust bearing is designed for
thrust load in one direction only. The load
line through the bolls in parallel to the
axis of the shaft, resulting in high thrust
capacity and minimum axial deflection.
Flot seats ore preferred for heavy loads or
for close ax ial positioning of the shaft.
SPHERICAL-ROLLER THRUST BEARINGS
The spherical-roller thrust bearing is de-
signed to carry heavy thrust loads, or
combined loads which ore predominantly
thrust. This bearing hos o single row of
rollers which roll on a spherical outer race
with full self-alignment. The cage, cen-
tered by on inner ring sleeve, is con·
structed so that lubricant is pumped di-
rectly against the inner ring's unusually
high guide flange. This bearing operates
best with relatively heavy-oil lubrication.
TAPERED-ROLLER BEARINGS
Since the oxes of its rollers and raceways
form on angle with the shaft axis, the
tapered-roller bearing is especially suite·
ble for carrying radial and axial loads act-
ing simultaneously. A bearing of this type
usually must be adjusted toward another
bearing capable of carrying thrust loads
in the opposite direction. Tapered roller
bearings ore separable-their cones (in ner
rings) with rollers and their cups (ou ter
rings) ore mounted separately.
DATA SHEET
Do's and Don'ts for Ball-Bearing
Assembly, Maintenance,
Inspection and Lubrication
DO
DO work with clean tools, in clean surroundings.
DO remove oil outside dirt from housing before exposing
bearing.
DO treat o used bearing as carefully as o new one.
DO use clean solvents and flushing oils.
DO lay b earings out on clean paper.
DO protect disassembled bearings from dirt
moisture.
DO use clean, lint-free rags to wipe bearings.
DO kee p bearings wrapped in oil-proof paper when not
in use.
DO clean outside of housing before replacing bearings.
DO keep bearing lubrica nts clean when applying and
cover containers when not in use.
DO be sure shaft size is within specified tolerances
recommended for the bearing.
DO store bearings in original unopened cartons in o
dry place.
DO use o clean, short-b ristle brush with firmly embedded
bristles lo remove dirt, scale or chips.
DO be certain that, when installed, the bearing is square
with and held firmly against the shaft shoulder.
DO follow lubricating instructions supplied with the
machinery. Use only grease where grease is specified;
use only .oil where oil is specified. Be sure to use the
exact kind of lubricant called for.
DO ha ndle grease with clean paddles or crease nuns.
Store grease in clean containers. Keep grease conrorners
covered.
Compilod bv SKF Industries, Inc., Philad e lphia, Po.
DON'T
DON'T work under the handicap of poor tools, rough
bench, or dirty surroundings.
DON'T use dirty, brittle or chipped tools.
DON'T handle bearings with dirty, moist hands.
DON'T spin uncleaned bearing.
DON'T spin any bearings with compressed air.
and DON'T use same container for cleaning and final rinse
of bearings.
DON'T scratch or nick bearing surfaces.
DON'T remove grease or oil from new bearings.
DON'T use incorrect kind or amount of lubricant.
DON'T use o bearing as a gauge to check either the
housing bore or the shaft fit.
DON'T install o bearing on a shaft that shows excessive
wear.
DON'T open carton until bearing is ready for installation.
DON'T judge the condition of o bearing until ofter it hos
been cleaned.
DON'T pound directly on o bearing or ring, when in-
stalling, as this may cause damage to shaft and bearing.
DON'T overfill when lubricating. Excess grease and oil
will ooze out of the overfilled housings post seals and
closures, collect dirt and cause trouble. Too much lubri-
cant will also cause overheating, particularly whe re
bearings operate at high speeds.
DON'T permit any machine to stand inoperative for
months without turning it ove r periodically. This prevents
moisture which may condense in o standing bearing from
causing corrosion.
107
DATA SHEET

Pump motor troubleshooting chart

This troubleshooting and repair guide aids swift location
of elect?·ical troubles in modern pump installations.

Symptom Probable Cause Remedy

Motor fails to start Loss of supply voltage Check voltage across all phases above disconnect switch.

Blown or defective line fuses; Check voltage below fuses (all phases) with disconnect
tripped line circuit breaker closed.

Overload t rips are open Push reset button.

Defective holding coil in mag- Push start button and allow sufficient time for operation of
netic switch time delay, if used, then check voltage across magnetic
holding coil. If correct voltage is measured, coil is defective.
If no voltage is measured, control circuit is open.

Loose or poor connections in Make visual inspection of all connections in control circ uit,
control circuit or make spot circuit checks.

Poor contact Open manual disconnect switch, close magnetic switch bl{
hand and examine contactors and springs.

Open line circuit in control Check voltage at Tl·T2-T3; check magnetic contactor.
panel

Open circuit in leads to motor Check voltage at leads.

Leads improperly connected Check lead numbers and connections.

Motor fails to come up to speed Low or incorrect voltage Check voltage at Tl, T2 and T3 in control panel and at
motor leads.

Incorrect connection at motor Check for proper lead connections at motor, compare with
connection diagram on motor.

Overload mechanical Check impeller setting. Check for a locked or tight shaft.

Overload hydraulic Check impeller setting. Check GPM against pump capacity
and head.
Motor runs hot Inadequate ventilation Assure adequate supply of fresh air. Check ai r bl~st
through motor by feeling air discharge at bottom of motor.

Overload Check load with ammeter

Unbalanced supply voltage Check supply voltage phases with voltmeter.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Motor vibrates Headshaft misaligned Removed top drive coupling and check alignment of motor
to pump.

Worn lineshaft bearings or bent Disconnect motor from pump and run motor only to deter·
lineshaft m ine source of vibration

Hydraulic disturbance in dis· Check isolation joint in discharge piping near pump liead
charge piping
~~~~~~~~~~~~~- -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- -~~~~~~

Motor noisy Worn thrust bearing Remove dust cover. rotate rotor by hand and make visual
examination of balls and races. (Bearing noise is usually
accompanied by a high frequency vibration.)

Electrical noise Most motors are electrically noisy during the starting period.
This noise should diminish as motor reaches full speed.

Source: U. S. Electrical Motors. Div. of Emerson Electric, St. Louis

108
DATA SHEET

Selecting capacitors for PF correction

at motor terminals
Handy tables determine amount of corrective kvar 'required
where capacitors are individually connected at motor loads.

Individual capacitor installat ion

Generally, the most effective method of power factor correction is installa-
tion of capacitors at the source of poor power factor- the induction
motor. This not only increases power factor but also releases system
capacity, improves voltage stability and reduces power losses.

Table I-Suggested maximum capacitor rating when motor and capacitor are switched as a unit.
CFor 3·phase, 60·cycle NEMA Class B motors to raise full·load power factor to 95%)

Nominal Motor Speed i n RPM

3600 1800 1200 900 720 600

lnduc-
tlon Line
I Line
I Line Line
I Line
I Line
Motor Capaci- Current Cap aci- Current Capaci- Current Capacl- Current Capaci- Current Capati· Current
Horse· tor Redue- tor Reduc- tor Reduc· tor Ro due· tor Reduc- tor Re due·
Power Rating ti on Rating ti on Rating ti on Rating tlon Rating ti on Rating tlon
Rating KVAR % KVAR % KVAR % KVAR % KVAR % KVAR %
3 1.5 14 1.5 15 1.5 20 2 27 2.5 35 3.5 41
5 2 12 2 13 2 17 3 25 4 32 4.5 37
7 1/2 2.5 11 2.5 12 3 15 4 22 5.5 30 6 34
10 3 10 3 11 3.5 14 5 21 6.5 27 7.5 31
15 4 9 4 10 5 13 6.5 18 8 23 9.5 27
20 5 9 5 10 6.5 12 7.5 16 9 21 12 25
25 6 9 6 10 7.5 11 9 15 11 20 14 23
30 7 8 7 9 9 11 10 14 12 18 16 22
40 9 8 9 9 11 10 12 13 15 16 2o 20
50 12 8 11 9 13 10 15 12 19 15 24 19
60 14 8 14 8 15 10 18 11 22 15 27 19
75 17 8 16 8 18 10 21 10 26 14 32.5 18
100 22 8 21 8 25 9 27 10 32.5 13 40 17
125 27 8 26 8 30 9 32.5 10 40 13 47.5 16
150 32.5 8 30 8 35 9 37.5 10 47.5 12 52.5 15
200 40 8 37.5 8 42.5 9 47.5 10 60 12 65 14
250 50 8 45 7 52.5 8 57.5 9 70 11 77.5 13
30d 57.5 8 52.5 7 60 8 65 9 80 11 87.5 12
350 65 8 60 7 67.5 8 75 9 87.5 10 95 11
400 70 8 65 6 75 8 85 9 95 10 105 11
450 75 8 67.5 6 80 8 92.5 9 100 9 110 li
500 77.5 8 72.5 6 82.5 8 97.5 9 107.5 9 115 10

Source: Sprague Electric Co.

109
 in the practical application range of
static power-control devices. In the
lower voltage and current range-
Power control with up to approximately 50 amps at 200
volts-transistors serve effectively
as power control devices; the SCR
Silicon performs well at all voltages up to
about 800 volts, at currents up to
an approximate average of 300

Controlled amps; for very high voltages ( up to

11,000 volts) and high currents,
ignitrons are most su itable as
s hown in the graph in Fig. 1.
Rectifiers Operation

Fig. 2 presents a physical analogy

This tiny but powerful semiconductor device opens up a which illustrates the basic operat-
ing principle of the s ilicon con-
completely new concept of ultra-high-speed power con- trolled rectifier.
trol. And in hundreds of different applications, it is In Fig. 2c, if a current of suffi-
cient mag nitude is applied to the
replacing thyratrons, relays, contactors, timers, vacuu;n gat.e (latch) , the SCR will trigger
or start to conduct. This allows
tubes, magnetic amplifiers and many other basic devices. flow of forward current, which is
limi ted only by the external cir-
cuitry. This action is accomplished
BY JO HN C. HEY, Application Engineering Center, in about one microsecond. Remov-
R ectifier Components Dept., General Electric Co., Auburn, N. Y. ing the gate signal will not take the
device out of t he conducting state.
To "turn off" t he device, the flow of

T
HE silicon controlled rectifier
(SCR) is a static switch, a rec-
tifier and an amplifier capable of
contr olling large blocks of power.
As an amplifier, it will switch or
conduct heavy currents when com-
manded by very low-level signals.
As a rectifier, it conducts currents
in only one direction-a definite ad-
vantage in de control circuits. And
as a solid-state switch, the SCR can
be turned on in one to four micro-
seconds, off in 25 to 50 microsec-
onds, while conducting currents up
to 470 amps.
The SCR's rapid climb (it was
introduced in 1957) to nearly uni-
versal use can be attributed to its
many desirable characteristics. For
example, it can operate at high volt-
ages and can conduct high currents;
it can switch at high-speeds ( mil-
liont h of a second) but has no
moving parts; it is small in size a nd
light in weight; it requires very
little drive (control) current ; and
it has no inherent wear-out mech-
a nisms, thus providing for little
maintenance and long life.
In addition, the SCR fills a gap
forward current must be inter-
rupted by removing t he SCR anode
voltage, or reversed by placing a
negative voltage on the anode using
appropriate circuitry (this method
is explained later on in the discus-
sion of a de to ac inverter) .
When the SCR anode is re-
verse biased (forward current re-
versed), the SCR regains its block-
ing state in about 25 to 50 micro-
seconds. If the anode current is just
interrupted without placing t he
negative voltage on the anode, turn-
off time may be as high as 100 mi-
croseconds.

Ratings and Characterist ics

Thyrotrons ::
,...
t ond ,...
ignitrons
Silicon controlled rectifiers are
classified according to their capabil-
"'
cu
L
'Silicon ity to carry forward current and
~ 100 controlled their range of blocking voltage. Also
rectifier
E
..3
....c: . Transistors significant are peak reverse voltage
(PRV) ratings, wh ich indicate
QJ
L
L
maximum voltage level allowable in
..,:::> - the reverse direction; and peak non-
"'g 10
r ecurrent s urge current ratings,
L
cu which specify the SCR's instantane-
:>
<t ous overcurrent capacity. An ac-
companying photo shows relative
s izes of typical silicon controlled
rec t i fie rs.
1.0 In application, SCRs with rat-
1.0 10 100 1000 10,000 ings somewhat in excess of the de-
Anode vo ltage (volts) -
s ign requirements are employed.
FIG. 1 -Ronge of capabilities of power control devices. However, the maximum continuous

110
 Anode
For word
current
II1I
Forward Gate
- L •
voltage, (V1) ~ Gate
voltoge
_L_ \ ~
Cathode._ .)
Gate current (I 9 )

FIG. 2-Hydroulic analogy to SCR operation. In o, the barrier
blocks forward flow of liquid and th e system is in a state of
quiescence (blocking stotel. If a small force is applied to the
lotch the barrier slams open, and the energy of the system
is released !liquid flows) as shown in b. Flow of energy cannot
be stopped by releasing the force applied to the lotch. Thus,
full control of the system cannot be obtained at the latch;
the system can only be tu rned "on" ot this control po in t. To
close the barrier, the flow of curren t must be interrupted or
the flow must be reversed.
Also significant is the amount of fluid that the barrie r con
block. When· the amount of liquid exceeds the critical height
h, the latch con no longer hold and the barrier opens. Thus,
it is apparent that when the blocked energy reaches a certain
critical magnitude, it hos the some effect on the latch os
the external triggering force.
In c, if a current of sufficient magnitude is applied to the
gate (latch), the SCR will trigger or start to conduct. This al -
lows flow of forwa rd current, wh ich is limited only by the exter-
nal circuitry. Removing the gate signal will not toke the device
out of the conducting state. To "turn-off" the de vice, the flow
of forward current must be in terrupted or reversed.

current rating defines the maximum voltage delivered by a val'iable

operating temperature of the device.
Therefore, its current rating should
never be exceeded and proper cool-
ing should always be maintained .
Simple thermal overload devices
provide adequate protection during
moderate overloads, but special
means such as quick-blow fuses are
required for protection against high
overloads.
To provide overvoltag.~ protec-
tion, standard approaches employ-
ing devices such as surge voltage
transformer. However, the method
of obtain ing the variance is entirely
different. Fig. 3 shows this differ-
ence in waveform for the same ef-
fective (RMS) load voltage.
By varying the retard (or firing)
angle, Ct, and allowing the SCR (s)
to conduct for only a port ion of the
half cycle (this portion being the
conduction angle /3), the voltage to
the load is varied. During the t ime
a all t he voltage is on the SCR
(blocking voltage) and during t he
rf 7omp5
400 volts

'
s uppressors, RC networks and non- time f3 essentially all the voltage is

linear resistors are often used.
Voltage transients are another
possible source of trouble. These
transients could cause the SCR to
turn "on" without a gate signal.
When this trouble occurs, the addi-
tion of capacitor circuits will usu-
ally eliminate the problem, but this
adds complexity. The best solution
is to eliminate the source of the
transient voltage or isolate the SCR
from the transient; or employ an
SCR with sufficient transient capa-
bility.
Phase-Control Applications
A significant portion of SCR ap-
plications are built arou·nd I.he prin-
ciple of phase control. By phase
controlling a voltage to a load, the
effective voltage delivered is varied
from zero to full voltage. The effect
of a phase-controlled voltage on a
load is similar to that of a variable
on the load. This means that the
rms output voltage is directly re-
lated to the amount of time per half
cycle that the SCR conducts. As a
result, the output voltage can be
accurately controlled by varying
conduction time of the SCR.
Note that it is the fast switching
ability of the SCR that has made
phase-control applications so prac-
tical. Because it is capable of
switching within microseconds, the
SCR can be made to "fire" or con-
duct at any point in the positive
half cycle.
Motor s peed control - F ig. 4
shows a simple SCR phase-control
application for speed control of a
universal motor. The circuit not
only provides stable speed control
over approximately a 3-1 range but
a lso has a feedback provision, which
maintains constant speed regardless
of torque requirements. The circuit
uses the counter emf of the arma-
•
35omps
800 volts
235 amps llOamps l.6amps
600volts 400 volts 400 volts
SMALL IN SIZE, light in weight, silicon
con tro lled rectifiers hove hig h current
ond voltage copobilities.
ture (due to residual field) to initi-
ate the feedback phenomena. Note
that rewiring is not required.
During the positive half cycle of
the supply voltage, the arm on po-
tentiometer R2 taps off a fraction
of t he sine-wave supply voltage
through Rl and compares it with

111

E1ourc1 -
(a) Variable trans former control
FIG. 3- Phase control vori es the rms vol tage by ini t iat ing curren t flow
a t specific times (firing angle) during the vo ltage sine wove. Although
the theory of control is different, o variable tro nsformer provides the same
result In the control of voltoge.
Fuse
R2
Speed
control
500ohms
2 watts
6RS20SP484
To Optional
117v OC voltoqe
GO cps transient
protection
FIG. 4-SCR motor speed control uses phase-control principle for variable
speed regulation of o universal motor. Feature of control is Its small size,
which ls approximately 2-in. wide, 2-in. high and 4-in. long.
t he counter emf of the motor at t he
gate of the SCR. When the "pot"
(R2) voltage rises above the arma-
ture counter emf, the current
flows through CR! into t he gate of
the SCR, triggering the SCR, and
t hus applying the remainder of that
half cycle of supply voltage to the
motor. If load is applied to the
motor, its speed tends to decrease,
thus decreasing the counter emf in
proportion to speed. Because the
armature counter emf is decreased,
t he sine wave "pot" voltage causes
current to flow into the SCR gate
earlier in the cycle. As a result, the
SCR triggers earlier in the cycle
and additional voltage is applied to
the armature to compensate for the
increased load and to maintain t he
- - - -
I
I
I
- -
(bl Phase control
SCR
Cl58
>+----i
Receptacle
for
motor plug
Universal motor
Approx. 2 amp
Mox rotinq
preset speed. The particular speed
at which the motor operates can be
selected by R2.
Rectifier CRl prevents excessive
reverse voltage on the gate of the
SCR. CR2 prevents the inductive
field current in the motor from
"free-wheeling" in the SCR gate
circuit. R3 is used to set the min-
imum motor speed at a stable non-
hunting level. R4 and Cl also im-
prove stability by by-passing
commutator hash around the gate of
the SCR.
Temperature controller circuit
- A temperature sensor (usually a
thermistor or thermocouple) tracks
the temperature to be controlled.
As temperature drops, t he sensor
causes the trigger circui t to fire the
SCR earlier in t he cycle. Wit h the
ERMS SCR firing earlier, more power is
delivered to the heating elements,
and thus the temperature rises.
Conversely, as temperature rises,
the sensor causes the SCR to fire
later in the cycle; therefore, less
power is deliver ed to the heating
elements.
Thyratron replacement - The
silicon controlled rectifier is finding
application wher e previously the
- - ERMS magnetic amplifier and the thyra-
tron reigned supreme. Packaged
SCR circuitll for direct ( plug-in )
thyratron replacement are available
and provide significant advantages,
which include: 1) reliability-if
properly applied, t here is no failure
mechanis m in the silicon controlled
rectifier; 2) no filament or heater
power, providing instantaneous op-
eration and lower package tempera-
ture; 3) lower forward voltage drop
- this means higher efficiency and
cooler operation; and 4) rugged
package.
Lamp dimmer-Fig. 5 illustrates
a basic circuit which provides step-
less control of a 10-kw incandescent
la mp load. The lighting level, which
is dependent on the voltage across
the lamps, can be varied from full
brightness to off. The lamps a re
controlled by adjusting the SCR fi r-
ing angle (point of conduction ) by
means of t he trigger circuit manual
control. Thus, voltage to the lamps
is varied thr ough phase control.
Due to t he positive temperature
coefficient of incandescent filament
lamps, t his type of circu it must
handle very high inrush currents
when starting cold lamps. To reduce
the inrush cu rrent to within the
shor t-term rati ngs of the SCR's, a
current-limiting circuit is required.
This circuit senses high curr ents,
phases back the SCR and reduces
the output voltage.
A delay circuit provides addi-
tional protection. If the circuit is
initially energized with full output
called for, the delay circuit causes
the firing angle of the SCR's to re-
tard full output over a period of
several cycles of line frequency.
This decreases initial cunent in-
rush.
De to ac inverter- Another one
of the rapidly expand ing applica-
tions for the SCR is the conversion
of de to ac. The SCR parallel in-
verter provides a practical method
of accomplishing this inversion.
Fig. 6 shows a basic circuit con-
figuration .
A trigger circu it applies a gate

11 2
117voc
60cps
Load
current
sensor

Manual control
Deloy
circuit

FIG. 5- 10-kw, SCR lomp dimmer circuit uses phoso-control FIG. 6-SCR inverter converts de to oc or functions os on oc
pri nciple to vory voltoge to lomps. Phose shift of the slg no l is to oc frequency chonger. Applicotions include use os fre-
controlled monuolly. Load-current sensi ng circuit o nd de loy quency chonger for high-frequency lighting, stond by power
circuit provide overcurrent protection. supplies ond induction hooters.

current alternately to the gates of
SCRl and SGR2. When SCRl is
conducting and SCR2 is blocking,
t he current from supply E will then
flow through the left-hand s ide of
the transformer. Auto t r ansformer
action will produce a voltage of a p-
proximately 2E at the anode of
SCR2 and across capacitor C. When
the next trigger pulse is applied to
the gate of SCR2, it will turn on,
and the top end of L will rise mo-
mentarily to about 2E. This rever se
biases SCRl and causes it to turn
off. Then, the next trigger pulse
will occur at the gate of SCRl and
the circuit reverts to the original
state. In this manner, the cu r rent
from the supply E will flow alter-
nately through the two s ides of the
transformer primary and produce
an ac voltage at the load.
The output is essentially a square
wave at operating frequencies be-
low 3 kc. Also, by rectifying the
output voltage, the circuit makes an
efficient de to de converter in appli-
cat ions such as power supplies for
mobile transmitters.
In addition, an ac input can be
rectified to provide the primary
power for the inverter, in which
case it then functions as a fre-
quency changer.
Frequency changers find an im-
portant application in the area of
high-frequency lighting. As higher
frequency SCRs a r e developed, im-
proved frequency changer s will be-
come available. These will power
high-frequency lighting systems
providing increased lamp and bal-
last efficiency as well as decreased
ballast size and longer lamp life. At any of the beams, including loss of
present, operation at frequencies as line voltage or failure of a ny light
high as 10 kc is being considered. source, will activate the alarm or
The parallel inverter is only one interlock.
of a number of basic types of SCR The SCR-controlled li ft truck and
inver ters. Inverter applications are other similar battery-powered ve-
many nnd varied and include such hicles are additional r ecent applica-
things as standby power supplies, tions. SCR inverters and choppers
induction heaters, ultrasonic gen- allow stepless acceleration and op-
erators and sonar transmitters. eration at all speeds at full efficiency
in terms of battery power consump-
N ew Devices tion. As an example, a typical bat-
tery-powered vehicle r ecently made
Silicon controlled rectifiers with available is an SCR-controlled
improved capabilities as well as new (chopper ) golf cart. This vehicle
devices, which a re outgrowths of has an operating time of over 100
the ever-expanding SCR technology, holes and is equipped with a fully
are appearing and broadening the automatic charger for overnight re-
areas of application. The Gate charging.
Turn-Off SCR (GTO ) and the
Ligh t Activnted Switch (LAS) are
typical examples. The GTO is a
silicon controlled rectifier fabri -
cated so t hnt it can be turned off by
a negative gate current. This is one
step closer to the continuous control
that is possible wit h a transistor,
while r etaining the high power ca-
pability a nd switching character-
istics of the SCR. The LAS is a
two-leaded, SCR-type device ( no
gate lead), which is triggered into
conduction with light, both visible
and infrared.
Application possibilities for the
LAS include such things as safety
interlocks for machinery or for
plant secul'ity a larm systems. Using FURN ACE TEM PERATURE is controlled
str ategically located LAS's and by SCR circuitry. Control system offers
infrared light beams, the LAS high reliobility ond less mointenonce be-
cause the SCR, acting os o solid-stote
alarm system is foolproof provided switch, con "moke ond brcok" high-
that the alarm circuitry is phys- current circuitry indefini tely with mini-
ically isolated. Any interruption of mum ottention.

113
 15 ampere 20 ampere 30 ampere
Receptacle Plug cop Receptacle Plug cop Peceptocle Plug cop

~
Q)
'-
'j
I
125 v
~ C0
N 1·15R 1-15P

L:_
Q)

8 8 B CG @
a.
I
N
250V

2- 15P 2·20R 2·20P 2·30R 2-30P

~
O>

·-cc
"O
:::>
0
c...
O>
Q)
125 v

5-15R
@ @
5-15P 5-20R
@ @
5· 20P
'@ *@
wr
OG
0 c:i.Jw
5-30R 5-30 P
WG
I
'-

~ @ *@ * @
'j

--
I

@ @ @
r"l
Q)
250V CJ CJ

N
.
0
a.

6-15R 6-15P 6-20R 6·20P 6·30R 6·30P

~
277 V @) @ @) <{}) @ @
7·15R 7-15P 7-20R 7-20P 7-30R 7-30 P

~
Q)
'-

.
@ @ @
'j
ti')
Q)

0
a.
I
125/
250V
@
ti') I0-20R t0·20P 10-30R 10 -30P

~
3 cfi ti
250 V
*© *© '@ *© @ @ xc:=i

z~ /JY
11 · 15R 11·15 P ll-20R 11-20P II 30R l l -30P

O>
c
-0
c 125/
~ '@ ' @ ·~ '@ @ @
:::>
0 250V
'-
O>
Q) 14·15R 111-15P t4 -20R 14-20P 14·30R 14-30P

*@ *@
(..

~
@ *@ *@ --
*
'@
3:
..,,.
I
OG WG
-Q)
3 cfi ti
CJ
z9 x
CJ
x ~ z
.
0
a.
r()
250V

15-151l 15·15P 15-20R 15·20P 15·30R 15-30P

~ *
Q)
-
0
a.
I
<:J"..,,.
·-
Q)
c...
3:
I
HY
120/
208V
~ @
18·15R 18·15P
za

18·20R
aYI
=
y
ax
~
18-20P
*@ zO Ox
18-30R
Ov
[}:;
xi
18 ·30P
ly
lz

114
 50 ampere 60 ampere

Receptacle Plug cop Receptacle Plug cop

NEMA CONFIGURATIONS
FOR GENERAL-PURPOSE
NON LOCKING
RECEPTACLES
AND PLUG CAPS
On Moy 17 of this year, the Notional Electrical
*~ Manufacturers Association adopted a new set of

~
receptacle and plug-cop configurations for generol-
purpose, nonlocking devices. This significant develop-
ment is a major contribution to the field of electrical
5-50R 5-50P safety, and it hos been endorsed by various other
segments of the industry, such as Underwriters labo-
*~ *~ ratories', Inc., contractors, and key inspection organi-

e ~
6-50R 6-50P
zations.
Developed by the Wiring Device Section of NEMA,
the accompanying chart illustrates 75 various con-
figurations, which cover 38 voltage and current rat-
ings. The configurations represent existing devices

@@
7-50R 7-50P
as well as suggested standards (shown with on aster-
isk in the chart) for future design.
The work of the Wiring Device Section is of o con-
tinuing nature, and more configurations will be devel-
oped as the need arises. A parallel activity by the
Section concerns the development of standards for

@
10 -SOR 10-50P
locking-type receptacles and cops.
As indicated in the chart, unsafe interchangeability
hos been eliminated by assigning a unique configura-
tion to each voltage and current roting. All dual
ratings have been eliminated; and interchangeability
exists only where it does not present a hazardous
condition.
Each configuration is designated by a number com-
posed of the chart line number, the amperage, and
I I-SOR ll-50P
either "R" for receptacle or "P" for plug cop. For
example, a 5-l 5R is found in line 5, as a 15-omp re-
ceptacle.
Some of the configurations ore new and may not
yet be available. These ore identified in the chart by
on asterisk.
A clear distinction is mode in the configurations
Ill-SOR 14-50 P lll-60R 14-GOP between " System grounds" and " Equipment grounds."

*~ *@ *@ *@
System grounds, referred to as grounded conductors,
Oe We Oe we normally carry current at ground potential, and ter-
z
0
c::::J
c::::J
x xi --z z0 c::::J
c::::J x - _ lz
x
minals for such conductors are marked "W" for
y y y y "White" in the chart. Equipment grounds, referred to
os grounding conductors, carry current only during
15 -50R 15-50P 15-GOR 15-GOP ground-fault conditions, and terminals for such con-
ductors ore marked "G" for "Grounding" in the chart.
*
c::::J y
*~
xi :.z
-y
zO
Ow
Ox
c::::J y
Complete details on the configurations will be
found in NEMA Standards Publication, "General-Pur-
pose Wiring Devices, WD 1-1965."
18-SOR 18-50P 18 -GOR 18-60P

115
A handy checlclis6 on

Hazardous Location Equipment

Here's a practical, quick-reference checklist -0n the most used
National Electrical Code rules on electrical installations in Classes
I, II and III hazardous locations. Prepared by an engineer regu-
larly engaged in such work, the list provides a fast survey of rules
prior to design and a handy double-check for completed designs.

BY PAT D. MOURCES, Asst. to Director of Operations Service.~ Dept.

The Port of New York Authority, New York, N. Y.

ClaH I-Div. 1
A. Wiring Methods
1. Only rigid conduit or Type MI cable with ap-
proved termination fittings shall be installed.
2. Only explosion-proof boxes and fittings shall
be installed.
3. All threaded joints with at least five threads
fully engaged shall be provided.
4. Explosion-proof flexibl e fittings where re-
quired for motors and for lighting pendant
fixtures requiring stems longer than 12 in.
shall be insta lled.
B. Sealing-In each conduit run:
1. 18-in. or less from arc or high temperature
producing enclosures.
2. Any conduit 2 in. or larger entering any en-
closure or fitting for terminals, splices or taps.
3. Upon entering from a hazardous area to a less
hazardous area.
C. Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers
and Fuses (Current-Break Devices )
1. To be housed in enclosure and approved as a
complete assembly for Class I locations (ex-
plosion-proof) .
D. Motors and Generators
1. To be approved for Class I locations (explo-
sion-proof) .
E. Lighting Fixtures
1. Each fixture to be approved as a complete as-
sembly for locations of this class.
2. Clearly marked with maximum lamp wattage.
116
3. Be protected from mechanical injury by guard
or location.
4. Fixture intended for portable use to be clearly
approved for that use.
F. Utilization Equipment, Fixed and Portable (in.
eluding electrically heated and motor-driven
equipment)
1. To be approved for Class I (explosion-proof)
location.
G. Flexible Cords
1. To be used only between a portable lamp or a
portable appliance and the fixed portion of its
supply voltage.
a. No limitation as to length but cords may
not be cascaded to reach distant fixed r e-
ceptacles.
2. Be approved for extra hard usage.
3. Conta in a grounded conductor colored green.
4. Have all terminals connected in an approved
manner.
5. Be one continuous length without s plices or
taps.
6. Be s upported by clamps or other means to pre-
vent tension on terminal conductors.
7. To be provided with seals where cord enters
boxes or fittings of explosion-proof type.
H. Receptacles and Attachment Caps
1. To be of type providing for grounded conduc-
tor of flexible cord and approved for use in
Class I (explosion-proof) location.
I. Grounding
1. All exposed metal parts to be effectively
grounded.
Cla ss I- Div. 2
A. Wiring Methods
1. Threaded rigid metal conduit or Type MI
cable with approved fittings.
2. Standard (non-explosion-proof) threaded-hub
conduit fittings and sheet-metal boxes are ac-
ceptable. . Class II- D iv. 1
3. Flexible metal fittings, flexible metal conduit
with approved fittings and extra-hard-usage
flexible cord-where provision must be made
for flexibility, as at motors.
B. Sealing-In each conduit run:
1. 18 in. or less from any enclosure for arcing
or high-temperature producing devices-when
such enclosu res are required to be explosion-
proof.
C. Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers
and Fuses
1. To be enclosed in Class I (explos ion-proof)
enclosures.
2. In general-purpose enclosure providing:
a. The interrupt ion of current occurs within a
hermetically sealed chamber, or
b. The current interrupt ion devices are oil-
immersed nnd the device is approved for
locations of this class and division, or
c. Not more than ten circuit breakers or ten
sets of enclosed fuses-not intended to be
used as switches-are used for the protec-
tion of branch circuits or feeders supply-
ing lamps in fixed positions only.
D. Motors and Generators
1. Any rotating equipment employing exposed
sliding, switching or resistance devices s hall
be approved for Class I (explosion-proof).
2. General-purpose enclosures are suitable for
squirrel-cage induct ion motors and not em-
ploying arcing or resistive devices.
E. Lighting Fixtures
1. Be protected from mechanical injury by guard
or location.
2. Have suitable enclosure or other protective
means to prevent hot sparks from igniting lo-
calized concent ration of flammable vapors.
3. Vaportight approved fixtures are, in general,
suitable for this location.
4. Portable lamps shall be approved as a com-
plete assembly for Class I (explosion-proof)
location.
F. Applian ces, F ixed and Portable
1. Heaters to be in enclosures approved for Class
I (explosion-proof).
2. Motor-driven applian ces to conform to Class
I, Div. 2 requirements for motors and gener-
ators [501-8 (b)] .
3. Starting switches, fuses and circuit breakers
to conform to Class I, Div. 2 requirements for
Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers
and Fuses.
G. Flexible Cords
1. Same as Class I (explosion-proof) .
H. Receptacles and Attachment Caps
1. Same as Class I (explosion-proof).
117
I. Grounding
1. Same as Class I (explosion-proof), Div. 1.
2. Where general purpose enclosures have been
allowed (see C2 above) and s ingle-locknut or
double locknut-bushing termination has been
provided, a bonding jumper with proper fitting
or other approved bonding technique shall be
installed to effectively continue electrical
g round from the conduit system to the en-
closure (Sec. 250-78).
A. Wiring :Methods
1. To be in rigid metal conduit or Type MI cable
with approved termination fi ttings.
2. Fittings and boxes shall be provided with
threaded hubs and close fitting covers and
shall have no opening through which dust may
enter or through which burning material may
escape.
3. Fittings in which taps or joints are made or
those used in areas with electrically conduct-
ing dusts shall be "Dust-Ignition-Proof" and
approved for Class II Locations.
4. Flexible metal connections to be made with
dust-tight flexible connectors, flexible meta l
conduit with approved fittings, or flexible
cord approved for extra hard usage and pro-
vided with bushed fitting. Where dust is elec-
trically conducting, flexible metal conduit
shall not be used and cords must have dust
seals at both ends.
B. Sealing
1. Required in raceway between enclosure re-
quired to be dust-ignit ion-proof and one which
is not.
a. By permanently sealing with a seal-off fit-
ting in an approved manner or spacing be-
t ween enclosures with conduit section at
least 10 ft hotizontally or 5 ft vertically
extending downward from the dust-tight
enclosure.
C. Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers
an d Fuses
1. To be housed in a dust-ignition-proof enclo-
sure and approved for Class II location.
D. Motors and Generators
1. To be: totally-enclosed, non-ventilated; to-
tally enclosed, pipe-ventilated; or totally-en-
closed, fan-cooled ; and s hall be approved as
dust-ignition-proof for Class II location.
E. Lighting F ixtures
1. Each fixture shalJ be dust-ignition-proof and
approved for Class II location.
2. Clearly marked with maximum lamp wattage.
3. Be protected from mechanical injury by guard
or location.
4. Pendant fixtures to conform to the following:
a. Be suspended with rigid conduit stems or
chains with approved fittings.
b. For rigid stems longer than 12 in. provide
location or a permanent brace for lateral
support not more than 12 in. from lower end
of stem.
c. If distance between brace a nd fixture ex-
ceeds 12 in., flexib le connector shall be
used. Flexible connector is to be approved
for the purpose and for t he location.
 d. Where chain or approved means other than
rigid pipe stem are provided for fixture
support, flexible cords shall be approved
for hard usage, contain a separate ground-
ing conductor and be sealed at the entrance
to the outlet box or fittin g and the fixture.
5. Portable fixtures are to be dust-ignition-
proof and approved for Class II location.
Th ey are to be clearly marked as to indicate
the maximum wattage of lamps for which they
are approved.
F. Appliances, F ixed and Portable
1. To be dust-ignition-proof and approved for
Class II location.
G. Flexible Cords
1. Be approved for extra hard usage.
2. Conta in a grounding conductor colored green.
3. Have all terminals connected in an approved
manner.
4. Be supported by clamps or other su itable
means to prevent tension on terminal con-
ductors.
5. Be provided with s uitable seals where cord
enters boxes or fittings which are required to
be dust-ignition-proof.
H. Receptacle and Attachment Caps
1. To be polarized type providing for connections
to the grounded conductor of flexible cord and
shall be dust-ignition-proof and approved for
Class II location.
I. Grounding
1. AIJ exposed metal parts to be effectively
grounded.
Class II-Div. 2
A. Wiring Methods
1. Shall be in rigid metal conduit, EMT or Type
MI with approved fittings.
2. Fittings or boxes in which t aps, joints or ter-
minal connections are made shall be designed
to minimize the ent rance of dust, and (1)
have telescoping or tight fi tting covers and (2)
have no openings, after installation, through
which sparks or burning material may escape.
B. Sealing
1. Same as for Div. 1.
C. Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers
and Fuses
1. Be designed with close fitting or telescoping
t ight metal enclosures designed to minimize
the entrance of dust and to have no openings
t hrough which, after installation, sparks or
burning material may escaoe.
D. Motors and Generators
1. To be: totalJy-enclosed, non-ventilated; to-
tally - enclosed, pipe- ventilated; totally- en-
closed, fan-cooled, except that self-cleaning
textile motors of the squirrel-cage type, or
standard open type without arcing or resistive
devices, or standard open type having such
a rcing or resistive devices within t ight metal
housing without any openings may be used
where the fo lJowing is judged to exist :
a. Only moderate accumulation of noncon-
ductive, nonabrasive dust is likely to exist.
b. Units are readily accessible for routine
cleaning.
2. Partially enclosed or splashproof type of
motors are not to be installed.
118
E. Lighting F ixtures
1. Be approved for Class II location or be pro-
vided with enclosure for lamps or lampholders
to minimize the deposit of dus t on lamps and
to prevent the escape of sparks, bu rning ma-
terial or hot metal.
2. Be clearly marked as to maximum wattage of
lamp to be used.
3. Be protected from mechanical injury by suit-
able guards or location.
4. Pendant fixtures shall conform to same wiring
an d supporting arrangements as required for
Div. 1 locations.
5. Portable fixtures shall be dust-ignition-proof
and approved for Class II locations.
6. In general vaporproof fixtures are acceptable.
F. Appliances, Fixed and Portable
1. - Heaters to conform to Div. 1 locations.
G. Flexible Cords
1. To conform to Div. 1 locations.
H. Receptacles and Attachment Caps
1. To be of polarized type providing for con-
nection to the grounded conductor of t he
flexible cord, and s hall be so made t hat con-
nections to the supply circuit cannot be made
or broken while live parts are exposed.
I. Grounding
1. All exposed metal parts to be effectively
grounded.
Class 111-Div. 1
A . Wiring Methods
1. To' be in rigid metal conduit or type MI cable.
2. Fittings or boxes shall comply with rules for
Class II, Div. 2 locations.
3. Flexible connections shall be used as required
for Class II, Div. 1 locations.
n. Sealing
1. None required.
C. Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers
and Fuses
1. To conform to Class II, Div. 2, except for fibers
and flyin gs rather than dust.
D. Motors and Generators
1. To conform to Class II, Div. 2, except for lint
and flyings rather than dust.
E. Lighting Fixtures
1. Fixed lighting fixtures must conform to Class
IT, Div. 2, except for fibers and flyings .
2. Portable lamps, to be equipped with handles
and protected with substantial guards, to be·
of the unswitched type with no exposed metal
parts and without provis ions for taking at-
tachment plugs. In all other respects, portable
lamps are to conform to requirements for fixed
lighting, as in previous paragraph, El.
F. Appliances, Fixed and Porta ble
1. Heaters shalJ be approved for Class III loca-
tions.
2. Motors to be: totally-en closed, non-ventilated ;
totally-enclosed, pipe-vent ilated ; or totally-
enclosed ; fan-cooled,
G. Flexible Cords
1. To ·conform to Class II, Div. 1 locations.
H. Receptacles and Attachment Caps
1. To conform to Class II, Div. 2, locations.
I. Grounding
1. All exposed metal parts to be effectively
grounded.
 INSIDE THE BALLAST components in-
clude: ( 1) power capacitor; (2) core and
coil assembly; (3) radio-interference sup-
pression capacitor; (4) thermal production
for coil and capaci tor. Most coils use
Closs A insulation; some new high-output
designs use longer-lasting insulating tech -
niques to improve re liabili ty.

INCE fluorescent lighting was

S first introduced at the 1939

New York World's Fair, t here
ha\'e been numerous advances in
component design, reliability and
efficiency. Among these are bal-
lasts, of which there are an esti-
mated 250 million in use today.
Usually, the ballast is the first com-
ponent suspected and checked when
a fluorescent fixture is not func-
t ioning properly. Actually, as field
experience has shown, the fau lt or
trouble in most instances lies else-
'\
where.
A ballast, like a fluorescent lamp,
Troubleshooting starts its normal wearing-out proc-
ess t he first moment it is energized.
It has a certain useful life span.
Fluorescent Faults The normal average life is 12 years
01· about 60,000 hours. This is
based on a duty cycle of 16 hours/
day, 6 days/week, 50 weeks/year at
A check-chart guide to fluorescent troubleshooting 90°C ballast case temperature as
applied in a fluorescent fixture. This
and a discussion of ballast life. also assumes a regulated voltage
supply. If ballasts are operated on
longer duty cycles or at higher
BY ROBERT W. ZAROS I, Ballast Sales Engineer, temperatures, their average life
General Electric Co., Claicngo, 111. will be shor tened. Longer daily
duty cycles can shorten expected
ballast life by years.
IO

-
1
90° C case tempe!alure
16 hr./doy (12 hours ot temperature)
I I Heat Ellect

~ .... Heat is an important facto1:_in_v

50 wk./yr.
8 " ballast life. Since most ballasts ~
~,
have Class A insulation, we can
/~
use the 10-degree half-life rule.
J
I' That is: for every 10°C increase in
/ operating temperature, the life of
OLD DESIGN
(Estimoled life curve)
,' the ballast is cut in half. Con-
versely, it is possible to double the
/
, life of a ballast by lowering its op-
/
erating temperature. There is evi-
,' dence of this in some cool applica-
/
tions (80°C on baJ1ast case) that
/
" NEW DESIGN
have lasted 15 years thus far, and
~
/ (Expected life curve) ~
are still going strong with only a
2
".. "'
,,,_,. ~
few ballast failures to date.

-
There are cer tain routine main-
.,,, "" ~

--- --
__ tenance checks that should be made
_ i..--
to insure full useful life of fluores -
0 cent lighting components. Among
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 them are:
YEARS 1. Assure t hat a well regulated
FIG. 1-BALLAST RELIABILITY cu rves compare failure rote of old (con- voltage supply is used.
vent ional) design with that of new design using new ly developed insulation 2. Provide good lamp mainte-
system. Chart is based on opera ting conditions noted.

119
nance, including periodic lamp re-
placement.
Assuming there is not a heat
problem, there are no other specific
preventive maintenance measures
for ballasts.
Remaining Lile
At times, especially nfter a
known heating or voltage misappli-
cation, we have been asked about
a possible test to determine the re-
maining useful life of an installed
ballast. This is impossible, since a
ballast could check out to be per-
fectly good while its insulation sys-
tem might be on verge of break-
down.
A check could be run on the bal-
last's open circuit voltage and cath-
ode voltage to see if it is in good
working order. This, however, is
not a conclusive test and involves
definite shock hazards due to the
high secondary voltages of many
ballast designs.
The s implest and most conclu-
sive ballast test is to wire it in a
fixture. If the lamp lights, the bal-
last is OK. Conversely, the s implest
lamp test is to check the lamp in a
properly wired fixture.
The accompanying troubleshoot-
ing chart s hows a number of com-
mon trouble conditions encountered
with fluorescent lighting. Each
category has a list of "causes" ar-
ranged in order of frequency expe-
rienced in the field. Use these as
basic checks to simplify your trou-
bleshooting procedures.
Greater Reliability
A new ballast insulation system
has been developed and is currently
being used in some 800- and 1500-
ma fluorescent ballasts.
More than two years of acceler-
ated life tests indicate up to four
ti mes greater reliability during the
normal applied life of ballast mod-
els incorporating this unique insu-
lation system. Fig. 1 compares the
reliability curves of the new design
with that of former old ballast de-
sign.
TROUBLESHOOTING CHART
CONDITIOM CHECK THESE POSSIBLE CAUSES
lamps Won't Stort 1. lomp failure
2. Poor lomp-to-lompholder contact
3. Incorrect wiring
A. low voltage supply
5. Dirty lomps or lamp p ins
6. Defective starters•
7. low or high lamp bulb-wall temporoluro
8. High humidity
9. fix ture not ground ed
10. Improper ballast oppllcatlon
11. Ballast failure
Short la mp life 1. Improper voltag e
2. Improper wiring
3. Poor lomp-to-lompholde r contact
.C. Extremely short duty cyde (greeter than overage number
of lamp starts per doy.) Check with lamp mfgr.
5. Defective starters •
6. Defective lamps
7. Improper ballast application
8. Defective ballast
l amp Flicke r (spiraling 1. New lomp• (should be operated 100 hours for proper
or swlrllng effect) seasoning)
2. Defective slorlen •
3. Orofh on lamp bulb from olr-c:ondlllonlng system (lamp too
cold)
.C. Defective lamps
5. Improper voltage
6. Improper bollosl oppUcollon
7. Defective ballast
Very Slow Starting 1. Improper voltage- loo low
2. Inadequate lamp·slorllng-old strip••
(Refer to fl><lure mfgr.)
3. Poor lamp-to-lompholder conto<I
.C . Defective starter •
5. Defective lamp
6. Improper circuit wiring
7. Improper ballast oppllcollon
8. High humidity
9. Bulb-wall temperature too low or too high
Audible Ballast wHum" 1. l oose fl><ture louvers, panels or other ports
2. Insecure ballast mounting
3. Improper ballast selection (Refer to mfgr'• Bollost Sound
Roting Calculator for correctlvo analysis a nd reliable
answer.)
.C , Defective bollo>I
Excessive Bollaal Heating 1. Improper fixture design or ballo>I application (Refer lo
(over 90°C bollost coH R>< lure mfgr.)
t em perature ) 2. High voltage
3. Improper wiring or lnslollolion
.C. Defective ballast
5. Poor lamp maintenan<e (lnslont-slort and preheat systems)
6. Wrong type lamps
7, Wrong number of lomps
NOTES: For systems using• Rapid-start (induding 43()., 80()., and 1500-mo lamp bollostsh
trigger-start; slimline and lnslonl-slarl; and preheat (swltch-stort) bollosla.
• Appfaes only to preheat (switch-start) circuits
••App lies only to ropld-stort and trigger-start circuits
120
DATA SHEET

TROUBLESHOOTING
MERCURY
BALLASTS
Here's a proven procedure for tracking down
and eliminating troubles in mercury lamp circuits-
a step-by-step approach for fast, accurate troubleshooting.

BY MAURICE ROBERTSON, Manager, Commercial Engineering, ]efierlon Electric Co., Bellwood , Ill.

I. Read ballast nameplate. 4. Ballast secondary short-circuit curre nt. (Starting

A. Check to see that wiring has been mode in
accordance with diagram.
B. Check to see if proper lamp hos been in-
sta lled.
C. Measure line voltage with entire system load
turned on and determine if correct primary
top hos been selected for (A) above.
II. Replace lamp with new or otherwise know n op·
e rative lamp. Caution: In case of violent lamp
failure, do not replace lamp but first make elec-
trical measurements 1, 3 one;! 4.
A. If re placement lamp w ill not operate, make
e le ctrical measurements 1, 3 and 4 below.
B. If measurements ore satisfactory, then bal-
last is probably good and cause of trouble
con be found e lsewhere in the circuit.
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
1. Line voltage-value g iven on ballast nameplate.
2. Line curre nt-value given on ballast nameplate.
3. Ballast secondary open-circuit voltage. (Value
from Fig. 1)
current from Fig. 1)
5. l amp ope rating voltage. (Value from Fig. 1)
6. l amp ope rating current. (Va lue from Fig. 1)
Items 5 and 6 are suggested only if lamp is op-
erating and it is felt that operation is not normal.
Values given for item 2 ore to be expected only when
lamp is operating normally.
Values shown in Fig. 1 ore offered on ly as ap-
proximations to determine whether a ballast is good
or bod. It is not intended that the balla st under
measurement must fall strictly within the various
limits, as differences in meter movement, inherent
resistance and calibration may produce va riations.
ADDITIONAL TIPS
I. A. Check all wiring for proper connections.
B. Ballast leads
1. Hos the correct primary top been selected?
2. If ballast is mounted in a pole base, drip
loops must be provided and splices toped
to keep water from getting between con-
ductor and insulation.

121
FIG. 1-TYPICAL MERCURY LAMP DATA

LAMP

lamp Nominal Approx imate

Type lamp Minimum Starti ng Curre nt Operating
Watts 0 .C. Volts * Amperes t Voltage Ranget Operating Current
(Nominal- Amperes)t
50°F. 0 °F. - 20°F. Min. Max. Min. Ma x.

H-4 100 210 250 265 0 .9 1.8 115 145 0.9

H-38 100 200 210 225 0.9 1.8 115 145 0 .9
H-22 175 210 230 250 1.5 2 .8 120 150 1.45
H-39 175 200 210 225 1.5 2.8 120 150 1.45
H-5 250 200 240 260 2.1 4 .2 115 145 2.1
H-1 400 200 265 290 3.1 6 .5 120 150 3.2
H-33 400 200 210 225 3. 1 6 .5 120 150 3 .2
H-18 700 400 400 400 2 .8 7 .5 240 290 2 .8
H-35 700 200 270 300 2 .8 7 .5 240 290 2 .8
H-12 1000 210 315 380 8.0 15 .0 120 150 8 .0
H-34 1000 200 270 300 8 .0 15 . 0 120 150 8.0
H-15 1000 290 380 440 4.0 7 .5 240 290 4 .0
H-36 1000 200 285 365 4.0 7 .5 240 290 4 .0

• Open circuit volts ore measured across tho ballast lamp leads. Use voltmeter wllh ct least I 00 ohms per volt resistance. Do not use r ecliAer type
meters. Temperatures denote r eliable sterling of lamps at the voltages shown.
t To measure starling current, short the lomp leods through an ommetcr.
l Allow opproximately 7 minutes warm·up time ofter lamps ore turned on.

II. Check fixture for any abnormal conditions. Fix·
t ure lamp leads should be checked for fraying and
e lectrica l rating.
Ill. Test the e ntire system for grounds.
IV. Outdoor installations below grade-level.
A. Check to see if ballosts were designed for
below grade-level installation.
B. Only rubber-encased or vault-type ballasts
should be used below ground level.
V. Indoor installations.
A. Check to see that there are no openings in
the roof that might a llow roin or me lted
snow to fall on or run along beams, trusses,
etc., onto the ba Ila st and/ or lomp.
B. A good electrical wiring practice in the case
of ballasts or fixtures pendantly mounted to
an overhead conduit network is to seal off
the conduit opening. This seal is to prevent
condensed moisture or water that may find
its way into the conduit from running onto
the ballasts or lamps.
VI. Three-phase lighting circuits.
A. Delta systems should incorporate a 3-phase
circuit breaker for protection. The use of
fuses or single-pole breakers in each of the
3-phase lines of o De lta-connected system
must be avoided. The NE Code prohibits the
use of single·pole CBs in such o 3-phose cir-
cuit (Section 240- 11 ). In such o system, if
one fuse blows, two ballasts will be placed
in series across the remaining phase causing
damage to lamps and ballasts. Single-phase
branches may be protected with fuses or
single-phase breakers.
B. In ungrounded systems, it is wise to incorpo-
rate a ground d etector. Multiple g rounds o n
systems utilizing ballasts of the outotrans·
former type con cause ballast burnout and
violent lamp failures. Insulated ballasts hav-
ing no internal connection between line and
la mp circuits, such as certain constant-wot·
toge ballasts, ore recommended on un·
grounded systems.
C. Grounded systems (120 volt or 277 volt) ore
preferred and resu lt in less field trouble.

122
 Data Sheet
Relay Troubleshooting
Q uick-check refe re nce da ta for spotting and e liminating troub les m e lectro-
magnetic contacting devices-re lays, contactors, solenoids and motor sta rters.

LECTROMAGNETIC contactors By Rick Denning, suit that the armature closes with

E and relays of various types are

used to make and break circuits
that control and protect the opera-
tion of such devices as electric
motors, combustion and process
controls, alarms and annunciators.
Successful operation of a relay is
dependent upon maintaining the
proper interaction between its sole-
noid and its mechanical elements-
springs, hinges, contacts, dashpots,
etc.
The operating coil is usually de-
signed to operate the relay at from
80% to 110 % of rated voltage. At
low voltage the magnet may not be
strong enough to pull in the arma-
ture against the armature spring
U. S. A1my Corps of fngineors
New York City, N. Y.
and/or gravity, while at high volt-
ages excessive coil temperatures
may develop. Increasing the arma-
ture spring force or the magnet gap
will require higher pull-in voltage
or current values and will result
in higher drop-out values.
When sufficient voltage is applied
to the operating coil the magnetic
field builds up, the armature is at-
tracted and begins to close. The air
gap is shortened, increasing the
magnetic attraction and accelerat-
ing the closing action, with the re-
a snap, closing normally opened
contacts and opening normally
closed contacts. Binding at the
hinges or excessive armature spring
force may cause a contactor or re-
lay that normally has snap action
to make and break sluggishly. This
condition is often encountered in
relays that are rarely operated.
Contactors and relays should be op-
erated by hand from time to t ime
to make .sure their parts are work-
ing freely with proper clearances
and spring actions.
The following check chart of
symptoms and their possible causes
should help spot contactor and re-
lay troubles in a hurry.

Failure to Pull in 5. Contact pressure spring or armature spring too weak or

l. No or low voltoge ot coil terminols.
a. Blown fuse, open line switch, break in wiring.
b. Line voltage below normol.
c. Overload relay open or set too low.
d. Tripping toggle (non-automatic breakers) fouled, un-
dervoltage reloy plunger jammed (due to overheating).
e. Control lever or stort button in off position.
f. Pull-in circuit open, shorted or grounded.
g. Contacts in protective or controlling circuit open or
one of their pigtail connections broken.
2. Operating coil open or grounded.
3. loose or disconnected coil lead wire.
4. Excessive magnet gap, improper adjustment.
S. Armature obstructed or gumming deposits between armature
and pole face.
6. Binding caused by deformed or gummy hinge.
7. Excessive armature spring-force.
8. Normally closed contocts welded together.
Failure of Eq uipment to Start with Centactor Closed
1. One contact not closing.
2. Contocts burned.
3. Contact pigtail connection broken.
Failure to Drop Out
1. Operating coil is energized
a. Contacts in controlling or protective tripping circuits
closed, shorted or shunted.
b. Tripping devices defective; such as, overload tripping
toggles do not strike releose, undervoltage relay
plunger stuck or out of adjustment, defective stop
button, defective time-delay escape mechanism (closed
air vent).
c. Current supplied over an unintentional path, due to
grounds, defective insulation, pencil markings, mois-
ture, lacquer chipped off relay's base.
2. Residual magnetism excessive, due to armature closed tightly
against pole face.
3. Armature obstructed or gumming deposits between armature
and pole face.
4. Binding caused by deformed or gummy hinge.
improperly adjusted.
6. Improper mounting position (upside down).
7. Normally opened contacts welded together.
Time Delay Re lay Operates Too Fast
1. Escapement mechanism faulty
a. Air escapes too freely from delay element due to hole
in bellows or open air vent.
b. Worn dashpot plunger, dashpot oil too thin.
2. Non-magnetic shim (slow flux decay type) in air gop too
large or armature spring too strong.
3. Magnets out of adjustment (mechanism loose or broken by
vibration.)
Contacts Pitted or Discolored
1. Contacts overheated from overload.
2. Contacts not fitted properly.
3. Barriers broken from rough usoge or breokers closing with
too much force.
4. Wiping action of contacts on closing is insufficient.
S. Excessive chatter or hum.
6. Exposure to weather, dripping woter, solt air or vibration.
Excessive Chatte r or Hu m
1. Vibration of surrounding devices communicated to relay.
2. Relay receiving contradictory signals.
3. Bouncing of controlling or protective contacts.
4. Line voltage fluctuoting or insufficient.
5. Excessive coil circuit resistance.
6. Armature spring or contact pressure spring too strong.
7. Excessive coil voltage drop on closing.
8. Improper anti-freeze pin location.·
9. Free movement of armature hindered due to deformed parts
or dirt.
10. Improper mounting position.
Excessive Coil Te mperature
1. Excessive current or voltage.
2. Short circuit in coil.
3. Excessive eddy current and hysteresis.
4. High room teperature.
5. Lack of ventilation.
6. Heat absorbed from surrounding devices.

123
 Data Sheet
Trouble-Remedy Chart for Industrial Controls
The following maintenance ancl repai r hinu in check-
list form follow a trouhlc-c:111~c-rcmcdy ou tline.
Contacts-Chatter
Poor contact in control pick·up circuit: Improve the
contact or use holding interlock.
Excwive jogging: Find out whether device is recom-
mended for jogging service. Jf it is not, caution operator.
Broken pole shader. Replat·c.
Contactor slams, thus operating interlock in coil cir·
cui•: Increase wipe, also pressure on interlock.
Overheating of Contact Tips
Copper oxide on contact tips: Install silver.faced tips.
If copper tips-file with a fine file. (Caution: excess filing
wears out the tips. Ne\'er file silver-faced tips.)
Carrying load continuously: Install silver.faced tips.
High inductive loads, (de fields): Silver.faced tips.
Sustained overloads: Reduce current; install larger de-
,·ice.
Insufficient tip pressure. Clean, adjust.
Loose connection: Clean and tighten. (Measurement
of the millirnlt c.lrop across the current-carrying connec-
tions will indicate where excessi\'e heating originated.)
Short-Circuit Currents on Contacu
Feeder fuses too large: Eliminntc shorts; use smaller
fuses.
Short Tip Life
Interrupting high currents: Install special tips designed
to with,tancl arci ng better than copper. (There are cases
where 1hese cannot be used because of their high resist·
ance. a n~ lower rating.) Install larger device designed
~or Jogging service. Note: Tip life varies approximately
inversely as lhe square of the current interrupted. There-
fore, jogging may wear tips more than 30 times as fast
as an equal number of straight starts.
Excessive filing or dressing: Never file silver tips. The
rough spots will not hurt them.
Oil-immersed device is a misapplication: Change to
air-break device if oil is not essential. Note: Oil-immersed
tips burn away from 20 to 40 times as fast as similar tips
breaking the same current in air.
Mechanical rebound on drop-out, causing tips 10 touch:
Reduce rebound, or report trouble to manufacturer.
Weak Tip Pressure
Wear allowance gone: Replace and adjust.
Poor tip adj ustment: Adjust gap and "wipe".
Low voltage which prevents magnet sealing: Correct
\'Ohage condition (possible line regulation).
Welding or Freezing
Abnom1al inrush of currents of more or less than 10
times continuous rating: This will vary, depending on the
type of dc'"ice. Reduce currents. Substitute special non-
'~el d tips. Inst.all larger device. Install copper tips. (Cau-
tion: o."c~hea~mg of copper tips should be considered).
Rapid JOggtng: Install copper tips if otherwise suitable.
Coils-Coil Failure
Moisture, corrosh·e atmosphere: Relocate coils or use
special resistant coils.
124
Open Circuit-Not Roasted
Mechanical damage: Do not handle coils by the leads.
Excessive vibration or shock; coil movement causing
insulation failure or broken wire: Relocate and provide a
special mounting. Coils should be held firmly in place.
Overheated-Roasted
Overvoltagc or high ambient: Check application, circuit.
Wrong coil, sbort·time-rated coil energized too long:
Check manufacturer.
Shorted turns, caused by mechanical damage, corrosion,
or conducting dust: Replace coil and correct conditions
if practical to do so.
Too-frequent operation (very rapid jogging of ac coils):
Check application.
Undervoltage, failure of a magnet to seal in: Check
circuit interlock.
Series Coils (Including Blowout Coils)-Ovcrbeated
Used above current rating: Install larger coil, or reduce
current.
High ambient: Relocate, or regulate temperature.
Loose connection, corrosion, oxidation on connection
surfaces: IC connection is hot, clean before tightening.
Flexible Shunt Failure
Improper instaUation: See manufacturer's instructions.
Large number of operations-worn out mechanically:
Replace shunt.
Corrosive atmosphere or moisture: Wrong application.
. Burned by arcing; oxidized connection : Check applica-
uon ancl system voltage.
Magnet and Other Mechanical Parts-Worn or Broken
H eavy slamming caused by overvoltage, underload,
wrong coil. Chattering caused by broken pole shader or
poor contact in control circuit. Heavy duty cycle. Too
much jogging. Abrasive dusts, mechanical abuse: Replace
~art and correct cause of damage: Expected machanical
life should be measured in number of operations.
Noisy Magnet
Broken pole shader, magnet not true-result of wear
o~ mounting_ strai!1s: Replace. (For locations where a very
slight hum 1s Objectionable, use de magnets. Hum can
be r~duced by mounting on rubber or springs.
D1.rt or rust on magnet face: Clean.
Low voltage: Check system voltage.
Improper adjustment-magnet overloaded: Check in-
struction ~heet.
Broken Pole Shader
Heavy slamming, caused by overvoltage, magnet under-
loaded, weak tip pressure, wrong coil: Replace, correct.
Failure to Pick Up
Low voltage on coil: Check system v.oltage.
Coil open, wiring of coil or shorted turns. Replace.
Wrong coil: Check manufacturer.
Excessive magnet gap, magnet overloaded: Check in-
struction sheet.

Trouble-Remedy Chart for DC Motors and Generators
The following maintenance and repair hints are pre-
sented in check-list form for plant electricians. They
follow a troable-cause-remedy outline.
MOTOR WILL NOT START
Open circuit in control: Check control for open start-
ing resistor, open switch for burned fuse.
Low terminal voltage: Check voltage with nameplate
rating.
Bearing frozen: Recondition shaft and rep I ace
bearing.
Overload: Reduce load or use larger motor.
Excessive friction: Check lubrication in bearings to
make sure that the oil has been replaced ofter installing
motor. Disconnect motor from driven machine and turn
motor by hand to see if trouble is in motor. Straighten
or replace bent or sprung shaft (machines under 5-hp).
EXCESSIVE SPARKING
Poor brush fit on commutator: Sand the brushes and
polish commutator surface.
Brushes binding in the brush holders: Remove irregu-
larities on surfaces of brush holders, rough spots on the
brushes; clean with lint-free cloth.
Insufficient or excessive pressure on brushes: Adjust
brush-spring pressure.
Brushes off neutral: Set brushes on neutral.
SPARKING AT LIGHT LOADS
Paint spray, chemical, oil, grease or other foreign
material on commutator: Use motor designed for appli-
cation. Cleon commutator and provide protection
against foreign matter. Install on enclosed motor de-
signed fo r the application.
FIELD COILS OVERHEAT
Short circuit between turns or layers: Replace defec-
tive coil.
COMMUTATOR OVERHEATS
Brushes off neutral: Adjust brushes.
Excess spring pressure on brushes: Decrease brush-
spring pressure but not to the point where sparking is
introduced.
GROOVING OF COMMUTATOR
Brushes not properly staggered: Stagger brushes.
MOTOR ATTEMPTS TO START
BUT OVERLOAD RELAYS OPERATE
Motor is started with weak or no field: If odjustoble-
speed motor, check rheostat for correct setting. If cor-
rect, check condition of rheostat. Check field coils for
open windings. Check wiring for loose or broken con-
nections.
Motor torque insufficient to drive load: Check line
voltage with nameplate roting. Use larger motor or
one with suitable characteristic to match load.
Source of data: General Electric Co., Apparatus Department
125
{DATA SHEET)
MOTOR RUNS TOO SLOWLY UNDER LOAD
Line voltage too low: Check and remove a ny excess
resistance in supply line, connections or control.
Brushes ahead of neutral: Set brushes on neutra l.
Overload: Check to see that load does not exceed
a llowable load on motor.
MOTOR RUNS TOO FAST UNDER LOAD
Weak field: Check for resistance in shunt-field cir-
cuits. Check for grounds.
Line voltage too high: Correct high-voltage condition.
Brushes back of neut1al: Set brushes on neutral.
SPARKING BRUSHES
Commutator in bad rondition: Clean and reset
brushes.
Eccentric or rough commutator: Grind and true com-
mutator, also undercut mica.
Excessive vibration: Balance armature. Check brushes
to make sure they ride free ly in the holders.
Broken or sluggish-acting brush-holder spring: Re-
place spring, and adjust pressure to manufacturer's
recommendations.
Brushes too short: Replace brushes.
Machine overloaded: Reduce load or install larger
motor.
Short circuit in armature: Check commutator and
remove any metallic particles between segments. Check
for short between adjacent commutator risers. Test for
internal shorts in armature and repair.
BRUSH CHATTER OR HISSING NOISE
Excessive clearance of brush holders: Adjust holders.
Incorrect angle of brushes: Adjust to the correct
angle.
Incorrect brushes for the service: Get manufacturer's
recommendations.
High mica: Undercut mica.
Incorrect brush-spring pressure: Adjust to correct
value.
SELECTIVE COMMUTATION
(One brush takes more load than it should)
Insufficient brush-spring pressure: Adj ust to correct
pressure, making sure brushes ride free in holders.
Unbalanced circuits in armature: Eliminate high re-
sistance in defective joints by inserting armature or
equalizer circuit or commutator risers. Check for poor
contacts between bus and bus rings.
BRUSHES WEAR RAPIDLY
Rough commutator: Resurface commutator and un-
·dercut mica.
-. Excessive sparking: Make sure brushes are in line
with commutator fields.
 Electrical contractors use . . .

Modern Scaffolding
. . . to save time and labor on " high" work. Here are
selected case studies which show how electrical con~
tractors and plant electrical departments select and use
scaffolding and other elevating equipment to perform
overhead electrical work efficiently and safely.

IL -
r
TELESCOPING WOR K PLATFORM saved
Knowles Electric Co., Charleston, W. Vo.,
25 % of labor costs of installing lighting
fixtures, ove rhead conduit and wi rin g in
nine buildings of the State of Georg ia
New Fa rmer's Market in Atlan ta. Con-
crete block walls divide each building
into sepa rate boys totaling 78 boys in
the project. Because of this, conventional
fixed scaffolding, which requires dis-
mantl ing on each move, was deemed im-
practical by the e lectrical cont ractor. Ex-
tension ladders were ru led out because
they afford awkward footing and limit
free use of the mechanic's hands, thus HO IST-EQUIPPED rolling scaffold saves TELESC.OPING TOWER speeds lamp re-
impairing his efficiency; and they often construction time and labor for Electrical placement, fixture cleaning and other
requi re two or more men to hand le ma- lnstollotions, Inc., Roselle Pork, N. J. overhead spot maintenance at Scibo Holl,
ter ia ls and to steady th e ladde r. The Special ists in industria l const ruction, the Carnegie Tech Un iversity. Primarily used
te lesco pi ng a lu mi num work plat form se- firm uses the motorized rig to ;peed for mointel'"lonce of hundreds of lighting
lected to do the job saved Knowles over overhead installation of t ransformers, fixtures in classrooms, meeting rooms,
$1000 when installing 3600 fluorescent buswoys, heavy condui t and lighting library, cafeteria and auditorium, the
fixtures required for the project. The equipment. Pushbutton on flexible coble unit is also used for other mointenonce
unit, equipped with on enclosed platform allows control of lift from floor level or work on ceilings from l 5 ft to 22 ft
for safety, is lightwei9ht, rapidly assem- from top of scaffold. Robert J. Bouer, high as well as for exterior maintenance.
bled for work by one ma n, and extends president, Electrica l Insta ll a tions, points Th is aluminum work platform becomes
qu ickly to heights up to 30 ft. When the out tha t use of the hoist-equipped scaf- a compact unit when folded, co n be
lighting insta ll ation in each bay was fold hos afforded substantial overheod- easily rolled through doorway and into
completed, the platform was readily instollotion cost savings, which provide elevato rs, and ca n be stored in a small
folded down, a ll owing the unit to poss a definite economic advantage when con- a rea. Constructed of lightweight alu-
through doorways and to be rolled to the sidered du ring planning a nd estimate minum, the folded unit con be ca rried up
next boy. prepo rotion. stairs for work in split-level a reas.

126
and Elevating Platforms

PROFESSIONAL APPEARANC E of scaffolding is on impor-
tant plus value for Standard Electric Co. Inc., Montreal, when
performing electrical maintenance in prestige buildings. On
two major lighting moint enonce contracts in Montreol-
the 45-story Conodion Imperial Bonk of Commerce Building
ond the 32-story C. I. L. House-Standa rd Electric uses duo l-
stoi rwoy alum inum scaffolds with bridging platforms. When
their use is required during the working doy, these cleon ond
efficient appearing scaffolds ore less likely to offend cus·
tamers and clients in the oreo, and along with neatly uni-
formed workmen, lend o professional quality to the job. The
mobile stairway structures ore quickly erected; safe and
easy to use providing ample space for workmen, replacement
lamps and cleaning of luminoires; and, disassembled, the
scaffolding con be compactly stored in basement areas. Li ght-
ing maintenance contracts coll for group relomping every two
years, lamp and ballast replacement when required, luminous
ceiling cleaning twice a year and annual fixture cleaning. Ceil·
ings range in height from 17 ft to 21 ft. The combined ceil-
ing oreo in both buildings totals mo re than 1,400,000 sq ft.
Included in the lighting maintenance con tract ore several large
lllminous ceilings in lobby oreos.
MOBILE SCISSORS work-load hydraulic lift affords many
time- and labor-saving odvontoges for Weatherbee Electric
Co., Oklahoma City. On construction projects, o utility truck
tows the scissors lift to the job site; the unit con be towed o r
hand-ro lled t·o the work loca tion within o bui lding under
construction; ond heavy apparatus, such a s t ran sform ers,
buswoy, etc., co n be qu ickly and easi ly lifted to Installation
height along wi th the installation c rew by the mo to rized
hydraulic lift. Photo shows the lift in use on on extensive
lighting maintenance project ot the Mayfair Shopping Center
in Oklahoma City. The job called for replacement of all
lamps installed on approximately 100 pole-mounted lighting
fixtures in the shopping center parking oreo, ond replacement
of several fixtures. Using the scissors lift, two men plus the re-
placement fixtures or lomps were quickly and easily rai sed to
the 20-ft working height. When wo rk was completed ot eac h
pole, the unit was lowered ond moved to the next r>ole.
Weatherbee found that time fo r the job, which previously
was accomplished using extension ladders ond scaffolding,
was cut a pproximately In half. The work- load lift is equipped
with outriggers, levelling jocks, telescoping ladder, o la rge
guard-roil protected platform and o hydraulic pump motor.

DUAL T ELESCOPING towers were used by electrical contracto rs Fischbach

ond Moore, Inc., during Install a tio n of overhead light ing systems a nd e lec-
trical focilities at the new Hilton Hotel, Denver, Colo. The telescopi ng work
platforms with bridging plank were selected for high installation work for two
rea sons: l) to reduce Installat ion time because the work would hove required
over 50 separate scaffold assembly and disassembly operations, and 2) safety
regula tions prohibited scaffolding In areas where carpet installers, TV and
radio installation crews, hotel services personnel, etc., were working ot
night. In add ition, the aluminum towers could be quickly folded down and rolled
out of the way. When ex tended for work on the 22-ft -high ceiling lighting
systems, the units were bridged by a l 0-ft-long plonk and safety railings. T he
telescopi ng wo rk towers ore only 29-in. wide, allowing them to be rolled through'
standard 30-l n. -wide by 6-ft 8-in.-high doorways. Constructed of lightweight
oluminum, they con be carried up and down sta irs by two men.

127
ONE- PIECE SCA FFOLD on wheels saves consideroble time over
conventional scaffold erection on the electrical construction
project. Folded, (Photo Al the unit is only 9Y2-in. wide pro-
viding for compac t storage ond easy rolling through doorways
from job to job. The aluminum scaffold con be erected by one
mon in seconds. Photo B shows one set of casters in locked
position (arrow 2) os scaffold is extended Corrow l >. The two
folding "V" braces snap together ond lock outomoticolly to
form o rigid "X" brace joint, which support s the structure.
Ready for use, (Photo C> the scaffold is l 0-ft long and 29-in.
wide enabling it to be rolled through doorways fully assembled.
The unit ho s o platform height which is adjustable from l ft
to 8 Y2 ft . Also, th e scaffold legs ore adjustable for use on
uneven fl oo rs or stairways.

BOOM-PLATFORM truck is one of nearly

l 00 vehicles used by Molnar Electric,
electrical contractors, Woodbridge, N. J.
Photo shows two Molner electric1ons ond
boom truck tn action on o troubleshoot-
ing coll o t o public water-pumping sta-
tion. When notified of the water pump
failure, Molnar rushed o key trouble-
shooter and o helper in the fully equipped
boom truck to the pumping stat ion. The
boom truck wos selected because it wos
known tha t the source of trouble would
be in the pump house, switchgeor house
or the high-voltage pole-line feeder on
the premises. Quick checks isoioted the
trouble to o pole adjacent to the switch-
gear house. The troubleshooter was then
quickly rai sed on the boom platform to
the top of the pole where o malfunction-
ing fused cutout was discovered. Repairs
were mode on the spot and the pump re-
turned to service. John Molnar, president
of the electrical contracting firm, points
out that it is this kind of fast, efficient
service that makes lasting customers ond
opens the way for new construction con-
tracts. In add ition, the boom-platform
truck serves in electrical constructi on
projects on various types of "high" work,
such os pole-line installation, substat ion
superstructure construction ond others.

40-FT LIFT equipped with telescoping

platform allows workm en to reach extro-
high work areas easily ond safely. When
folded, unit is less than 7-ft high. Work
platform is 27 in. by 48 in. affording
ample work space. The hydraulic lifting
system is powered by o JA-hp, l l 0-volt
oc motor. A telescoping lift similar to
the unit shown above is used for mainte-
nance work ot the plant of Emerson Elec-
t ric Co., St. Louis, Mo.

128