Aihole

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Group of monuments At Aihole

Durga temple cluster at Aihole

Location Bagalkot, Karnataka, India

Nearest city Badami

Coordinates
16°1′08″N75°52′55″ECoordinates:
16°1′08″N 75°52′55″E

Area 5 square kilometres (1.9 sq mi)

Elevation 810 m (2,657 ft)

Built 4th–12th century CE

Architectural Hindu, Jain, Buddhist temples and

style(s) monasteries

Governing Archaeological Survey of India

body
 Location of Aihole
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Aihole (pronounced "Eye-hoé"), also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a

historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in
north Karnataka (India) dated from the fourth century through the twelfth century
CE.[1][2][3] Located around an eponymous small village surrounded by farmlands and
sandstone hills, Aihole is a major archaeological site featuring over one hundred and
twenty stone and cave temples from this period, spread along the Malaprabha river
valley, in Bagalakote district.[4]
Aihole is 22 miles (35 km) from Badami and about 6 miles (9.7 km) from Pattadakal,
both of which are major centers of historically important Chalukya monuments. Aihole,
along with nearby Badami (Vatapi), emerged by the 6th century as the cradle of
experimentation with temple architecture, stone artwork, and construction techniques.
This resulted in 16 types of free-standing temples and 4 types of rock-cut shrines.[5] The
experimentation in architecture and arts that began in Aihole yielded the group of
monuments at Pattadakal, a UNESCO world heritage site.[6][7]
Over one hundred Aihole temples are Hindu, a few are Jain and one is Buddhist. These
were built and coexisted in close proximity. The site is spread over about 5 square
kilometres (1.9 sq mi).[8]The Hindu temples are dedicated
to Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, Surya and other Hindu deities. The Jain Basadi temples are
dedicated to Mahavira, Parshvanatha, Neminatha and other Jain Tirthankaras.[9] The
Buddhist monument is a monastery. Both Hindu and Jain monuments include
monasteries, as well as social utilities such as stepwell water tanks with artistic carvings
near major temples.[7][10]

Contents
  1Location
 2History
o 2.1Archaeological site
 3Chronology
 4Hindu Monuments
o 4.1Durga temple complex
o 4.2Ravana Phadi cave
o 4.3Hucchappayya matha
o 4.4Hucchappayya gudi
o 4.5Ambigergudi temples complex
o 4.6Jyotirlinga temples complex
o 4.7Mallikarjuna temples complex
o 4.8Ramalinga temples group
o 4.9Veniyar shrines complex
o 4.10Galaganatha temples group
o 4.11Maddin temples group
o 4.12Triyambakeshvara temples group
o 4.13Kuntigudi complex
o 4.14Other Gudis
 5Buddhist monuments
 6Jain monuments
o 6.1Meguti hill
 6.1.1Meguti Aihole inscription
o 6.2Jain cave temple
o 6.3Yoginarayana group
o 6.4Charanthi matha group
 7Aihole dolmens and inscriptions
 8Significance
o 8.1Early Chalukya style of architecture
 9See also
 10Notes
 11References
o 11.1Bibliography
 12External links

Location[edit]
The Aihole monuments are located in the Indian state of Karnataka, about 190
kilometres (118 mi) southeast of Belgaum and 290 kilometres (180 mi) northeast
from Goa. The monuments are about 14 miles (23 km) from Badami and about 6 miles
(9.7 km) from Pattadakal, set midst rural villages, farms, sandstone hills and Malprabha
river valley. The Aihole site preserves over 120 Hindu, Jain and Buddhist monuments
from the 4th—12th century CE.[11] The region is also a site for prehistoric dolmens and
cave paintings.[12][13]
Aihole has no nearby airport, and is about 4 hours drive from Sambra Belgaum
Airport (IATA Code: IXG), with daily flights to Mumbai, Bangalore and
Chennai.[14][15] Badami is the closest town connected by railway and highway network to
major cities of Karnataka and Goa.[6] It is a protected monument under the laws of the
Indian government, and managed by the Archaeological Survey of India(ASI).[16]

History[edit]
Aihole is referred to as Ayyavole and Aryapura in its inscriptions and Hindu texts from
4th to 12th century CE, as Aivalli and Ahivolal in colonial British era archaeological
reports.[1]
Aihole has been a part of Hindu mythologies. It has a natural axe-shaped rock on the
Malaprabha river bank north of the village, and a rock in the river show a
footprint.[17][18] Parashurama, the sixth Vishnu avatar, is stated in these legends to have
washed his axe here after killing abusive Kshatriyas who were exploiting their military
powers, giving the land its red color.[11][19][18] A 19th-century local tradition believed that
rock footprints in the river were those of Parashurama.[17] A place near the Meguti
hillocks show evidence of human settlement in prehistoric period. Aihole has historical
significance and has been called a cradle of Hindu rock architecture.[20]
The documented history of Aihole is traceable to the rise of the Early Chalukya dynasty
in 6th century.[21] It became, along with nearby Pattadakal and Badami, a major cultural
center and religious site for innovations in architecture and experimentation of
ideas.[6][22] The Chalukyas sponsored artisans and built many temples in this region
between the 6th and 8th centuries.[23][24] Evidence of wooden and brick temples dating to
4th-century have been unearthed. Aihole started the experimentations with other
materials such as stone around the 5th century when the Indian subcontinent saw a
period of political and cultural stability under the Gupta Empire rulers. Badami refined it
in 6th and 7th centuries. The experimentations culminated in Pattadakal in the 7th and
8th centuries becoming a cradle of fusion of ideas from South India and North India. [6][7]

The Aihole fort rubble walls on Meguti hill enclosing the 5th-6th century Jain temple.

After the Chalukyas, the region became a part of the Rashtrakuta kingdom who ruled in
the 9th and 10th century from the capital of Manyakheta. In the 11th and 12th century,
the Late Chalukyas (Western Chalukya Empire, Chalukyas of Kalyani) ruled over this
region.[25][26] Even though the area was not the capital or in immediate vicinity from 9th to
12th centuries, new temples and monasteries of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism
continued to be built in the region based on inscriptional, textual and stylistic evidence.
This likely happened, states Michell, because the region was prosperous with a
substantial population and surplus wealth.[25]
Aihole was fortified by Late Chalukya kings in the 11th and 12th centuries, in an
approximate circle. This indicates the strategic and cultural importance of Aihole to the
kings whose capital was far away. Aihole served as a hub of Hindu temple arts in this
period with guild of artisans and merchants called the Ayyavole 500, celebrated for their
talent and accomplishments in the historic texts of the Deccan region and South India. [27]

An 8th-century Shiva temple was renamed Lad Khan Temple after a Muslim commander of Bijapur
Sultanate who briefly lived here.

In the 13th century and thereafter, the Malprabha valley along with much of Deccan
became a target of raids and plunder by the Delhi Sultanate armies devastating the
region.[25][28] From the ruins emerged the Vijayanagara Empire which built forts and
protected the monuments, as evidenced by inscriptions in the fort at Badami. However,
the region witnessed a series of wars between Vijayanagara Hindu kings and Bahmani
Muslim sultans. After the collapse of Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, Aihole became a
part of the Adil Shahi rule from Bijapur, with some of the Muslim commanders using the
temples as residence and their compounds as garrison for storing weapons and
supplies. A Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva came to be called Lad Khan temple,
named after the Muslim commander who used it as his operational hub, and a name
that has been used ever since.[25] In late 17th-century, the Mughal Empire under
Aurangzeb gained control of the region from Adil Shahis, after which Maratha Empire
gained control of the region. It again changed hands with Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan
conquering it in late 18th century, followed by the British that defeated Tipu Sultan and
annexed the region.[25]
The monuments at Aihole-Badami-Pattadakal show the existence and a history of
interaction between the early northern style and early southern style of Hindu
arts.[29] According to T. Richard Blurton, the history of temple arts in north India is
unclear as the region was repeatedly sacked by invaders from Central Asia, particularly
the Muslim incursion into the subcontinent from 11th-century onwards, and "warfare has
greatly reduced the quantity of surviving examples". The monuments in this region are
amongst the earliest surviving evidence of these early religious arts and ideas.[29][30]
Archaeological site[edit]
Aihole became a significant archaeological site and attracted scholarly attention after
the British India officials identified and published their observations.[17][7] The colonial era
scholars hypothesized that the Apsidal shape Durga temple in Aihole may reflect the
adoption by Hindus and Jains of the Buddhist Chaitya hall design and the influence of
early Buddhist arts. They also identified historically significant 7th-century inscriptions.[17]
For much of the 20th-century, Aihole remained a neglected site. Until the 1990s, the site
consisted of houses and sheds built up to and in some cases extending into the
historical monuments.[31] The walls of the ancient and medieval temples were shared by
some of these homes. Investments in infrastructure, land acquisition and relocation of
some residences has allowed limited excavations and created a few dedicated
archaeological parks including one for the much studied Durga temple at
Aihole.[32][33] Excavated ancient and medieval era artifacts and broken temple pieces,
including a complete life size nude Lajja Gauri in birthing position and with a lotus
head,[34] now resides in an ASI museum next to the Durga temple in Aihole. Many
temples and monasteries continue to be set midst narrow streets and congested
settlement.[32]
The Aihole site and artwork are a major source of empirical evidence and comparative
studies of Indian religions and art history in the Indian subcontinent.[35][36][37] The Aihole's
antiquity, along with four other major 5th to 9th century sites –
Badami, Pattadakal, Mahakuteshvara and Alampur – is significant to scholarship
relating to archaeology and religions. These, states George Michell, display a "meeting
and fragmentation of different temple styles and the creation of local variants". This
fusion and exploration of arts and ideas later became a part of northern and southern
Indian architectural repertoires.[38]

Chronology[edit]
Aihole monuments preserve evidence of North Indian temple architecture styles that are
missing elsewhere. The Gaudar Gudi[note 1]temple mimics a wooden temple design with
stone, with no superstructure but a flat temple raised on a plinth with stairs, square
sanctum, a circumambulatory path and southern style columned hall with northern style
shrine niches.[38] The roof mimics sloping wooden version and has log-like stone
strips.[39] The Chikki temple is another such example, that innovates by adding stone
screens for light inside the temple.[38] The stone temples are dated to the first quarter of
the 5th-century, suggesting the prior temples to centuries before.[40]
According to James Harle of Oxford Ashmolean Museum, Aihole was a meeting place
of styles but one of several around the 6th-century CE, that were on "their way to
development elsewhere". They became preserved in Aihole probably because building
and cultural activity stopped there around the 12th-century. Though excavations have
yielded evidence that scholars disagree in dating, states Harle, it is probable that the
earliest surviving temples in Aihole are from the 6th century and later.[41]
Gary Tartakov links the temples at Aihole to 2nd century CE style and arts found in
the Ajanta Caves, adding that while the Ajanta and Aihole monuments share some
organizational features, there are distinct differences that suggest a "leap in time" and
parallel developments in cave-based Ajanta and Aihole stone temple designs.[42]
According to Christopher Tadgell – a professor in Architectural History, the Aihole
apsidal temples were influenced by the Buddhist chaitya-griha, but not directly. The
immediate precedent for these is found in the mid-5th-century Hindu temple at Chikka
Mahakuta, another place where artists and architects explored temple construction
ideas.[30]

Hindu Monuments[edit]
Aihole was an early medieval era meeting place and a cradle for experimentation of
Hindu arts, particularly temple architecture.[43][41][44] The regional artisans and architects of
Aihole region created prototypes of 16 types of free-standing temples and 4 types of
rock-cut shrines to express in stone the theology of Hinduism.[45] Though there is a
sprinkling of Jaina monuments in Aihole, the temples and relief artworks are
predominantly Hindu.[41]
The Aihole temples experimented with two layouts: sandhara (with circumambulatory
path) and nirandhara (without circumambulatory path).[45] In terms of towers above the
sanctum, they explored several superstructures: shikhara (tapering superstructure of
discrete squares), mundamala (temple without superstructure, literally, garland with
shaved head), rekhaprasada (smooth curvilinear superstructure also based on squares
prevalent in northern and central India), dravidian vimana (pyramidal style of southern
India) and kadamba-chalukya shikhara (a fusion style).[45] The layout typically followed
squares and rectangles (fused squares), but the Aihole artists also tried out prototypes
of an apsidal layout (like a Buddhist or Church hall). In addition, they experimented with
layout of mandapa within the shrines, the pillars, different types of windows to let light
in, reliefs and statues, artwork on mouldings and pillars, bracket designs, ceiling,
structure interlocking principles and styles of friezes. In some temples they added
subsidiary shrines such as Nandi-mandapa, a prakara (wall) and styles
of pratoli (gateway).[41][45]
Durga temple complex[edit]

Two views of the Durga temple at Aihole.

The Durga temple is the best known and studied of the Aihole temples. It has a
misleading name, because the temple is not named after goddess Durga. According to
one theory, it stands near the ruins of a fort-like enclosure or durg during a time of late
medieval era Hindu Muslim conflict in the region.[46][47] According to another local
tradition, a stone rubble durg and lookout was assembled on its flat roof and locals
therefore began calling it the Durga temple.[48] The temple was originally dedicated to
Hindu gods Surya and Vishnu.[47]The temple was dated by early scholars to the 5th
century CE, but variously revised to be from between the late 6th and early 8th
century.[47][48][49]
An amorous couple at the Durga temple.

The Durga temple is the principal attraction for Aihole visitors and iconic in its apsidal
layout.[48][note 2] This shape is similar to 2nd or 1st century BCE Buddhist chaitya halls
found in Ajanta Caves. The Durga temple stands on a high moulded adisthana and a
damaged tower that had a curvilinear shikhara. The damaged tower's amalaka crown
lies on the ground.[51] A colonnaded and covered ambulatory passage with major
carvings runs around the sanctum. The mukha mandapa (main hall) and the sabha
mandapa (community hall for functions) show intricate carvings.[52]
The Durga temple reverentially displays gods and goddesses
from Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktismtraditions of Hinduism. The included near life-
size statues include Shiva, Vishnu, Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu), Durga in her
Mahishasuramardini form killing the buffalo demon,
goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, Brahma, Surya, avatars of Vishnu such
as Varaha and Narasimha.[47][53] The temple has friezes to tell the story of
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Further, the temple has artwork showing scenes
of daily life and couples, including several amorous couples in various stages of
courtship and mithuna.[47][54]
The Durga temple complex consists of seven Hindu monuments. Next to the Durga
temple is the Suryanarayana temple with a pyramidal shikara on top. It has
a Surya statue with each hand holding a lotus flower in its garbha griya (sanctum), in a
chariot and seven small horses carved at the bottom. The temple outline is intact, but
most of the details are damaged.[55]

Stone beams mimicking logs on Lad Khan temple roof (left); Nandi facing the Shiva linga inside.[56]

The Lad Khan Temple is near the Durga temple and has been variously dated to "about
450 CE",[57] or from 6th to 8th centuries.[58][59][60] The temple is named after the Muslim
commander under Adil Shahi Sultan who briefly stayed here about a thousand years
after it was built. He used it to coordinate his military campaign in the region. The
temple embeds three concentric squares,[note 2] facing the sanctum with a Shiva linga.
Inside the inner third square is a seated Nandi. The two square mandapas surrounding
it create the sabha mandapa or community hall, providing ample space for devotees
and community to gather for functions. The second concentric square is supported by a
set of 12 intricately carved pillars. The wall has floral designs. The temple inside is lit
with natural sunlight coming in from lattice windows of the north Indian style. The temple
roof stones include log-shaped stone strips suggestive of an attempt to mimic more
ancient timber temple construction.[58][61][62]
The Ladkhan temple includes iconography from
the Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism. On the lintel of the
sanctum with Shiva Linga, for example, is a Garuda image who carries Vishnu. The
temple has reliefs showing goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, as well as other deities. [61] A
set of stone stairs connect the lower level to the second floor where upon is a damaged
square shrine. On three sides of this upper level are Vishnu, Surya and
Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati).[61] Like other Aihole Hindu temples, the temple
includes scenes from daily life, including amorous couple in courtship and kama
scenes.[61]

Gaudargudi temple experiments an open structure.

Gaudargudi temple stands next to the Ladkhan temple, built on the lines of Ladkhan
temple but more open from all sides. According to George Michell, the temple is older
than the Ladkhan temple.[63] It too has log-shaped stones, where its timber like form is
integrated to serve its structural function. The sanctum is empty but has a Gajalakshmi
on its lintel. An inscription engraved on the lintel states that the temple has been
dedicated to goddess Gauri (an aspect of Parvati). There is evidence that the sanctum,
the inside mandapa and niches on outer walls had carved statues, but these are now
empty.[63] Gaudargudi was among the earliest temples when architects
included pradakshina patha (circumambulatory path) in a Hindu temple design.[64]
Next to the Gaudargudi (also spelled Gaudergudi) temple is a large stepwell for utility
water storage whose walls have ancient carved sculptures. This stepwell is between the
Gaudargudi and Chakragudi temple.[63] According to Himanshu Ray, the stepwell with its
Hindu shrine was likely added in the 10th or 11th century.[65] The Chakragudi is notable
for its preserved 7th or 8th century Nagara-style tower superstructure. The temple
shows signs of later addition of a mandapa, whose style suggests 9th-century
Rashtrakuta extension. To the southwest of the Durga temple complex is the
Badigargudi (also spelled Badigergudi) temple with pyramidal tower that explores a
squat and shrinking discrete squares-topped design with a large
cubical sukanasa containing a Surya (Sun god) icon. Much of the Badigargudi relief
artwork has been damaged and eroded.[63][66]
The Durga temple complex houses the Aihole Museum and Art Gallery, managed by
the Archaeological Survey of India. The museum has outdoor display of excavated
statues, artwork, hero stones, and temple parts demolished in past. It also has an
indoor collection with best preserved pieces of statues and temple parts found in the
region. The collection includes images of Shiva, Parvati, Vishnu, Lakshmi, Brahma,
Saraswati, Durga, Saptamatrika, Surya, Indra and others. The life size Lajja Gauri with
lotus head, found in Aihole, is a part of the indoor collection.[67]
Ravana Phadi cave[edit]

Ravanaphadi cave (left); One of the carvings inside: Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati)

Ravanaphadi is one of the oldest rock cut cave temples in Aihole, located less than a
kilometer uphill, northeast from the Durga temple complex. The temple dates to the 6th
century.[68][69] The entrance has an eroded fluted column and seated Nandi facing the
temple sanctum, with several other small monuments. Inside the cave are three near
square mandapas, the innermost featuring the Shiva linga and connected to the
entrance mandapa by a rectangular space.[70]
The entrance of the Ravanaphadi cave has a Nidhi and seated guardian on each side.
Then, on left, is an image of Ardhanarishvara portraying the equivalence and essential
interdependence of the masculine left Shiva and feminine right Parvati. [70] Past this fused
image, is the first mandapa to the left of which is a niche carved space. In it is 6th
century artwork showing dancing Shiva (Nataraja) with Parvati, Saptamatrikas or seven
mothers of Shaktism tradition, Ganesha and Kartikeya.[70] On the right side of the main
mandapa is Harihara portraying a fused image of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, with left
Shiva and right Vishnu. On the opposite wall of Harihara is Shiva with three primary
river goddesses of Hindu theology, and he stands with Parvati and the skeletal ascetic
Bhringi.[71]
Vishnu and Lakshmi with Garuda on Ravanaphadi ceiling

The main mandapa connects to two other near square mandapas. To its north is the
sanctum, flanked by Shaiva guardians at its entrance, then Vaishnava Varaha or
Vishnu's boar avatar rescuing goddess earth on its left.[71][72] To the right is a carved
image of Shakti Durga as Mahishasuramardine spearing the buffalo demon. To the east
of the main mandapa is an empty monastery like chamber.[71] The ceiling of the cave has
reliefs. One, for example, shows Vishnu with Lakshmi flying on winged Garuda, another
shows the Vedic god Indra with Indrani on an elephant.[71]
According to James Harle, the Ravanaphadi cave is stylistically unique in the Aihole
region, and the closest artwork and style is found in the Rameshwara cave of Ellora in
north Maharashtra.[73] According to Pia Brancaccio, the Ravanaphadi cave bridges the
style and design of "the rock-cut tradition of the Deccan with that of Tamil Nadu".[74]
Hucchappayya matha[edit]
Hucchappayya matha (left); Amorous couple carving inside.

The Huchappayya matha temple is about a kilometer south of the Durga temple
complex on the other side of the Aihole village, relatively isolated from other temple
clusters. It consists of two Hindu monuments, the front larger one is a Shiva temple and
the other a monastery no longer in use. The temple is walled on all sides with stone,
has steps leading into a doorway of the mandapa. The temple faces east towards the
sunrise, is mostly simple and blank, but has four columns with amorous couples on
each. They are in various stages of courtship and mithuna.[75] One of the couple carvings
humorously places a horse-headed woman seeking the attention of a man, who carries
a shocked expression on his face.[75]
Inside the doorway is the mandapa whose ceiling has three large intricate and circular
carvings, one each showing Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva on their respective vahanas. A
Nandi sits in the middle of the mandapa floor facing the sanctum wherein is the Shiva
Linga.[75]The temple has two inscriptions in old Kannada, as well as a standing Shiva
and standing Ganesha.[76] The mandapa walls also show various friezes and reliefs,
including more amorous couples. The temple is flat on the top, lacking a superstructure.
The temple is likely from the 7th century.[77]
Hucchappayya gudi[edit]
The Huchappayya gudi is a Hindu temple located few hundred meters southwest of the
Huchappayya matha, in the farmlands towards the river, away from the village. It is
simple east facing 2x2 square temple, with square front portico, a square sabha
mandapa (main community ceremony hall, 24'x24') and an almost-square sanctum. The
portico has four pillars, as does the sabha mandapa.[78] The main hall is supported by
four pillars placed in a square of the same size as the portico.[78] The temple has North
Indian style Rekhanagara tower with rotating squares rising in a curvilinear smooth
towards the sky. The tower is damaged, the top amalaka finial and kalasha missing.[78][79]

Brahma carving in Hucchappayya gudi, now at a Mumbai Museum.

The temple is notable for its intricate pillar carvings both in the portico and inside, as
well as the artwork on its inner walls and ceiling. The carvings show religious themes
(Vishnu's avatar Narasimha and Shiva Nataraja on wall, Shaiva dvarapalas, Garuda
man-bird clasping two serpents), as well as the daily life of the people (dancers,
musicians, individuals in Namaste posture, couple carrying offerings for prayers, flowers
and animals).[79][78] Some panels are humorous such as young women with horse head
embracing bearded older men found on the eastern porch column. Outside, there is a
slab carved with Saptamatrikas (seven mothers) of the Shaktism Hindu tradition. The
temple also has an inscription in old Kannada on one of the pillars inside the main
hall.[78]
Hucchappayya gudi is dated to Early Chalukya period (6th-7th century).[79]
Ambigergudi temples complex[edit]
Ambigergudi group is one of the archaeologically significant Aihole complexes situated
immediately west of the Durga temple complex, near its entrance ticket office. It
consists of three monuments, all aligned to the east-west axis.[80] The easternmost
monument is square monument walled on its east, north and south, and it lacks a tower.
It faces the middle monument, which is largest of the three. The middle monument is
experiments with an open verandah design concept with sloping slaps for roof
cover.[80] The sanctum is inside, and it contains a damaged Surya (Sun god) image
whose crown is visible. These eastern two monuments are from 6th to 8th century, the
Early Chalukya period.[80]

The defaced carvings of Aihole temples.

The third monument in the Ambigergudi complex is a Late Chalukya design from about
the 11th century.[80]Its structure and layout features all elements of the Hindu temple but
it is damaged, the image inside the sanctum is missing and the face, nose and limbs of
most of its intricate carvings on the walls are defaced. The structure experiments with
square and cubic shaped elements and arrangement of space. The Dravida design
stands out above the sanctum walls, with repeated motifs of resonating tower structure
as it rises upwards. Like other elements of this temple, the capping roof and finial is
missing.[80]
The archaeological significance of the Ambigergudi temple is from the results of limited
excavation near the rear wall of the sanctum foundation. [note 3] This yielded red-ware
bowls dated to the 1st and 3rd century CE, as well as an outline of a single cell more
ancient brick temple, which probably the stone temple replaced. [82] According to the
hypothesis of Rao, the excavating archaeologist, the 3rd century CE brick temple
served as a model and sanctum ground on which a more lasting stone was built. This
hypothesis, however, remains tentative as additional evidence to refute or support it has
not been found. According to Hemanth Kamdambi, Chalukyan temple inscriptions from
the 6th to 8th century are silent about the existence of prior temples. [82]
Jyotirlinga temples complex[edit]
The Jyotir linga group of monuments contain sixteen Hindu monuments including a
large stepwell water utility tank. It is located east of the Durga temple complex
compound across the road and to the south of the Ravanaphadi cave. The temples are
dedicated to Shiva, with most monuments small to moderate size. The complex is
largely in ruins, except for the Nandi mandapas and standing pillars inside the temples
some of which show intricately carved but damaged images of Ganesha, Karitikeya,
Parvati and Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati). The temples are likely from the
Early Chalukya and Rashtrakuta Hindu dynasties.[83][84]
Mallikarjuna temples complex[edit]

The Mallikarjuna temple complex at Aihole

The Mallikarjuna temple complex features five Hindu monuments.[85] The main temple in
this complex is dated to the Early Chalukya period, likely around 700 CE. [86][87] The
temple tower experimented with square mouldings of diminishing area stacked
concentrically as it rose towards the sky. On top is a crowning amalaka and
then kalasa (pot used in Hindu festivals and rites-of-passage functions).[86] The smaller
shrines in this complex were likely built in the Late Chalukya period.[86]
The outer walls of the temples here are simple, clean surfaces.[86] The walls inside of the
Shiva temple, particularly the pillars are intricately carved with religious themes such as
a seated Vishnu man-lion avatar Narasimha, Ganesha and Padmanidhi, as well as of
daily life such as a female dancer accompanied with two female musicians with their
instruments. The pillars also show amorous couples in various stages of courtship and
intimacy.[86][85] Many of the images inside the shrines show signs of intentional damage
inside the mandapa, such as the Karegudi (black pagoda) and Bilegudi (white pagoda).
The complex is dedicated to Shiva, and includes a Nandi-mandapa monument. Outside
the temples, within the complex, is a carved slab of Saptamatrikas (seven mothers) of
the Shaktismtradition.[85] Near the temple, is a large stepwell as a water utility.[86][85]
According to Vinayak Bharne and Krupali Krusche, the main Mallikarjuna temple
illustrates with simplicity the core elements of a Hindu temple.[88] It consists of three
squares. A front square portico faces the east, invites the devotee to rise up the stairs
and enter, leads him into a square sabha mandapa (public gathering space). The main
mandapa links to a square sanctum, above which is the tower superstructure. The
mandapa has 4 (2x2) pillars set in a square, each centered to form four circles that
enclose the community hall space. The stairs at entrance too are in a square footprint,
with two pillars. The larger temples similarly combine squares and circles as a
generative pattern to create the temple space.[88]
Ramalinga temples group[edit]

Ramalingeshwara Shiva temple's annual ratha (chariot) procession celebrates Aihole stone
monuments heritage

Ramalinga complex, also called Ramalingeshvara temples, is a group of five Hindu

temples. These are located on the banks of the Malaprabha river, about 2.5 kilometers
south of the Durga temple complex. They are clustered close to the Veniyar and the
Galaganatha monument groups in a hilly terrain.[89]
The Ramalingeshwara temples are an active Shiva worship complex. It is periodically
refurbished, white washed and redecorated for seasonal festivals. Its entrance has a
modern wooden chariot with old stone wheels used for annual processions. The
entrance portal has a Shiva Nataraja and two lions carvings, while the main temple
consists of three shrines that connect with a common mandapa. Two of the shrines
have pyramidal towers with shrinking squares concentrically placed, as does the main
shrine, but two have their amalaka and kalasa a bit lower and intact. The mandapa is
covered with a sloping stone roof. The temple incorporates an arched gate with a path
to the river.[90][89]
Veniyar shrines complex[edit]
The Veniyar shrines group, also called Veniyargudi, Vaniyavar, Veniyavur or Eniyar
group, consists of ten Hindu temples.[91] The Veniyar shrines are south of the village,
near the river bank, close to the Ramalinga temples group. They are mostly in ruins,
with substantial damage, and had a thick forest growth over them till late 20th-century.
Archeological Survey of India cleared and recovered the space. A similarly named
Veniyavur complex is also in the south side of the town, near Rachigudi temple. The
largest temple here is an 11th-century temple.[92] The temple has a southern entrance,
though the main hall and shrine has again an east-west alignment. The pillars
experiment a square base and octagonal member followed by inverted kalasha on top
with square finish. The lintel has a Gajalakshmi. The hall consists of two fused squares
(6.5'x13'). The door frame to the sanctum has tiny carvings, and the temple has some of
the most miniature carvings of themes in Aihole.[93]
The Veniyar temples are dated to between the 9th and the 11th century, and
represented a breakthrough in experiments by Aihole medieval artists to balance stone
weight that the foundation and pillars could support while arranging a functional form,
space and light within the temple consistent with the theological ideas. The so-called
Temple number 5 of the Veniyar group combined function and form, creating a much
taller madhyashala than any previous Aihole temple and a two-storey sanctum temple
structure by nesting the stones. A simpler idea but with less fruitful results were tried in
the triple Jaina temple found in Aihole village.[91]
Galaganatha temples group[edit]

Galaganatha temple complex (left); An outside carving.

Galaganatha group of temples, also referred to as Galagnath temples, is a large cluster

of over thirty medieval Hindu temples and monuments on the bank of the Malaprabha
River in Aihole. It is located about 2.5 kilometers south of the Durga temple and ASI
museum complex, near the river dam, close to the Veniyar and Ramalinga
shrines.[89]The Galaganatha group of temples are dated to between 7th and 12th
centuries.[89][94]
The Galagnath temples compound has three main sub-clusters, almost all aligned in
east-west direction. Most are partly or wholly in ruins with signs of intentional damage,
but the remnants standing have significant details and artwork.[89] The main shrine of the
Galaganatha complex is dedicated to Shiva, yet has Brahma, Vishnu and Durga artwork
integral in its mandapa. The Shiva panel from its ceiling, along with several of its
artwork has been moved to a Mumbai museum.[95] This main temple is from Early
Chalukya period (6th or 7th century), has a Kadamba-Nagara style pyramidal shikhara
of shrinking squares concentrically placed.[95] It includes images of river goddesses
Ganga and Yamuna at the entrance to this shrine. A few other notable temples in this
complex that remain in reasonably preserved shape and form include one with a nearly
complete 9th-century temple with South Indian Dravida style tower, another with North
Indian Rekhanagara style tower.[95][89]
The artwork found in the Aihole Galaganatha temple complex includes various styles of
auspicious pot motifs (now common in Hindu ceremonies), Durga, Harihara,
Maheshvari, Saptamatrikas, mythical makaras, foliage and flowers, birds, and
others.[95][89][96] The Galaganatha temples complex is the site where archaeologists found
the 7th-century complete life-size nude Lajja Gauri in birthing position and with a lotus
head, now at ASI Aihole museum near the Durga temple. [97]
The Galaganatha temples, states Ajay Sinha – professor of Art History, show evidence
of unfinished wall panels in addition to the abundance of panels that represent the
secular local folklore and social life as well as the religious mythologies and
deities.[98] The Galaganatha complex has a diversity of temples and styles with a
pastiche effect, states Sinha, which is perhaps evidence of "the degree to which
interaction of architectural ideas was taking place in this period in this merchantile
town".[98]
Maddin temples group[edit]
The Maddin cluster consists of four Hindu temples.[99] It is one of the groups that is in the
heart of the village, midst homes and sheds. The largest temple faces north, and has
two small linked shrines on its east and west. The temple experiments with different
pillar designs.[99]
The main mandapa of the largest Maddin temple is square and supported on four pillars
made of stone unlike others used in Aihole, a greenish color stone that is not local and
was imported from somewhere else, possibly from Dharwad region of the
Deccan.[99] The artists polished it, moulded a square base and then lathe-turned it
intricately all the way to its neck in a manner similar to Hoyasala designs. The temple
features a Nataraja, the dancing Shiva with a damaru in his right hand and trishula in
the left. Near him is an intricately carved lion. In distance, facing the Shiva linga is
seated Nandi in the antarala of the temple. On the lintel of the sanctum is
Gajalakshmi.[99]
The towers of the Maddin temples are all stepped pyramidal concentric squares.[99]
Triyambakeshvara temples group[edit]

Rachigudi Temple of the Triyambakeshvara Group

The Triyambakeshvara group, also spelled Triambakesvara group, has five Hindu
temples.[100] It is within the village. The main temple of this group faces south and is set
on a high platform.[100] Two smaller connected shrines are to its east and west. Stone
steps lead to an open mandapa, a sabha mandapa (community hall) which connects to
the sanctum. The open portico has two square pillars and two pilasters. The lintel on the
entrance has Gajalakshmi. The sabha mandapa is square (15.6'x15.6'), itself supported
on four square moulded pillars set within the space in a square, while the side walls
have twelve pilasters.[100] The upper part of the four square pillars are circular. It is
connected to an antechamber and the sanctum. The sanctum is dedicated to Shiva
linga, while a near life size Nandi sits facing the sanctum inside the shrine. On the lintel
to the sanctum is carved another Gajalakshmi (Lakshmi with two elephants spraying
water). The damaged towers of the main and the attached smaller shrines are all
stepped pyramid of shrinking concentric squares as the tower rises towards the sky.[100]
Two smaller temples in the Triyambakeshvara group are the Desiyar temple and the
Rachigudi temple. Both feature a square main community ceremony hall, but different
roof than the main temple of this group. The Desiyar temple has a seated, lotus-holding
Lakshmi carved on the entrance. It has a bhumi-style tower, and has a Nandi sitting
outside.[101] The Rachigudi features a sloping stone roof of the style now found in Hindu
temples of southwestern India. The outside wall has floral and other carvings. [102] The
temple consists of a main shrine, plus two subsidiary shrines to its east and
west.[102] The inside of the Rachigudi temple is a square layout, set on square base
pillars with rounded moulded shaft supporting the roof and a moulded
inverted kalasha pot like shape at its top. The portico of the temple is square (17'x17'),
is of kakasanas style with eight squat pillars, again with square base, followed by an
exploration of octagonal form.[103] The Rachigudi has some intricately carved artwork
inside, such as of Gajalakshmi on the lintel. The door jambs explore floral and
geometric designs, as do the small perforated windows in the sabha
mandapa integrated to bring light into the temple.[103] The Triyambakeshvara group
including the Rachigudi Hindu temple is from the 10th to 11th centuries, bridging the
Rashtrakuta and Late Chalukya periods.[104]
Kuntigudi complex[edit]

Kunti group colonnade

The Kunti group of monuments, also referred to as the Konti-gudi group, consist of four
Hindu temples. They are situated in the middle of an Aihole market street with temple
walls between the houses and sheds. Gupte dates the temples to the 6th
century,[105] while Michell states some of the monuments are more likely from the 8th
century.[106] The temples feature a veranda and garbha-grihya (sanctum) without
enclosed walls.[105]
The temples have an entrance colonnade with square pillars and porch with carvings
that have eroded with time. The carvings include natural themes and amorous couples
(for example, man cuddles a woman's shoulder as she lovingly caresses him with one
hand and holds him with other both looking at each other).[107] Inside the main temple is
a mandapa with carvings of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism traditions. The
artwork presents unusual perspective such as the top view of Vishnu as he sleeps on
Sesha, without Lakshmi, but with chakra and conch not in his hand but on the top edge
of the bed; Shiva in yoga asana with Parvati seated on his side and her hand on his
thigh; three headed Brahma holding a pasha and kamandalu seated on lotus rather
than Hamsa; Durga killing demon buffalo but from an unusual perspective. [108] Similarly
one of the pillars a damaged artwork with eight hands (mostly broken), probably Shiva,
but who unusually carries trishul (Shaivism), chakra (Vaishnavism) and dhanus (Rama,
Vaishnavism). Goddess Uma is shown in one carving as wearing a yajnopavita (along
with Shiva with him).[109] The temples also present standing Vishnu avatar Narasimha,
Ardhanarishvara (Shiva-Parvati fusion), Nataraja, Gajalakshmi, Ganesha, standing
Shiva with pearl yajnopavita, Vedic gods Agni, Indra, Kubera, Ishana, Vayu, and
others.[106][109]
Other Gudis[edit]

Gauri temple mandapa, Aihole

 Chikkigudi group is at a short distance to the north of the

Ambigeragudi group (7th-8th century; according to Michell,
main temple has "exuburent sculptures in the interior"
treasured within a plain simple outside; detailed artwork of
Trivikrama Vishnu, Nataraja Shiva, Brahma-Vishnu-
Mahesh Hindu trinity and others)[110][111]
 Tarabasappa temple (6th-7th century, earliest separation of
sanctum from the main gathering hall)[112]
 Hucchimalli temple (operating in late 6th century per 708
CE inscription, an intricate carving of Kartikeya, Shaivism
tradition)[113][114]
 Aralibasappa temple (9th century, Ganga and Yamuna
river goddesses carving, Shaivism tradition)[92]
 Gauri temple (12th century, intricately carved Durga,
Shaiva and Vaishnava carvings and images, now Shaktism
tradition but may have belonged to the Vaishnava then
Shaiva tradition earlier)[115]
 Sangameshwara temple and Siddanakolla (6th-8th century,
Saptamatrikas and Lajja Gauri of the Shaktism tradition)[116]

Buddhist monuments[edit]
Two storeyed Buddhist temple in Aihole

There is one Buddhist monument in Aihole, on the Meguti hill. It is a two storeyed
temple, a few steps below the crest of the hill and the Jain Meguti hill temple. In front of
the temple is a damaged Buddha statue, one without a head, probably taken out from
inside the temple.[117] The two levels of the temple are open and feature four full carved
square pillars and two partial pillars on two side walls. Each pair of pillar goes into the
hill to form a small monastery like chamber. The doorway to lower level chamber is
intricately carved, while the central bay on the upper level has a Buddha relief showing
him seated under a parasol.[117] The temple is dated to late 6th-century.[117]

Jain monuments[edit]
Aihole preserves four collection of about ten Jain monuments from the 6th to 12th
century CE, associated with the Meena Basti (also referred to as Mina Basadi). These
co-exist with the Buddhist and Hindu monuments, and are found on the Meguti hill,
Chanranthi matha, Yoginarayana complex and an early Jaina cave temple near a Hindu
cave temple south of the village.[118][119]
Meguti hill[edit]

Meguti hill Jain temple

The Meguti Jain temple is on the level-topped Meguti hill, above the two storeyed
Buddhist temple, surrounded by the Aihole fort. The north-facing temple is dedicated to
a Jain Tirthankara.[117] The word "Meguti" is a corruption of the word "Megudi" and
means "upper temple".[120]
The temple has an open portico, leading the devotee into a mandapa and the sanctum.
The entire temple sits on a raised platform like many of the Hindu temples in the village.
However, the layout inside is distinct. It has a pillared square mukhya-mandapa (main
hall), which enters into a narrower square antarala divided into two compartments at
different levels.[120] A stair connects the slightly higher level, which leads to the larger
square shaped chamber and sanctum. This section consists of two concentric squares,
the inner square being the sanctum, and the space between the outer square and inner
square being the pradakshina patha (circumambulation path).[120] However, in the back
of this path, a later construction sealed the circumambulation passage, making it more
suitable for storage. Inside the inner square is a relatively crude carving of a
Tirthankara. In contrast to the crudeness of this carving is the intricate carving of
Ambika with attendant female Jaina deities and her lion mount below of the temple, now
preserved in the ASI museum in Aihole. A similar carving is found attending
the Mahavira in Jain Ellora Caves, and it is therefore likely that this temple was a
dedication to the Mahavira.[120] The temple includes a stone stair connecting the lower
level to its upper. Though badly damaged, the upper level has a Jain image. It is also a
viewpoint to look over the fort as well to watch the Aihole village below. [120]
The temple foundation moldings rhythmically project the pilastered walls of the temple.
The temple is not complete, as the niches and walls where carvings would be, are either
cut but empty or left uncut and left raised.[117] The temple had a tower, but it is lost and
has been replaced by a rooftop watch room like empty chamber added much later and
that does not flow with the rest of temple.[117][121]The moldings around the foundation have
carvings of Jaina motifs such as seated Jinas meditating.

Aihole Sanskritinscription from 634 CE.

Meguti Aihole inscription[edit]

The Meguti temple is historically important for its Aihole Prashasti inscription. A slab on
the outer side wall of the temple is in Sanskrit language and Old Kannada script. It is
dated to Saka 556 (634 CE), and is a poem in a variety of Sanskrit meters by Ravikirti
about the Hindu king Pulakeshin II.[10] The inscription mentions the Hindu
poets Kalidasa and Bharavi, whose Mahabharata-related compositions are subject of
friezes in Badami-Aihole-Pattadakal region. The inscription records the Chalukya family
and his royal patron's support in the construction of the Meguti Jain temple. [117][121][122]
Jain cave temple[edit]
7th-8th century Jain cave temple.[123]

The Jain cave temple is to the south of village, on the Meguti hill. It is likely from the late
6th century or early 7th.[86] The outside is plain, but the cave is intricately embellished
inside. The carvings carry symbolic Jain motifs, such as the mythical
giant makaras disgorging tiny humans and lotus petals decorations.[86] Inside its
vestibule, on each side are two major reliefs of Parshvanatha with snake canopy above
him and Bahubali with vines wrapped around his two legs. Both these images have
female attendants next to them. The vestibule leads to the sanctum, flanked by two
armed guards who also hold lotuses, with an enthroned seated inside. The cave has a
side chamber, where too is a seated Jina surrounded by mostly female devotees with
offerings and worship position.[86]
Yoginarayana group[edit]
Another cluster of Jain monuments is the Yoginarayana group, near the Gauri temple. It
consists of four temples, dedicated to the Mahavira and the Parshvanatha. Two face the
north, one west and another east, all likely from the 11th century.[124] The pillars of the
temples have intricate carvings. Their towers are same as the stepped squares found in
Hindu pyramidal-style shikaras in Aihole.[125]This collection has a polished basalt image
of Parshvanatha, with a five headed snake hood. He sits on a platform with lions carved
in its niches.[126] Another image from this Jain temples cluster is now at the ASI museum
in Aihole.[127]
Charanthi matha group[edit]

A Chanranthi math Jain temple.

The Charanthi matha group consists of three Jain temples and is dated to the 12th
century CE.[126] It features the Late Chalukya style.[126]
The main Jain temple in the Charanthi matha group faces north. It is flanked by two
smaller shrines, while it consists of a portico, an almost-square mandapa (16 ft × 17 ft),
an antarala, sanctum.[128] The mandapa entrance has the image of Mahavira with two
female attendants, inside are four pillars laid out in a square pattern, and the design on
them look similar to pillars found in nearby Hindu temples. At the entrance of the
antarala is another image of the Mahavira.[128] The square antechamber leads to
sanctum where there is another image of the Mahavira seated in the padmasana yoga
position, on a lion throne flanked by two attendants. The smaller shrines also feature the
Mahavira.[128] The tower above the Charanthi matha group temples are stepped
shrinking concentric squares pyramidal style.[128]
The second and third temple in the Charanthi matha group face south. These share a
common veranda. The temples resemble monastic sanctuaries. A six bay veranda
connects to these two, and the doorways have miniature Jinas carved on the lintels.
The pillars of these temples are ornately carved, and both are dedicated to the
Mahavira.[126][129]
The matha consists of twin basadi with one porch serving both, with each housing 12
Tirthankars. An inscription here records the date of construction as 1120 CE.[citation needed]

Aihole dolmens and inscriptions[edit]

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Main article: Aihole inscriptions
Scattered in the pre historic period meghalithic site behind the Meguti temple are many
dolmens, numbering about 45 and more are destroyed by treasure hunters. [1] Local
people call it Morera mane (Morera tatte) or Desaira Mane. Each dolmen has three
sides upright square slabs and large flat slab on top forms roof, front side upright slab
had circular hole.

Significance[edit]
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expansion. You can help
byadding to it. (October 2017)

The Hindu temples at Aihole reflect a "meeting and fragmentation of styles", one that
became a creative cradle for new experiments in construction and architecture yielding
their local variants, states George Michell. These ideas ultimately influenced and
became a part of both the northern and southern styles of Hindu arts.[130] They are also a
possible mirror to early wood-based temples whose natural decay led to innovations
with stone, where the early stone temples preserved the heritage, the form and the
function of their timber ancestors.[38] The early temples at Aihole may also be a window
into the more ancient Indian society, where temples were built around and integrated
into the "santhagara village meeting hall" as the mandapa.[131]
The Aihole temples are built at different levels, likely because the river Malaprabha
flooded and its path changed over its history. The more ancient temples have a lower
level. This is evidenced by the limited excavations done by Rao near the foundation of a
few select temples where red polished ware have been found. These ceramic ware
pieces are dated to between 1st century BCE and 4th century CE, and likely deposited
with silt around the older temples during river floods. Extensive excavation studies at
the Aihole done have not been done, but the studies so far suggest that the site
preserves archaeologically significant information.[132]
The Jain temples of Aihole are significant in helping decipher the spread, influence and
interaction of Jainism and Hinduism traditions in the Deccan region. According to Lisa
Owen, the comparison of the artwork in Aihole-Badami Jain monuments and other sites
such as the Ellora Caves, particularly the attendants, deities and demons provides a
means to decipher the development of Jain mythology and the significance of the
shared iconography.[133]
Early Chalukya style of architecture[edit]
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expansion. You can help
byadding to it. (October 2017)

Badami Chalukyas King Pulakeshin II (610–642 A.D.) was a follower of Vaishnavism.

The inscription of Ravikirti, his court poet, is a eulogy of the Pulakeshin II and is at the
Meguti temple. It is dated 634 CE and is written in Sanskrit language and
old Kannada script. The Aihole inscription describes the achievements of Pulakeshin II
and his victory against King Harshavardhana. Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II
mentioned as akrantatma-balonnatim Pallavanam patim: that means the Pallavas had
attempted to nip in the bud the rise of the Badami Chalukyas: The conflict of the two
powers before the campaign of Pulakeshin II against the Pallavas. In the Aihole
inscription referred that Mangalesha's (Paramabhagavat) victory over
the Kalachuris and the conquest of Revatidvipa. According to the Aihole inscription of
Pulakeshin II, a civil war between Mangalesha and Pulakeshin II, due to Mangalesha's
attempt to secure the succession for his son, which was the end of Mangalesha's
reign.[134]

See also[edit]
 Badami Chalukya Architecture  Chalukya dynasty  Sudi
 Pattadakal  Badami Chalukya  Gajendragad
 Mahakuta group of temples Architecture  Ainnurruvar
 List of State Protected Monuments  Five Hundred Lords of  Indian rock-cut
in Karnataka Ayyavolu architecture
 Aihole inscriptions

Notes[edit]
1. Jump up^ Gudi means "shrine" in Kannada, and regionally
used to connote a Hindu temple.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b For the temple's detailed schematic plan, see
Vinayak Bharne and Krupali Krusche's Rediscovering the Hindu
Temple,[50] and Christopher Tadgell's The East.[30]
 3. Jump up^ The foundation of the middle of the three
monuments shows some remnants of the type of bricks
found.[81]

References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b Himanshu Prabha Ray (2010). Archaeology
and Text: The Temple in South Asia. Oxford University Press.
pp. 17–18, 27. ISBN 978-0-19-806096-3.
2. Jump up^ Heather Elgood 2000, p. 151.
3. Jump up^ Jeffery D. Long (2011). Historical Dictionary of
Hinduism. Scarecrow. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-8108-7960-7., Quote:
"AIHOLE. Pronounced "Eye-ho-lé", village in northern
Karnataka that, from the fourth to the sixth centuries CE, was a
major city (...)"
4. Jump up^ Maurizio Forte; Stefano Campana; Claudia Liuzza
(2010). Space, Time, Place: Third International Conference on
Remote Sensing in Archaeology. Archaeopress. pp. 343–
344. ISBN 978-1-4073-0659-9.
5. Jump up^ Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole-Badami-
Pattadakal, UNESCO (2015)
6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d World Heritage Sites - Pattadakal - More
Detail, Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India
(2012)
7. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Michell 2017, pp. 12-29, 78-86.
8. Jump up^ Maurizio Forte; Stefano Campana; Claudia Liuzza
(2010). Space, Time, Place: Third International Conference on
Remote Sensing in Archaeology. Archaeopress. pp. 343–
344. ISBN 978-1-4073-0659-9.
9. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 12-19.
10. ^ Jump up to:a b Himanshu Prabha Ray (2010). Archaeology
and Text: The Temple in South Asia. Oxford University Press.
pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-0-19-806096-3.
11. ^ Jump up to:a b R Muniswamy (2006). Karnataka State
Gazetteer: Bijapur District (Bagalkot District Included).
Karnataka Gazetteer Department. pp. 40, 847–848.
12. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 12-41.
13. Jump up^ Gary Tarr (1970), Chronology and Development of
the Chāḷukya Cave Temples, Ars Orientalis, The Smithsonian
Institution and Department of the History of Art, University of
Michigan, Vol. 8, pp. 155-184
14. Jump up^ Belgaum airport[permanent dead link] AAI, Govt of
India; Official Website, Belgaum
15. Jump up^ New terminal building at Belagavi airport, The Hindu
(September 30, 2017)
16. Jump up^ World Heritage Sites - Pattadakal; Group of
Monuments at Pattadakal (1987), Karnataka; ASI, Government
of India
17. ^ Jump up to:a b c d James Sutherland Cotton; Sir Richard Burn;
Sir William Stevenson Meyer (1908). Imperial Gazetteer of India
... Oxford University Press. p. 129.
18. ^ Jump up to:a b Gupte 1967, pp. 9-10.
19. Jump up^ Sigfried J. de Laet and Joachim Herrmann, History
of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh
century A.D.. UNESCO, 1996.
20. Jump up^ "Aihole's stories in stone". Retrieved 2011-07-28.
21. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 12-29.
22. Jump up^ "Pattadakal". National Informatics Center. Archived
from the original on 11 September 2004. Retrieved 21
June 2016.
23. Jump up^ George Michell (2002). Pattadakal. Oxford
University Press. pp. 2–7. ISBN 978-0-19-565651-0.
24. Jump up^ "World Heritage Sites - Pattadakal". Archaeological
Survey of India. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
25. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Michell 2017, pp. 19-20.
26. Jump up^ Hermann Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (1998). A
History of India. Routledge. pp. 106–113. ISBN 978-0-415-
15482-6.
27. Jump up^ Michell 2017, p. 78.
28. Jump up^ George Childs Kohn (2013). Dictionary of Wars.
Routledge. pp. 146–147. ISBN 978-1-135-95494-9.
29. ^ Jump up to:a b T. Richard Blurton (1993). Hindu Art. Harvard
University Press. pp. 53–55, 212–218. ISBN 978-0-674-39189-
5.
30. ^ Jump up to:a b c Christopher Tadgell (2015). The East:
Buddhists, Hindus and the Sons of Heaven. Routledge. pp. 90–
95. ISBN 978-1-136-75384-8.
31. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 78-85.
32. ^ Jump up to:a b Michell 2017, pp. 78-89.
33. Jump up^ Gary Michael Tartakov (1997). The Durga Temple at
Aihole: A Historiographical Study. Oxford University Press.
pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-0-19-563372-6.
34. Jump up^ Amalananda Ghosh. An Encyclopaedia of Indian
Archaeology. BRILL Academic. p. 269. ISBN 90-04-09264-1.
35. Jump up^ Tartakov, Gary Michael; Dehejia, Vidya (1984).
"Sharing, Intrusion, and Influence: The Mahisasuramardini
Imagery of the Calukyas and the Pallavas". Artibus
Asiae. 45 (4): 287–345. doi:10.2307/3249741. ISSN 0004-3648.
36. Jump up^ Carol Radcliffe Bolon (1985), The Durga Temple,
Aihole, and the Saṅgameśvara Temple, KūḐavelli: A Sculptural
Review, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 15, pp. 47-64
37. Jump up^ George Michell (1978), A Comparison of the
Muṇḍeśvarī Temple at Ramgarh and the Meguṭi Temple at
Aihole: Notes towards a Definition of Early Temple Style in
India, East and West, Vol. 28, No. 1/4 (December 1978), pp.
213-223
38. ^ Jump up to:a b c d George Michell 1977, pp. 103-104.
39. Jump up^ Michell 2017, p. 88.
40. Jump up^ Herbert Härtel (1981). South Asian Archaeology
1981. Brill Academic. pp. 455–456.
41. ^ Jump up to:a b c d James C. Harle (1994). The Art and
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42. Jump up^ Gary Michael Tartakov (1997). The Durga Temple at
Aihole: A Historiographical Study. Oxford University Press.
pp. 33–45, 54–55. ISBN 978-0-19-563372-6.
43. Jump up^ Alain Daniélou (2003). A Brief History of India.
Simon and Schuster. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-59477-794-3.
44. Jump up^ Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, pp. 80-95.
45. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole-
Badami- Pattadakal, UNESCO (2015)
46. Jump up^ Gary Michael Tartakov (1997). The Durga Temple at
Aihole: A Historiographical Study. Oxford University Press.
pp. 126–127, 139–140. ISBN 978-0-19-563372-6.
47. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Roshen Dalal (2010). The Religions of
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p. 110. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6.
48. ^ Jump up to:a b c Michell 2017, pp. 82-83.
49. Jump up^ Heather Elgood 2000, p. 26.
50. Jump up^ Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, pp. 80-81.
51. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 83-84.
52. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 82-84.
53. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 82-86.
54. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 84-86.
55. Jump up^ Michell 2017, p. 87.
56. Jump up^ George Michell 1977, p. 107.
57. Jump up^ Tartakov, Gary Michael (1980). "The Beginning of
Dravidian Temple Architecture in Stone". Artibus Asiae. 42 (1):
39–40. doi:10.2307/3250008. JSTOR 3250008.
58. ^ Jump up to:a b James C. Harle (1994). The Art and
Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press.
pp. 172–174 with Figure 130. ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5., Quote:
"Figure 130. Aihole. Lad Khan temple. Late sixth/seventh
century."
59. Jump up^ Michell 2017, p. 87, "Ladkhan temple (...) This early
8th-century monument...".
60. Jump up^ Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, pp. x, 81.
61. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Michell 2017, pp. 87-88.
62. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, pp. 18-21.
63. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Michell 2017, pp. 88-89.
64. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, p. 47.
65. Jump up^ Himanshu Prabha Ray (2010). Archaeology and
Text: The Temple in South Asia. Oxford University Press.
p. 31. ISBN 978-0-19-806096-3.
66. Jump up^ Karnataka, Aihole, Badiger Gudi, Aihole archives,
Switzerland
67. Jump up^ Museum and Art Gallery, ASI Aihole
68. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 92-94.
69. Jump up^ Tartakov, Gary Michael (1980). "The Beginning of
Dravidian Temple Architecture in Stone". Artibus Asiae. 42 (1):
39–46, 86–87. doi:10.2307/3250008.
70. ^ Jump up to:a b c Michell 2017, pp. 92-93.
71. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Michell 2017, pp. 92-97.
72. Jump up^ Preeti Sharma (2007), Varaha motif in the
Chalukyan Rock-cut Caves at Badami, Proceedings of the
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1421
73. Jump up^ James C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of
the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press.
p. 178. ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5.
74. Jump up^ Brancaccio, Pia (2014). "Cave Architecture of
India". Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology,
and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Dordrecht: Springer
Netherlands. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_9848-
1. ISBN 978-94-007-3934-5.
75. ^ Jump up to:a b c Michell 2017, p. 102.
76. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, pp. 30-31.
77. Jump up^ Henri Stierlin (1998). Hindu India: From Khajuraho
to the Temple City of Madurai. Taschen. p. 72. ISBN 978-3-
8228-7649-7.
78. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Gupte 1967, pp. 27-28.
79. ^ Jump up to:a b c Michell 2017, pp. 103-104.
80. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Michell 2017, pp. 89-90.
81. Jump up^ Michell 2017, p. 90.
82. ^ Jump up to:a b Hemant Kadambi (2007). Norman Yoffee,
ed. Negotiating the Past in the Past: Identity, Memory, and
Landscape in Archaeological Research. University of Arizona
Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-8165-2670-3.
83. Jump up^ George Michell (2013). Southern India: A Guide to
Monuments Sites & Museums. Roli. pp. 253–255. ISBN 978-81-
7436-903-1.
84. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, pp. 56-58.
85. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Gupte 1967, pp. 58–60
86. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Michell 2017, pp. 81-82.
87. Jump up^ Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, pp. 80-82.
88. ^ Jump up to:a b Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014,
pp. 80-82 with Figure 6.8.
89. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Gupte 1967, pp. 29–43
90. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 104-105.
91. ^ Jump up to:a b Ajay J. Sinha (2000). Imagining Architects:
Creativity in the Religious Monuments of India. University of
Delaware Press. pp. 71–79. ISBN 978-0-87413-684-5.
92. ^ Jump up to:a b Michell 2017, p. 103.
93. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, pp. 60-61.
94. Jump up^ George Michell 1977, pp. 97, 107-108.
95. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Michell 2017, p. 104.
96. Jump up^ Shivaji Panikkar (1997). Saptamātr̥kā Worship and
Sculptures: An Iconological Interpretation of Conflicts and
 Resolutions in the Storied Brāhmanical Icons. DK. pp. xxii, 121–
122. ISBN 978-81-246-0074-0.
97. Jump up^ Carol Radcliffe Bolon (2010). Forms of the Goddess
Lajja Gauri in Indian Art. Pennsylvania State University Press.
p. 31. ISBN 978-0-271-04369-2.
98. ^ Jump up to:a b Ajay J. Sinha (2000). Imagining Architects:
Creativity in the Religious Monuments of India. University of
Delaware Press. pp. 52–67. ISBN 978-0-87413-684-5.
99. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Gupte 1967, pp. 61-62.
100. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Gupte 1967, pp. 62-63.
101. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, p. 63.
102. ^ Jump up to:a b Gupte 1967, pp. 63-64.
103. ^ Jump up to:a b Gupte 1967, p. 64.
104. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 102-103.
105. ^ Jump up to:a b Gupte 1967, p. 46.
106. ^ Jump up to:a b Michell 2017, pp. 101-102.
107. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, pp. 73-74.
108. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, pp. 61, 73-78.
109. ^ Jump up to:a b Gupte 1967, pp. 61, 73-75.
110. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 90-91.
111. Jump up^ George Michell (1979). J. E. Van Lohuizen-De
Leeuw, ed. South Asian Archaeology 1975: Papers from the
Third International Conference of the Association of South
Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe Held in Paris. BRILL
Academic. pp. 141–145. ISBN 90-04-05996-2.
112. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, pp. 47-48.
113. Jump up^ Michell 2017, p. 92.
114. Jump up^ George Michell (1979). J. E. Van Lohuizen-De
Leeuw, ed. South Asian Archaeology 1975: Papers from the
Third International Conference of the Association of South
Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe Held in Paris. BRILL
Academic. pp. 143–144. ISBN 90-04-05996-2.
115. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 97-98.
116. Jump up^ Michell 2017, p. 105.
117. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Michell 2017, pp. 79-80.
118. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 79-82, 98-101.
119. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, pp. 43-48, 112-118.
120. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Gupte 1967, pp. 43-44.
121. ^ Jump up to:a b Gupte 1967, pp. 43-48, 112-113.
122. Jump up^ Gary Michael Tartakov (1997). The Durga Temple
at Aihole: A Historiographical Study. Oxford University Press.
p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-563372-6.; For original paper, see F.
Kielhorn, Aihole Inscription of Pulikesin II, Saka Samvat 556,
Epigraphica Indica Volume 6 (1981)
123. Jump up^ Klaus Bruhn; Universiteit van Amsterdam, Institute
of South Asian archaeology. Studies in south asian culture. Brill
Archive. pp. 474–475 with Figure 335.
124. Jump up^ Michell 2017, pp. 98-99.
125. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, p. 68.
126. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Michell 2017, pp. 100-101.
 127. Jump up^ Michell 2017, p. 101.
128. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Gupte 1967, pp. 65-66.
129. Jump up^ Gupte 1967, p. 66.
130. Jump up^ George Michell 1977, pp. 103.
131. Jump up^ George Michell (1979). J. E. Van Lohuizen-De
Leeuw, ed. South Asian Archaeology 1975: Papers from the
Third International Conference of the Association of South
Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe Held in Paris. BRILL
Academic. pp. 135–141. ISBN 90-04-05996-2.
132. Jump up^ George Michell (1979). J. E. Van Lohuizen-De
Leeuw, ed. South Asian Archaeology 1975: Papers from the
Third International Conference of the Association of South
Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe Held in Paris. BRILL
Academic. pp. 146–149 with footnotes. ISBN 90-04-05996-2.
133. Jump up^ Lisa Owen (2012). Carving Devotion in the Jain
Caves at Ellora. BRILL Academic. pp. 24–25, 45–58, 69–
72. ISBN 90-04-20629-9.
134. Jump up^ "EARLY CHALUKYAS". Archived from the original
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