TEMA 6.

THE ARMED PEACE IN EUROPE

1. What was the Armed Peace?

It was a period of peace between 1870 and 1914 but with tension between the European
countries.

2. What was the importance of the German Empire during the Armed Peace?

After the German Unification, Germany became the most important power in Europe. The
foreign policy of Germany during this period had two phases:

1) The Bismarckian system (1871-1890).

In order to maintain the balance between European countries, Bismarck established alliances
with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian Empire and Italy whose objectives were:

- That the European countries had the feeling that it was important to maintain friendly
relationships with Germany because it was very powerful.

- To prevent France from declaring war on Germany in order to recover Alsace-Lorraine.

With this policy, Bismarck avoided conflicts for 20 years, but forced other European
countries to strengthen their armies.

2) The expansionist foreign policy of Wilhelm II (1890-1914)

The German emperor changed Bismarck policies for the idea of creating a colonial empire.
Bismarck disagreed with it and resigned. The consequences of this policy were:

- Russia and France allied, and Russian's industry grew thanks to France's investments.

- France, Russia and Great Britain formed the Triple Entente (1907) in order to stop
Germany expansion.

3. Explain the Bismarckian system (Extra p-28).

1) The first system (1872). The Three Emperor League was signed by Wilhelm I of
Germany, Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary and Tsar Alexander I of Russia. It failed
because of the rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Russia for the control of the Balkans.

2) The second system (1879-1882). Some treaties were signed:

- 1879: Double Alliance between Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

- 1881: the Alliance between the 3 emperors was re-signed but it soon failed.

- 1882. Triple Alliance between Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Italy.

3) The third system (1887). The Triple Alliance between Germany, the Austro-Hungarian
Empire and Italy was re-signed. Germany also signed a secret alliance with Russia by
which both would maintain neutral if either of them went to war against other countries.
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THE FIRST WORLD WAR.

4. Answer the following questions.

a) By what other name is the First World War known?

b) How long did it last?
c) How many countries were involved?
a- The Great War.
b- From 1914 to 1918.
c- Various European countries and their Asian and African colonies, the United States,
Japan, China and some Latin American republics.
5. Causes of the war.

1) The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Russian Empire competed for the control of the
Balkans. At the same time, Bosnia (a Balkan country) was angry with the expansion of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire in the area.

2) France wanted to recover Alsace-Lorraine from Germany and both countries competed for
the control of some colonies like Morocco.

3) Great Britain felt its merchant navy menaced by Germany which had built a big fleet of
merchant ships in order to dominate international trade.

4) On June 28, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was shot
in Sarajevo (Bosnia). He was killed by a Bosnian Serb nationalist and the Austria declared
war on Serbia.

6. Write the pre-crisis environment (extra, p-30).

1) In 1905, Germany tried to establish Morocco as a German protectorate in order to maintain

France out of the area.

2) In 1908, the Austro-Hungarian Empire annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. This led to protests

from the Serbian who lived in Bosnia and from Russia which was Serbia's allies.

3) In 1911, Germany recognised Morocco as a French protectorate. In exchange, France gave

parts of its territories in the Congo to Germany.

4) In 1912, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire for
its territories in the Balkans. These countries won, but another war started among them for
the sharing of the territories. In 1913, the Treaty of Bucharest was signed by which Serbia
expanded its territories and provoking hostilities with the Austro-Hungarian Empire which
had interests in the area.

7. Alliances during the First World War (Mapa página 31).

8. Phases of the war.

1) Initial German offensives (1914).

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 Germany put the Schlieffen Plan in practice. It consisted on a quick attack on the Western
Front and to invade both Belgium and France reaching Paris. Then, the Germans would be
able to attack the Eastern Front and fight the Russians. The plan failed because French
and British stopped Germany at the First Battle of Marne.

2) Trench warfare (1915-17). (Guerra de trincheras.)

At the Western Front, both Germany and the allies tried to defend their positions building
trenches and using new weapons such as machine guns, heavy artillery, tanks, etc.

Also, new tactics were used such as attacking the same place continuously or the use of
battleships or submarines.

3) Incorporation and withdrawal (retirada) of allies (1917)

In 1917, the United States joined the war because Germany had sunk neutral ships and the
American merchant fleet felt menaced.

In the same year, Russia withdrew from war after singing the Peace of Brest-Litovsk.

4) The end of war and the Armistice (1918).

With the help of the Americans, the allies advanced on the Western Front (the second
Battle of Marne). On November 11, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and the Armistice
was signed.

*** Armistice (armisticio): suspension of armed conflicts and the beginning of peace
negotiations.

9. Economy during the war.

The countries involved in the war established a war economy focused on produced for the
war:

- The industrial sector focused on production on military equipment and supplies such as
weapons, cannons, planes or uniforms.

- Agricultural and consumer goods decreased because there were fewer labourers. As a
result, the lack of some products increased the prices.

- Governments intervened the distribution of some basic products such as bread and
potatoes and introduced the rationing. People were given ration cards with a fixed
quantity of food or goods, fact that helped the black market to develop.

******Rationing: fixed quantities of food and consumer goods that people could obtain by ration
cards.

******Black market: illegal sale of products which are difficult or impossible to buy in shops.

10. Society during the war.

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 The war forced people to change jobs and customs:

- Most young men were recruited into the armed forces.

- Women left their homes to work in the positions that men had left. It was the first time that
women were allowed to do jobs that were created for men as in industry, transport or
offices.

11. How was the peace settlement carried out? (acuerdo de paz).

In January 1919, the victorious countries met at the Paris Peace Conference to decide the
impositions over the defeated countries.

The American President Wilson proposed a set of principles called the Fourteen Points with
the objective of creating a League of Nations, democratic states, freedom of trade and respect
for a nation to self-determination. This plan failed because victorious countries wanted severe
measures, especially for Germany which had to pay for the damage that it had caused.

Negotiations were very long and finally the Paris Peace Settlement was agreed (1919-20), in
which the defeated countries had to sign 5 separate treaties:

- Germany: Treaty of Versailles; Austria: Treaty of St. Germain; Hungary: Treaty of Trianon;
Bulgaria: Treaty of Neuilly; Ottoman Empire: Treaty of Sèvres.

The Treaty of Versailles was very hard for Germany because it established:

- Prohibition of heavy artillery, planes and submarines.

- Payment of huge quantities of money to compensate damages during the war.
- Reduction of its territories.
- The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France.
- Demilitarisation of the Rhineland (on the French border).
- Division of its Eastern territories to give Poland access to the sea.

12. Social and economic consequences of the First World War.

1) Decrease of population: there were millions of victims of the war, so workforce and birth
rates decreased drastically.
2) Destruction of the cities: transport networks, factories and agricultural land were
destroyed during the war, causing negative impact on economy.
3) Incorporation of woman in the workplace: the role of women changed after the war and
they began to do the same jobs as men. In some countries women started to fight for their
right to vote.
4) Loss of Europe's economic power: the big material losses and the money that Europe
owed to America made the United States become the economic leader in the world.
13. Territorial consequences of the First World War.

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 After the treaties of peace the colonies of the defeated countries were redistributed between
the victorious countries. The most benefited countries were Great Britain which obtained
Palestine and Iraq; and France which gained Syria and Lebanon.
A new map of Europe was created with the end of the last empires (Austro-Hungarian,
German, Russian and Ottoman Empires) and the creation of new states:
- From the Austro-Hungarian Empire: Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
- From the Russian Empire: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland and Poland.
- From the German Empire: the German Republic, part of Czechoslovakia and part of
Poland.
- From the Ottoman Empire: Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, part of Arabia and
Palestine.

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION.

14. Characteristics of the Russian Empire before the revolution.

1) The government was autocratic (absoluto). The tsar had unlimited power (divine right to
govern). There were no rights and political parties were prosecuted.
2) The economy was semi-feudal: the land was owned by a wealthy minority and it was
worked by a majority of peasants. With the industrialization, a small bourgeoisie of business
owners and proletariat appeared.
3) There was social unrest (disorders): three quarters of the population were peasants who
lived in poverty and paid high taxes. Both peasants and factory workers suffered very hard
working conditions with low salaries and long working days.

15. Causes of the revolution.

1) The Russo-Japanese war (1904-05): it was very unpopular because there were a lot of
taxes to pay the conflict and young men were continuously recruited. This facts increased
hostility against the tsar.
2) The appearance of political parties: some political parties were created opposing to the
tsar. They wanted more rights and better living conditions for all Russians.
3) The 1905 revolution: some industrial workers of St Petersburg went to the Winter Palace
of the tsar in order to demand better working conditions and political reforms. They were
brutally suppressed on the day called 'Bloody Sunday'.
As a consequence, the Socialist Worker's Party met in secret and formed the soviets to
organise protests. The tsar agreed to make some reforms and created a Duma (parliament)
elected by all classes (landowners, workers and peasants). However, the Duma was soon
dissolved and autocracy was re-established.
4) Participation in the First World War.
In 1914 Russia participated in the war but it didn't have enough food and weapons. In spite
of this, Russia sent 15 million soldiers, most of them peasants. The continuous defeats
made the discontent against the tsar arise.
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********Soviet: assembly of representatives of the workers, soldiers and peasants created to make
decisions and take control of the revolution.

16. TIME LINE: THE POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA (1894-1922). P-37.

17. What were the two phases of the 1917 Revolutions?
- The February Revolution: the provisional government.
- The October Revolution the Bolshevik government.

18. Explain the February Revolution: the provisional government.

Facts:
- In February 1917, there was a revolution supported by workers, soldiers and peasants.
They protested because the First World War had provoked a shortage of food and they
wanted Russia to leave the war.
- Tsar Nicholas II abdicated and a provisional government formed by liberals and Mensheviks
and led by Kerensky was formed. This government proclaimed a republic and a democratic
regime started in which political parties were legalised, elections with universal male
suffrage were called and a Constituent assembly would write a constitution.
- This provisional government failed because they didn't redistribute the land among the
peasants and Russia didn't leave the war. A parallel government led by the Petrograd
Soviet (San Petersburgo) was created.

- The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin gained support of the soviets after the April Thesis (a political
programme) in which the demands of the workers, soldiers and peasants were gathered
and the soviets were recognised as the unique power.

19. Explain the October Revolution: the Bolshevik government.

The Bolsheviks organised into soviets and expelled the Provisional government. They
established a proletarian government called the Council of People's Commissars, led by
Lenin.

The first actions that Lenin took were:

1) The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. Russia was allowed to leave the war but giving
some territories in return.
2) To expropriate lands and give them to the peasants. Also, the control of the industries would
be given to the workers' committees.
3) To change the name of the Bolshevik party for the Communist Party that would be the only
legal political party.
4) To found a Third International to coordinate all the communist parties internationally.

A civil war broke (1918-21) between the counter-revolutionaries (tsarists, liberals and
Mensheviks) who formed the White Army and the Bolsheviks who formed the Red Army led by

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Trotsky. Although the White Army was supported by the Allied powers (France, Great Britain, the
United States and Japan), it was finally defeated.

20. Explain the Creation of the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republic).

It was created in 1922. In 1924 was written a constitution which established the following
organisation:

1) Political organisation:
The Marxists ideas were put in practice establishing a proletariat dictatorship whose
characteristics were:
o Political power of the soviets which could make laws.
o To establish the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) as the only legal
political party.
2) Economy.

The shortage of food made Lenin postpone the socialist measures and therefore, he
established a capitalist system on production. Peasants could sell their products and some
companies were created but, the state controlled the most important sectors such as big
companies and banks.

3) Territorial organisation.

The USSR was a federal state with Russia as the main republic and some smaller
republics such as Belarus and Ukraine.

SPAIN: THE BOURBON RESTORATION.

21. Who was behind the Bourbon Restoration?

Cánovas del Castillo. He was a conservative politician who re-established a constitutional

monarchy.

22. Explain the Reign of Alfonso XII (1875-1885) and the regency of María Cristina (1885-
1902).

During the reign of Alfonso XII there was political stability and economy growth under the
Canovist system (started by Cánovas del Castillo).

This period was characterised by:

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  Spanish Constitution of 1876. It recognised a constitutional monarchy in which
sovereignty was shared between the monarch and the Cortes. Universal male suffrage
was also re-established.
 Bipartisanship, two official parties governed in turns: conservative and liberal.
 Caciquismo in rural areas which favoured elections to be manipulated.
 The Canovist system was supported by the army, the Church, landowners and business
owners. On the other hand, republicans, socialists, anarchists, Carlists and areas of
nationalism and regionalism (País Vasco, Cataluña, Galicia and Andalucía) opposed to this
system.
 After the death of Alfonso XII in 1885, Cánovas and Sagasta signed the Pact of El Pardo
agreeing the regency of Alfonso XII's wife, María Cristina. She was a regent until 1902,
when her son, Alfonso XIII came of age.

*********Regionalism: it's a political ideology in which the state should respect the interests and
political aspirations of its regions.

THE DISASTER OF 98.

23. Causes and development of the disaster of 98.

During the regency of María Cristina, the war against Cuba and Philippines took place. After
the war, Spain lost its last colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico and Philippines. The causes of the
conflict were:

 The Cuban Creole bourgeoisie wanted political autonomy and economic freedom.
 The dominant Spanish class and the Spanish government rejected the Creole bourgeoisie
demands.
 Cuban War (1895-1989) started led by the pro-independence forces led by José Martí.
 Following the Cuban example, there was an uprising in the Philippines which helped by the
United States defeated the Spanish army.
 Spain signed the Treaty of Paris (1898) giving the independence to Cuba, and ceding
Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the United States.

24. Consequences of the defeat of 98.

 Demoralisation of the Spanish people.

 The appearance of regenerationism, an intellectual and critical movement led by Joaquin
Costa in order to remove the Canovist system.
 Economic crisis after the loss of the colonial market.
25. Involvement of the United States in the disaster of the 98.
The United States was the biggest buyer of sugar and tobacco from Cuba, but under the
Spanish protection, America could not buy a higher percentage. The United States offered to
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 buy the island, but Spain refused that, so the Americans supported Cuba to fight for its
independence against Spain.
26. Explain the problems that Alfonso XIII (1902-1931) had to face during his reign.
A) Political conflict.
- The Constitution of 1876 stayed valid but, alternating governments of liberals and
conservatives failed due to internal divisions.
- Other parties emerged: Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE), Partido Comunista
Español (PCE), republican parties, regionalist parties such as Partido Nacionalista Vasco
(PNV) and La LLiga Regionalista de Catalunya (LRC). The government allowed some
regional associations like the Mancomunidad de Catalunya.

***********Mancomunidad: a regional governmental institution with the power to make

administrative and economic decisions.

B) The development of the worker's movements.

- Workers movements made demonstrations, strikes, and violent acts to fight for better
working conditions.
- The Trade Unions such as Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT), and the Confederación
Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) supported the workers' movements. They finally achieved:
o Regulation of an 8-hour working day and 6-day working week
o Pensions for retired workers
o Regulation of female and child labour
o Recognition of trade unions.

C) War in Morocco.
After losing its colonies, Spain tried to gain international power. In 1906, Morocco was divided
between Spain and France. The local population of Morocco opposed to the Spanish
presence and the war started (1909-1927) with the following negative consequences:
- Tragic week (1909): it took place in Barcelona when people protested about reservists sent
to war in Morocco.
- Annual disaster (1921): Spanish troops were defeated in Annual (Morocco) and many
soldiers lost their lives.
D) The military problem.

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- The public opinion started to have a negative opinion about the army and its defeats in
Morocco and the excessive involvement of the military in the political life.
- Compulsory military service also created discontent among the working class that could not
afford to pay an extra fee to avoid it.
- In 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera led a military coup (which was approved of by
the king) and established a dictatorship.

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