Radiobiology 29.11.2016 PDF

Radiobiology
UMF Carol Davila,

Biophysics Department
Dr. Eva Katona

Biophysics Dept. UMF C. Davila 2015
Dr. Adrian Iftime

Dr. Octavian Călinescu
Series 3, English
2016/2017,
Updated 2014 1st semester
http://scitechdaily.com/images/new-look-at-prolonged-radiation-exposure.jpg
Outline
1. General concepts. The atomic nucleus.

2. Radioactive decay.
3. Dosimetry of ionizing radiation.
4. Interaction of ionizing radiation with living
tissue.
5. Biological effects of ionizing radiation.
6. Protection from ionizing radiation.
1. General concepts. The atomic
nucleus.
General concepts
Radiobiology studies the action of ionizing radiation (of

energies higher than 10 eV) on biological systems.
Ionizing radiation includes:

• Electromagnetic radiation
o X-rays
o gamma-rays
• Particle radiation
o alpha radiation
o beta radiation
o neutrons
Sources of ionizing radiation.
• Special lamps (Coolidge tubes) for X-rays (see Medical

Imaging lecture)
• Stars (such as the Sun)
• Particle accelerators
• Radioactive decay of unstable isotopes
The atomic nucleus
The atomic nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons

(with the exception of hydrogen which has a single proton).
Both particles have approximately the same mass:

1 amu (atomic mass unit) = 1.66·10-27 kg.
Protons – positive charge (+1):

Neutrons – no charge (0):

The atomic nucleus
• Protons and neutrons in the nucleus are packed together

at extremely small distances.
• The radius of the nucleus is on the order of 10-14 – 10-15 m.
• By comparison, the radius of an atom is on the order of
10-10 m.
• If the nucleus and the sun would be of the same size:

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/imgnuc/scale.gif
Isotopes
• Chemical elements are classified by the number of
protons in their nucleus (Z).
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Periodic_table_%28polyatomic%29.svg?download
Isotopes
• The period = the highest electron shell (layer) on which
the respective element possesses electrons.
• The group = sorts elements by the number of electrons in
the electron shell(s) that is being occupied.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Periodic_table_%28polyatomic%29.svg?download
Isotopes
• An element can have forms with the same number of
protons, but a different number of neutrons =
isotopes.
• Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical

properties.
• A chemical element X is symbolically written:

, where Z = atomic number (no. protons);
A = mass atomic number (no. protons + no. neutrons)
• The isotopes of X are of the form:

… , , , , ,…
, where with the most abundant isotope of X in nature was written
Isotopes
Most elements have several isotopes. They are usually
named as element – atomic mass. Ex: : cobalt-60.
A few examples:
• Hydrogen has 3 isotopes:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Protium_deuterium_tritium.jpg
Isotopes
• Carbon has 3 isotopes:
http://images.tutorcircle.com/cms/images/44/isotopes-of-carbon.png
• Xe has over 30 isotopes, only eight of which are stable.

2. Radioactive decay.
Radioactive decay
• The protons and neutrons are held together by very

powerful forces (strong force) which can even counteract
the strong electrostatic repulsion between protons.
• If the ratio between protons and neutrons is not optimal or if

the number of protons is too high, the nucleus is unstable
and can spontaneously decompose, emitting high energy
(ionizing) radiation.
• The unstable nuclei are, thus, radioactive.

Alpha decay
• Unstable nuclei can decompose into a more stable, smaller

nucleus, by emitting an alpha particle. Alpha particles are
nuclei of helium: .
• In emitting an alpha particle, an isotope transforms into an
isotope of another element, losing 4 units of mass and 2
units of atomic number.
= +
http://education.jlab.org/glossary/alphadecay.gif
Beta decay
• If a nucleus has too many protons or too many neutrons,

either a proton transforms to a neutron or a neutron can
transform to a proton*.
• Charged particles are emitted – electrons or positrons,
giving the two types of beta decay: β- and β+.
*This can happen because neither neutrons nor protons are elementary particles – they are
made up of particles which are even smaller.
β- decay
• Results in the emission of β- radiation (electrons) :
= +
• Occurs because if a nucleus has too many neutrons, a

neutron can transform to a proton:
( ) =( )+ + ̅ ̅ = antineutrino
http://education.jlab.org/glossary/betadecay.gif
β+ decay
• Results in the emission of β+ radiation (positrons) :
= +
• Occurs because if a nucleus has too many protons, a

proton can transform to a neutron:
( ) =( )+ + = neutrino
http://education.jlab.org/glossary/betadecay.gif
Gamma decay
• If a nucleus has too high energy (usually happens just after

a previous radioactive decay), it can emit a photon (γ ray)
and go to a lower energetic state.
http://perso.numericable.fr/vincent.hedberg/nuclear/gamma.jpg
Radioactive decay
• Radioactive decay is a statistical process that depends on the instability

of the respective radioactive isotope (radionuclide).
• The instability of a radioisotope only depends on the state of the
nucleus and not on aggregation state, chemical bonds, temperature,
pressure etc. It can be evaluated by:
o The decay constant (λ) – the higher the decay constant, the more
unstable a nucleus is;
o The half-life (t1/2) – the time in which half of the radionuclides in a
sample disintegrate. The higher t1/2, the more stable a nucleus is.
The half-life can vary for various isotopes from fractions of a second
to billions of years.
• The two are related:
&' $ ). +,-
!"/$ = =
( (
Radioactive decay
• The number of nuclides that decay in a certain amount of time can be

approximated by the law of radioactive decay:
(!
. ! = .) /
• The decay is of an exponential form:
http://www.splung.com/nuclear/images/radioactivity/decays.png
3. Dosimetry of ionizing radiation.
Dosimetry
• This is a field of medical nuclear physics dealing with

measurement of ionizing radiation effects and quantity. There
are several units of measurement of energy, each one referring
to particular aspect of radiation production, spreading and
absorption. We are describing the common situation with a
source of ionizing radiation, placed in an environment is
irradiating an object:
A) a source of ionizing radiation;

B) a region of space where there is a
radiation field (coming from the source);
C) an object where ionizing radiation

might get absorbed (the ionizing
radiation transfers its energy to this
object).
Dosimetry
A – radioactive source
• Apparition of ionizing radiation in a region of space is possible

if there is a source of radiation in or next that region of space
(usually a radioactive isotope). In this material, at a random

time, an atom might disintegrate, emitting ionizing radiation.
Radioactive activity
• Radioactive activity of a source of radiation is its speed of disintegration,
expressed in number of disintegrations of atoms that takes place in that
material in a second.
2.
0=− = (.(!)
2!
• The unit of radioactive activity is called "Becquerel" (Bq). One Bq is thus

defined as the activity of a radioactive material in which one atomic nucleus
decays per second.
2565'!/789!5:'
" 34 = "
6/;:'2
Radioactive activity
• 1 Bq is pretty small, and often the radioactive activity is expressed in

multiples of Bq. For instance, the average healthy human body has about
4400 Bq (because of traces of Potassium-40, a naturally occurring
radioactive isotope of potassium).
• For very active sources, a special multiple is used, called "curie" (Ci). 1 Ci =
3.7 x 1010 Bq, or 1Ci = 37 GBq. The typical radioactive activity of radioactive
materials used in medical practice is expressed in Curie. For instance, the
activity of radioactive sources made from cobalt-60 is used in radio-surgery
is approx. 30 Ci (~ 1 TeraBq).
Dosimetry
• In order to measure the effects of ionizing radiation it was

necessarily to devise a system that consists of several distinct
quantities: incident dose, absorbed dose, equivalent
biological dose.
A) a source of ionizing radiation;

B) a region of space where there is a

radiation field (coming from the source);
C) an object where ionizing radiation
might get absorbed (the ionizing
radiation transfers its energy to this
object).
Incident dose
• The incident dose of ionizing radiation is the dose measured in the

middle of a radiation field (i.e. in a defined region of space, before it gets
absorbed by any object). The incident dose is appreciated by the
number of ionization reactions that take place in that region of space,
while radiation is present.
• The unit of measurement is Coulomb/kilogram (C/Kg).
• 1 C/kg is the incident dose of ionizing radiation that produces in 1 kg of

air (in that region of space), a number of ions (having the same sign)
with a total electrical charge of 1 Coulomb.
• An older unit, called "röntgen" (R) is also used: 1 C/kg = 3876 R.

Incident dose
• The effects of ionizing radiation (i.e. production of ions in the

environment) accumulate in time if the ionizing radiation keeps
flowing. Therefore, we can evaluate the "dose rate", which is:
</96=8/2 2:6/
2:6/ 89!/ =
/&9>6/2 !5</
• Incident dose rate is therefore expressed as C/kg·s or R/s.

• … but from a biological point of view we are more interested in the

radiation that is absorbed by the body, not on the ionization of the air, so
other quantities are more useful.
Absorbed dose
• If the radiation that travels in the environment (i.e. air) encounters an
object, it can start to produce ionizations in that object. In doing so, part of
the energy that is transported by the radiation is therefore deposited in the
object.
• The absorbed dose is a measure of the energy deposited in the object by
ionizing radiation, per mass of the object.
• The unit of measurement is Gray (Gy). 1 Gy is defined as being the
absorbed dose of radiation by an object, if each kilogram of substance of
the object receives 1 Joule of energy.
A
" ?@ = "
B7
Absorbed dose
• An older unit is "rad"; 1 Gy = 100 rad.
• The absorbed dose rate is measured in Gy/second or rad/second
• Absorbed dose is used in technology to express the ability of a material to

block / absorb ionizing radiation. We encounter this unit while dealing with
devices producing ionizing radiation, like X-ray sources.
• For instance, if a human being receives about 6 Gy (total irradiation), the

death is almost certain within the following month.
• The dose prescribed in radiotherapy is in Gy. Radiation is usually

administered in several small fractions (for example a dose of 60 Gy might

be administered in fractions of 2 Gy per day).
Equivalent dose
• While the absorbed dose tells how much energy the body
absorbs from a particular radiation, it doesn’t account for the
type of radiation and the damage that these do to the body.
• It has been observed that different radiations have different
damaging effects. For example:
Exposure to 1 Gy X-rays Exposure to 1 Gy α radiation

Equivalent dose
Exposure to 1 Gy X-Rays Exposure to 1 Gy α radiation
• Absorbtion of a dose of α radiation does about 20 times more

damage than absorbtion of the same dose of X-rays.

• Therefore a weighting factor (WR) has to be expressed to
account for the different damage.
Equivalent dose
• Examples of WR:
1 for X-rays (produced in a standard Coolidge tube at 200

keV)
1 for γ-rays and β radiation
2 for protons
5 – 20 for neutrons (depending on energy)
20 for α radiation
• Note: WR is just a number (has no unit of measurement).

Equivalent dose
• Using WR one can calculate the equivalent dose (or biological

dose) that takes into account the biological damage as:
/4=5C9&/'! 2:6/ = 9D6:8D/2 2:6/ · FG
• The equivalent dose is measured in Sievert (Sv). 1 Sv = 1

J/Kg (as WR is adimensional). However, we call the unit of
measurement for the equivalent dose differently in order to
distinguish between it and the absorbed dose.
• So:
- 1 Gy of X-rays corresponds to an equivalent dose of 1 Sv
- 1 Gy of α radiation corresponds to an equivalent dose of 20 Sv
Equivalent dose
• In the medical field, doses expressed in Sievert are used to evaluate the
impact in human health. The lethal dose is 6 Sv; an irradiation of this
magnitude is followed by death within 1 month.
• A pulmonary radiography can range from 0.08 mSv to 0.27 mSv. A trans-
continental flight can expose the person to about 0.08 mSv.
• During one year, one average person takes about 1-3 mSv/year from the
natural background of radiation. Several other examples of the equivalent
dose are attached in the media folder.
• Maximum yearly dose rate for general public is 5 mSv/year. This dose rate
is generally accepted as being a normal safety limit.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Radiation_Dose_Chart_by_Xkcd.png/800px-
Radiation_Dose_Chart_by_Xkcd.png
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Radiation_Dose_Chart_by_Xkcd.png/800px-
Radiation_Dose_Chart_by_Xkcd.png
• Or see the attached chart.

4. Interaction of ionizing radiation
with living tissue.
A) Direct effects of ionizing radiation
• The direct effect is produced by the direct energy transfer from the
ionizing radiation to a key biomolecule (nucleic acids, enzymes, hormones,
etc).
• As the result of the energy transfer, the biomolecule might suffer a)
ionization and b) structural damage, because of:
– breaking of hydrogen bonds
– breaking of -S-S- bonds
http://teachnuclear.ca/all-things-nuclear/radiation/biological-effects-of-radiation/effects-of-ionizing-radiation-on-dna/
A) Direct effects of ionizing radiation
• The effects of ionizing radiation depend on the dose and these effects are
evaluated by counting the surviving subjects (by "subjects" we can
understand cells, unicellular organisms or multi-cellular organisms,
animals, people).
• A careful research in these phenomena shown that there are two different
kinds of relationships between the ionizing radiation dose and survival rate:
a) exponential relationship
b) sigmoidal relationship
a) exponential relationship
I
H=H IJ
• where N0 is initial number of healthy subjects in

the population, N is the final number of the
survivors after the population is exposed to a
ionizing radiation dose D. D0 is the observed
dose of ionizing radiation that leaves unaffected
37% of the population (i.e. 1/e).
• Note: D0 was established as such because if D
= D0, the relationship becomes
N = N0e-1 = (1/e)N0 = 0.37 N0
• The exponential survival model like this can be observed if the subjects
that are exposed to radiations are lethally affected by a single ionizing
radiation particle (this is called "target effect"). A behavior like this
matches our observations for the effects of ionizing radiation on single
cells or bacterial cultures.
b) sigmoidal relationship
H I
= 1 − (1 − IJ )L
H
• For large doses of D, this becomes:
I
H=H IJ
• These kinds of effects are observed if any single subject has to be

affected simultaneously in "n" number of places in the body. To put it in
other words, the lethal effect of ionizing radiation appears only if the
subject has n vital targets for radiations in the body, and all the targets
must be affected by the ionizing radiation. This kind curve is expected to
appear for larger population of multi-cellular subjects (tissues, organs,
animals and people).

• The type of curve (sigmoid or exponential) that is observed after
exposure to ionizing radiation depends not only by the type of subjects,
but also the temperature, oxygenation and hydration levels (see below),
and the type of ionizing radiation.
B) Indirect effects of ionizing radiation
• Water radiolysis (resulting in free radicals):
H2O → H· + OH·
• The above reaction happens in successive reactions; first, the water

molecule is ionized:
H2O → H2O+ + e-(aq)
• Such an electron is now called a "hydrated electron" or "single

electron". This is unstable, and it will ionize one of the surrounding
water molecules:
H2O + e-(aq) → OH- + H·

• In the meantime, the H2O+ ion can dissociate spontaneously:
H2O+ → H+ + OH·
• The net result is that in the end two free radicals appear in the
environment: H· and OH· They can initiate a host of secondary
reactions, because they are highly reactive:
H· + H· → H2
H· + OH· → H2O
OH· + OH· → H2O2
• If oxygen is also present in the environment:
H· + O2 → HO2·
H· + HO2· → H2O2
HO2· + HO2· → H2O2 + O2

e-(aq) + O2 → O2-
superoxide ion
• … free radicals react with DNA and damage it.
http://www.mapfre.com/fundacion/html/revistas/seguridad/n134/img/art_2_07_en.jpg
5. Biological effects of ionizing
radiation.
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
• Exposure to ionizing radiation is detrimental because of its

damaging effects on biomolecules; the exposure to ionizing
radiation can be:
a) external irradiation
b) internal irradiation
• a) External irradiation happens when the source of ionizing

radiation is outside the body; for instance, like in the
exposure to X-ray during radiography or a CT scan.

• b) Internal irradiation happens when the source of ionizing
radiation is inside the body.
• In general, as consequence of exposure to ionizing radiation

the following can happen to cells:
The cells are undamaged by the dose.

The cells are damaged by the dose, can repair the
damage and function normally afterwards.
The cells are damaged by the dose, repair the
damage but function abnormally afterwards – leads
to cancer.
Cells die following radiation damage.
• Each of these processes can be measured and evaluated with the help
of the "half-life" (t1/2). The half-life of a substance is the amount of time
required to pass until the concentration (or amount) of that substance is
half from the original one (see previous sections).
• The shorter the half-life, the fastest is the speed of elimination from the
body and environment. We denote the physical half-life of the
radionuclide as Tn.
• But the body can also actively eliminate radioisotopes via excretion.
Thus, we can define a biological half-life of a substance: Tb.
Biologically relevant radionuclides
• Tb is dependent of the chemical properties of the nuclide. For instance,

Strontium-90 is very similar with chemical calcium, and it is incorporated
by the bone tissue; therefore its elimination through excretion is very
slow (estimated biological half-life can be even > 40 years). This
depends also on the metabolic state of the body.
• The physical half-life of 90Sr is ~ 28 years. It disintegrates via β- decay to

1/2 = 64 h) via β decay.
90Y, which in its turn decays to 90Zr (t - 90Zr is a
stable isotope.
• Presence of 90Sr in the bones can cause bone cancer, cancer in nearby
tissues, leukemia.
• 90Sris one of the most important radioisotopes following nuclear

accidents (along with 137Cs).
• Caesium-137 is also a main product of nuclear fallout.
• It decays into a metastable isotope of Ba (137mBa) via β- decay (t1/2 ~ 30

years). Barium-137m quickly (t1/2 ~ 2 min) decays via γ-emission to 137Ba
(stable).
• While the biological half-life of 137Cs is not extremely high (~ 2 months),

due to its chemical reactivity and solubility it can distribute itself through
the whole body (mainly in soft tissues).
• Exposure to 137Cs causes cancer, radioactive burns and even death.

• Iodine-131 is another main product of nuclear fallout. Exposure to 131I
can also occur following medical imaging or treatment procedures.
• It decays via β- decay (t1/2 ~ 8 days) to 131Xe (also associated with γ

emission).
• 131I can be stored in the thyroid if not enough “regular” (127I) is available.
• If the thyroid gland does not lack iodine (normal dietary requirements
were met), it will not store additional iodine atoms, including 131I, so the
excess iodine will be eliminated, including the isotope (Tb will therefore
be shorter). So, only in the case that a person might lack normal iodine,
its better to take iodine supplements if an accidental exposure to 131I is

expected.
• 131I
is used for treatment of hyperthyroidism or some thyroid cancers that
accumulate iodine. The β radiation emmited destroys the thyroid tissue.
Effective half-life
• The elimination of the isotopes in the body generally follows
an exponential pattern, based on the two processes
described above.
• Therefore, the effective half-life of an isotope (Te) is :
1 1 1
= +
MN ML MO
Effective half-life
• Some examples (source: http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/biohalf.html).
Somatic effects of ionizing radiation
• The somatic effects are those that appear in tissues or organs if the
dose is above a certain threshold (different for any tissue). Some tissues
are more radiosensitive than others (i.e. for the same dose, ill effects
can be observed in some tissues, but not in others).
• A tissue is more sensitive to ionizing radiation if the cells are less

differentiated and it has a large number of cellular divisions
undergoing (mitoses) (the Bergonie and Tribondeau law).
• For instance, dentin is less radiosensitive than adipose tissue; nervous

tissue is less sensitive than mucous membranes, etc. The most
sensitive tissues/organs are the gonads and the bone marrow (in these
tissues there are a lot of less differentiated cells that divide).
• Also, tissues of a child/foetus are more sensitive than the tissues of an

adult (because the cells are less differentiated, and also growing implies
that there are many more cellular divisions than in an adult tissue).
• Therefore, one can also calculate a weighting factor for organs/tissues

that are exposed to doses of ionizing radiation.
http://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/security-
scanners/en/figtableboxes/tissue-weighting-factors.htm
• In addition, it has been found that the sensitivity of a tissue increases if

the local conditions help destructive actions of free radicals: alkaline pH,
increased oxygen concentration, warmer and well hydrated.
• Conversely, a tissue is less likely to be affected by ionizing radiation if its

pH is acidic, is dehydrated, colder and with a lower oxygen
concentration.
Genetic effects of ionizing radiation
• It can happen by chance that ionizing radiation can do local damages in

the DNA in the spermatozoa or oocytes. The acquired genetic defects
can be lethal or mutagenic in the descendent organisms. It has been
found that there is no dose threshold for genetic effects of ionizing
radiation (the smallest dose can still disrupt a DNA chain); but the larger
the dose, the higher the chance that multiple DNA defects will appear –
stochastic effect (see next slide).
• Our knowledge in nuclear medicine comes from observation of the

effects in laboratory animals (including bacteria and cell cultures) and
from the effects observed in people following nuclear accidents.
Whole body exposure to radiation
• The effects observed are of two types – those that occur after a certain
threshold of exposure has been reached (deterministic effects) and
those that have a chance of occurring no matter the dose (but high
doses increase the probability) – stochastic effects.
http://europace.oxfordjournals.org/content/europace/16/7/946/F2.large.jpg
Deterministic effects of radiation
• Some examples:
Skin erythema/epilation – erythema occurs 24 h after receiving 2 Sv.

Epilation occurs three weeks after receiving doses higher than 3 Sv
and is irreversible after doses > 7 Sv.
Permanent sterility can occur after absorption of single doses > 6 Gy.
Radiation sickness occurs with symptoms of different severity

depending on the absorbed dose (see following slides or attached
radsickness.tif).
http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/injuries-poisoning/radiation-exposure-and-contamination/radiation-exposure-and-contamination
http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/injuries-poisoning/radiation-exposure-and-contamination/radiation-exposure-and-contamination
6. Protection against ionizing
radiation.
Maximal tolerated dose (MTD)
• The safest way to protect against ionizing radiation is

to limit or decrease the exposure.
• Yearly maximal tolerated dose = 5 mSv/year.
• The natural background ionizing radiation dose is

around 1 ... 3 mSv / year, depending on the
geographical location (in some places on Earth, the
concentration of natural radioactive isotopes is
higher than in the others).
Physical protection
Physical protection against ionizing radiation can be

done through three effective measures:
i) distance : the higher the distance, the lower the

effects.
ii) time: the shorter the exposure time, the lower the
effects.
iii) usage of protective shields.

Physical protection
• The protective shields can be made from different materials;

different types of shields are required to protect against different
kinds of ionizing radiation:
alpha radiation can be blocked by almost any solid material; even

paper or normal clothing will do.
beta radiation can be blocked by high density polymers (like
plastics) or light metals (like aluminum).
X-rays or gamma-rays can be partially absorbed by heavy metals
(like lead, gold). The thicker the shield, the bigger the absorption of
x-rays and gamma-rays.
http://www.nrc.gov/images/about-nrc/radiation/penetrating-power-rad.gif
Physical protection
Neutrons can be stopped by a multilayer shield:

– 1st layer should decrease the speed of neutrons (plain
water, heavy water, paraffin or graphite will do);
– 2nd layer must absorb the slowed neutrons. Cadmium is
used, but there is a residual gamma photon (γ) after the
nuclear absorption reaction:
113Cd + n → 114 Cd + γ
– 3rd layer: a heavy metal (lead) to attenuate the residual

gamma radiation.
Chemical protection
• This kind of protection applies against indirect effects of ionizing

radiation (formation of free radicals). Free radicals are inhibited
by:
- normal adequate diet containing antioxidant vitamins

(notably C and E).
- intake of antioxidant substances, like cysteamine and its
derivates:
NH2 - CH2-CH2-SH
Chemical protection
• The general structure of these substances is M-SH (a thiol).

These substances can mop-up free radicals (R·) and create a
disulphide bond; the resulting -S-S- compound can be
effectively eliminated by our excretory systems:
M-SH + R· → RH + MS·
MS· + MS· → MS-SM
• Other substances can be used, like derivates of aromatic

alcohols (pyrogallol, naphtol, resveratrol); they have different
mechanisms of action against free radicals.
… to sum up
• Ionizing radiation has harmful effects on biological

tissues.
• … but in some cases the benefits of using ionizing radiation

(diagnosis or treatment) outweigh the potential risks (see
Physical factors in treatment and Medical imaging lectures
for examples).
Sample quizzes
The following quizzes are made from a sentence followed by two

statements related to it (statement I and statement II ). Answer like this:
A) - if statement I is true, and statement II is true.

B) - if statement I is true, and statement II is false.
C) - if statement I is false, and statement II is true.
D) - if statement I is false, and statement II is false.
Try to solve them resisting the temptation to look in the slides

or at the solutions at the end of this document.
Answer key: A if I is true, II is true
B if I is true, II is false
C if I is false, II is true
D if I is false, II is false
1. The following are examples of ionizing radiation:

I. Alpha radiation.
II. Beta radiation.
2. Ionizing radiation:
I. cannot be produced by natural sources.
II. if an object is exposed to it, it can produce electrical charges in that object.
3. Radioactive activity:
I. is the number of disintegrations per second that happen for a radioactive isotope.
II. is measured in Coulomb/second.
4. The equivalent (biological) dose:

I. is expressed in Sievert (Sv).
II. is measured in Joule/kg, multiplied by a weighting factor depending on the damaging effect of radiation.
5. The lethal dose or radiation is in the range of:

I. 6 Sv.
II. 6000 mSv.
6. The direct effects of ionizing radiation are:

I. formation of free radicals.
II. formation of H2O2.
7. The half-life of a radionuclide:

I. is the amount of radioactivity enough to destroy half the population of cells.
II. is the amount of time required to pass until the amount of radioactive substance reduces to half.
8. A living tissue is more sensitive to radiation if:

I. it is warmer.
II. it has lower amounts of oxygen (hypoxia).
9. The yearly maximum tolerated dose of radiation is:

I. 5 mSv/year.
II. 5 Sv/year.
10. Beta radiation can be blocked by:

I. plastic layers.
II. aluminium layers.
11. After damage from radiation, a cell:

I. always dies as result of the damage.

II. can repair the damage and continue functioning.
12. Exposure to 2 Gy of α radiation:

I. presents a higher health risk than exposure to 2 Gy of X-rays.
II. presents the same health risk as exposure to 2 Gy of X-rays..
13. Through γ decay:

I. a radioisotope turns into an isotope of a different element, of higher atomic number.
II. a radioisotope turns into an isotope of a different element, of lower atomic number.
14. The biological half-life:

I. is the same for all radioisotopes (~ 1 year).
II. is higher for elements which have a lower physical half-life.
15. 90Sr is particularly dangerous, as it distributes itself into the bones. Consequently:
I. It has a very low biological half-life (a few days).
II. It has a very high biological half-life (tens of years).
16. 12C and 14C are both isotopes of carbon, thus:

I. they have the same number of protons in the nucleus.
II. 14C has a lower chemical reactivity than 12C, as it has more neutrons.
17. DNA damage can occur:

I. Following exposure to gamma radiation.

II. Following action of free radicals.
18. A radioisotope with a half-life of 20 seconds:

I. disintegrates faster than a radioisotope with a half-life of 2 years.
II. can emit only β- radiation.
1. A 7. C 13. D
2. C 8. B 14. D.
3. B 9. B 15. C
4. A 10. A 16. B
5. A 11. C 17. A
6. D 12. B 18. B
Bibliography
"Curs de Biofizica Medicala", C.Ganea, ed. electr. UMF C. Davila

"Curs de Biofizica Medicala", D. Eremia, ed. UMF C. Davila
"Curs de Biofizica Medicala", I. Baran et al., ed. UMF C. Davila
"Stedman's Concise Medical Dictionary", ed. 3., ed. William & Wilkins
Image source (were appropriate) is indicated below or over-imposed.


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Radiobiology

UMF Carol Davila,

Dr. Eva Katona

Dr. Adrian Iftime

1. General concepts. The atomic nucleus.

Radiobiology studies the action of ionizing radiation (of

Ionizing radiation includes:

• Special lamps (Coolidge tubes) for X-rays (see Medical

The atomic nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons

Both particles have approximately the same mass:

Protons – positive charge (+1):

Neutrons – no charge (0):

• Protons and neutrons in the nucleus are packed together

• If the nucleus and the sun would be of the same size:

• Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical

• A chemical element X is symbolically written:

• The isotopes of X are of the form:

• Hydrogen has 3 isotopes:

• Xe has over 30 isotopes, only eight of which are stable.

• The protons and neutrons are held together by very

• If the ratio between protons and neutrons is not optimal or if

• The unstable nuclei are, thus, radioactive.

• Unstable nuclei can decompose into a more stable, smaller

• If a nucleus has too many protons or too many neutrons,

• Results in the emission of β- radiation (electrons) :

• Occurs because if a nucleus has too many neutrons, a

• Results in the emission of β+ radiation (positrons) :

• Occurs because if a nucleus has too many protons, a

• If a nucleus has too high energy (usually happens just after

• Radioactive decay is a statistical process that depends on the instability

• The two are related:

• The number of nuclides that decay in a certain amount of time can be

• This is a field of medical nuclear physics dealing with

A) a source of ionizing radiation;

C) an object where ionizing radiation

• Apparition of ionizing radiation in a region of space is possible

(usually a radioactive isotope). In this material, at a random

• The unit of radioactive activity is called "Becquerel" (Bq). One Bq is thus

• 1 Bq is pretty small, and often the radioactive activity is expressed in

• In order to measure the effects of ionizing radiation it was

A) a source of ionizing radiation;

B) a region of space where there is a

• The incident dose of ionizing radiation is the dose measured in the

• The unit of measurement is Coulomb/kilogram (C/Kg).

• 1 C/kg is the incident dose of ionizing radiation that produces in 1 kg of

• An older unit, called "röntgen" (R) is also used: 1 C/kg = 3876 R.

• The effects of ionizing radiation (i.e. production of ions in the

• Incident dose rate is therefore expressed as C/kg·s or R/s.

• … but from a biological point of view we are more interested in the

• The absorbed dose rate is measured in Gy/second or rad/second

• Absorbed dose is used in technology to express the ability of a material to

• For instance, if a human being receives about 6 Gy (total irradiation), the

• The dose prescribed in radiotherapy is in Gy. Radiation is usually

administered in several small fractions (for example a dose of 60 Gy might

Exposure to 1 Gy X-rays Exposure to 1 Gy α radiation

Exposure to 1 Gy X-Rays Exposure to 1 Gy α radiation

• Absorbtion of a dose of α radiation does about 20 times more

damage than absorbtion of the same dose of X-rays.

1 for X-rays (produced in a standard Coolidge tube at 200

• Note: WR is just a number (has no unit of measurement).

• Using WR one can calculate the equivalent dose (or biological

/4=5C9&/'! 2:6/ = 9D6:8D/2 2:6/ · FG

• The equivalent dose is measured in Sievert (Sv). 1 Sv = 1