Contents:
• Definition and Classification of Signals
• Mathematical Model of Ideal Signals
• Discrete-time Signals
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1.1 Definition and Classification of Signals
What is a signal?
• A function of one or more variables and it carries qualitative
as well as quantitative information of a physical event.
• Single variable function: most common is the time variable, t
(continuous-time) or n (discrete-time) -> mathematically
denoted by f(t) or f[n] respectively.
Classifications:
i. Continuous & Discrete-Time Signals
ii. Even & Odd Signals
iii. Deterministic & Stochastic Signals
iv. Energy & Power Signals
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Continuous & Discrete Time Signals
Continuous-time Signal
• Signal is defined for all time instants
• Occurs naturally in any physical process
• Single variable : f(t), f( )
• Example : voice signal
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Continuous & Discrete Time Signals
Discrete-time Signal
• Signal is defined only at discrete values of time
variable
• Single variable : f [n], f [k]
• Example : sampled voice signal
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Discrete-time signals can be obtained from continuous-time signals
by sampling operation, mathematically given as:
f [n] = f [nT], n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….. where T is the sampling period.
f(1) = f(-1)
f (t ) f e (t ) f o (t )
f e (t ) f (t ) f (t )
1
2
where
f o (t ) f (t ) f (t )
1
2
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Example 1.1:
• Find the odd and even components of a continuous-
time signal,
f (t ) t 4t 6t
2 3 5
Solution:
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Example 1.2:
Find the odd and even components of the signal f(t).
Even
3 3
t , 2 t 2 ½[(f(t)+f(-t)]
f (t ) 2 4
0, elsewhere
=1.5
Odd
½[(f(t)-f(-t)]
=(3/4)t
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Example 1.3:
Find the odd and even components of the following signal.
f(t)
1 1, 0 t 3
f (t )
t 0, elsewhere
-3 3
0
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EVEN & ODD SIGNALS
• Any arbitrary signals can be expressed as sum of odd
and even components. The main signal f(t) itself is
neither even nor odd but when decomposed, has odd
fo(t) and even fe(t) parts.
• If the signal f(t) itself is already an even signal, then its
even part is exactly the same as itself, f(t)=fe(t), the odd
part being zero.
• If the signal f(t) itself is already an odd signal, f(t)=fo(t),
then its odd part is exactly the same as itself, the even
part being zero.
Thus, a signal can be purely even, purely
odd or neither even nor odd.
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Example 1.4:
a) Is Asin(t) an odd or even signal?
Let f(t) = Asin(t)
Asin(t) = - Asin(-t) for all t
f(t) = - f(-t)
It is an odd signal.
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DETERMINISTIC & STOCHASTIC
DETERMINISTIC SIGNALS:
Signals whose characteristics are well known and completely specified for all
instants of time. Example: sine wave f(t)=sin(t), linear function f(t)=mt+c
STOCHASTIC SIGNALS:
Signals whose characteristics are not fully known before its occurrence (random
signals). Example: throwing of die, noise generated in an electronic circuit,
unwanted disturbances in the atmosphere, etc.
sin(t)
# on a die thrown
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3 Value at T4?
Deterministic
2
Stochastic
t
T1 T2 T3 T4 t
T1 T2 T3 T4
Value=Random between 1 to 6
All values at t are well defined
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• Deterministic
Totally predictable
• Stochastic
(Random Signal)
Unpredictable
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ENERGY & POWER
Continuous-Time Discrete-Time
Signal f(t) f[n]
T N 1
Total
Energy, E E lim
2
f (t )dt E lim 2
f [ n]
T N
T n N
Average T N 1
1 1
Power, P P lim
T 2T f 2 (t )dt P lim
N 2 N
n N
f 2
[ n]
T
1 sin(2t )
T T
1
lim [1 cos(2t )]dt lim t
T
T
2 T 2
2 T
1 2sin(2T )
lim 2T
T 2
2
Energy, E: T T
f (t )dt lim e dt 2 t
E lim 2
T T
T 0
T
1 2 t 1 2T
lim e lim e 1
T 2 T 2
0
f (t ) et u(t )
t t
Negative Energy signal Positive Neither energy
signal nor power signal 21
Example 1.6a:
Determine whether f(t) is an energy signal or a power signal or
neither, where T is a positive constant.
0 for t 0
f (t ) t / T
e for t 0
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Example 1.6b:
Determine whether f(t) is an energy signal or a power signal or
neither.
sin 2t 0 t 2
f (t )
0 otherwise
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ENERGY & POWER
– Bounded periodic signals are power signals (Example 1.5).
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SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL
2t
f (t ) A sin
T
A sin 2ft
A sin t
f1(t
)
f2(t A signal amplitude
)
where T period
phase angle
V final = A
V final = 0
V initial = 0
5e t / 5(1 e t / )
Approaches 5
5 5
3.16
1.84 Approaches 0
t t
0 t= 0 t=
(i) Decaying (ii) Growing
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UNIT STEP FUNCTION
1 t 0 1 t T
u (t ) u (t T )
0 t 0 0 t T
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Example 1.8:
Sketch the waveform of f (t ) u(t ) u(t 2)
+ =
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Example 1.9:
Draw the exponential signals described by:
i) f (t ) 5e t / u (t )
ii) f (t ) 5(1 e t / )u (t )
5e t /
u (t ) 5(1 e t / )u(t )
Approaches 5
5 5
3.16
Approaches 0
1.84
t t
0 t= 0 t=
(ii)
(i)
Note that the functions are
now zero for t < 0. 31
UNIT PULSE FUNCTION
0 t / 2 0 t (T / 2)
P (t ) 1 / 2 t / 2 P (t T ) 1 (T / 2) t (T / 2)
0 t / 2 0 t (T / 2)
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UNIT PULSE FROM UNIT STEPS
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UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION
let approach 0
P (t )
lim (t )
0
Unit Impulse
Area = 1/ =1 (t ) 0 t 0
Since impulse function is the derivative of Area (t )dt 1
step function, thus the step function must
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DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
– Unit sample/impulse: [n]={…0 1 0…}
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DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
• Both discrete-time functions can also be used
without arrows to indicate the origin:
– Unit step: u[n]={…0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1…}
– Unit sample/impulse: [n]={…0 1 0…}
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Manipulating Sequences
Shifted unit step
1, n 1
u[n 1]
0, n 1
1, n 1
[n 1]
0, n 1
1, n 2
[n 2]
0, n 2
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Unit sample/impulse using unit step
1, n 0
u[n]
0, n 0
1, n 1
u[n 1]
0, n 1
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Unit step as sum of unit sample/impulse
u[n] [n] [n 1] [n 2] [n 3] ... [n i ]
i 0
Sample/impulse of arbitrary amplitude
x0 x2
x1
x-1
x[n] ... x1 [n 1] x0 [n] x1 [n 1] x2 [n 2] ... x [n i ]
i
i
Example 1.10:
Discrete Sequences
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Solution:
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(iv) x[n] [n] 2 [n 2] [n 3]
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