2 Computers: The

Machines Behind
Computing
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

2-1 Define a computer system, and describe its components. After you finish
2-2 Discuss the history of computer hardware and software.
this chapter,
2-3 Explain the factors distinguishing the computing power of computers.

2-4 Summarize computer operations.

go to PAGE 43

Rafe Swan/Cultura/Getty Images

2-5 Discuss the types of input, output, and memory devices. for the STUDY
2-6 Explain how computers are classified.
TOOLS
2-7 Describe the two major types of software.

2-8 List the generations of computer languages.

In this chapter, you will learn about the major

If airplanes had
components of a computer and what factors
developed as
computers havedistinguish computing power. You will review a brief
history of computer hardware and software and learn
developed, today you
would be able to go
an overview of computer operations. You will also go
around the globe in
into more detail on specific computer components:
less than 20 minutes
input, output, and memory devices. You will learn
for just 50 cents.
how computers are classified, based on size, speed,
and sophistication, and about the two major types
of software—system software and application software—and the five
generations of computer languages.

24 PART ONE: Fundamentals of Information Systems

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2-1 DEFINING A COMPUTER
If airplanes had developed as computers have devel-
oped, today you would be able to go around the globe
in less than 20 minutes for just 50 cents. Computers
have gone through drastic changes in a short time. For
example, a computer that weighed more than 18 tons
60 years ago has been replaced by one that now weighs
less than 2 pounds. Today’s computer is 100 times more
powerful and costs less than 1 percent of the 60-year-old
computer.
As you learned in Chapter 1, you use computers
every day for a multitude of purposes. You even use
them indirectly when you use appliances with embedded
computers, such as TVs and microwaves. Computers
have become so ubiquitous, in fact, that a cashless
and checkless society is likely just around the corner.
Similarly, computers might eliminate the need for busi-
ness travel. Even now, executives seldom need to leave
their offices for meetings in other locations because of
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
technologies such as computer conferencing and tele-
presence systems.
Computers are used in a wide variety of tasks, includ-
ing report distribution in businesses, rocket guidance
control in the NASA space program, and DNA analysis in
medical research. This book could not have been published
in such a timely manner without the use of computers. The
text was typed and revised with word-processing software,
and composition software was used to typeset the pages.
Printing, warehousing, inventory control, and shipping
were accomplished with the help of computers.
So what is a computer? Many definitions are pos-
sible, but in this book a computer is defined as a
A computer is a machine that accepts data as input, processes data
without human intervention by using stored instructions, and outputs
information.
CHAPTER 2: Computers: The Machines Behind Computing 25
 machine that accepts data as input, pro-
cesses data without human intervention
by using stored instructions, and outputs
information. The instructions, also called
a program, are step-by-step directions
for performing a specific task, written in
a language the computer can understand.
Remember that a computer only pro-
cesses data (raw facts); it cannot change
or correct the data that is entered. If data
is erroneous, the information the com-

puter provides is also erroneous. This rule
is sometimes called GIGO: garbage in,
garbage out.
To write a computer program, first
you must know what needs to be done,
and then you must plan a method to
achieve this goal, including selecting the right lan-
guage for the task. Many computer languages are avail-
able; the language you select depends on the problem
being solved and the type of computer you are using.
Regardless of the language, a program is also referred
to as the source code. This source code must be trans-
lated into object code—consisting of binary 0s and 1s.
Binary code—a set of instructions used to control
the computer—uses 0s and 1s, which the computer
understands as on or off signals. You will learn more
about the binary system and computer languages later
in this chapter.
© wongwean/Shutterstock.com
2-1a Components of a Computer System
A computer system consists of hardware and software.
Hardware components are physical devices, such as key-
boards, monitors, and processing units. The software
component consists of programs written in computer
languages.
Exhibit 2.1 shows the building blocks of a com-
puter. Input devices, such as keyboards, are used to send
data and information to the computer. Output devices,
such as monitors and printers, display the output a com-
puter generates.

Exhibit 2.1
The building blocks of a computer

CPU

ALU Control unit

Input devices Output devices

Main memory

26 PART ONE: Fundamentals of Information Systems

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Main (primary) memory is where
computers store data and instruc-
tions, similar to a human brain. The
Exhibit 2.2
central processing unit (CPU) is Components of a computer system
the heart of a computer. It is divided
into two components: the arithmetic
logic unit (ALU) and the control

© Avera/Shutterstock.com
unit. The ALU performs arithmetic

© Ps-42/Shutterstock.com
operations (1, 2, ∗, /) as well as
comparison or relational operations
(,, ., 5); the latter are used to
compare numbers. The control unit
tells the computer what to do, such
as instructing the computer which
device to read or send output to.

© Zadorozhnyi Viktor/
Some computers have a single

processor; other computers, called multi-
processors, contain multiple processors.
Multiprocessing is the use of two or
more CPUs in a single computer sys-
tem. Generally, a multiprocessor com-
puter performs better than a  single-processor computer
in the same way that  a team would perform better than
an individual on a large, time-consuming project. Some
computers use a dual-core processor, which is essentially
two processors in one, to improve processing power. Dual-
core processors are common in new PCs and Apple com-
puters. In recent years multicore processors have been
introduced. A quad-core processor contains four cores, a
hexa-core processor contains six cores, and an octa-core
processor contains eight cores. Simply put, these new chips
are making computers faster than their predecessors.
Another component that affects computer per-
formance is a bus, which is the link between devices
connected to the computer. A bus can be parallel or
serial, internal (local) or external. An internal bus enables
communication between internal components, such as
a video card and memory; an external bus is capable
of communicating with external components, such as a
USB device.
Other factors that affect computer performance
include the processor size and the operating system (OS).
In recent years, 32-bit and 64-bit processors and OSs have
created a lot of interest. A 32-bit processor can use 2
bytes (4 GB) of RAM; and, in theory, a 64-bit processor
can use 264 bytes (16 EB, or exabytes) of RAM. So a com-
puter with a 64-bit processor can perform calculations
with larger numbers and be more efficient with smaller
numbers; it also has better overall performance than a
32-bit system. However, to take advantage of this higher
performance, you must also have a 64-bit OS.
Shutterstock.com
Exhibit 2.2 shows additional components of a com-
puter system. A disk drive is a peripheral device for
recording, storing, and retrieving information. A CPU
case (also known as a computer chassis or tower) is the
enclosure containing the computer’s main components.
A motherboard is the main circuit board containing
connectors for attaching additional boards. In addition,
it usually contains the CPU, Basic Input/Output System
The central processing unit (CPU) is the heart of a computer.
It is divided into two components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and
the control unit.
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic
operations (1, 2, *, /) as well as comparison or relational operations
(,, ., 5); the latter are used to compare numbers.
The control unit tells the computer what to do, such as instructing
the computer which device to read or send output to.
A bus is a link between devices connected to the computer. It can be
parallel or serial, internal (local) or external.
A disk drive is a peripheral device for recording, storing, and
retrieving information.
32
A CPU case is also known as a computer chassis or tower. It is the
enclosure containing the computer’s main components.
A motherboard is the main circuit board containing connectors for
attaching additional boards. It usually contains the CPU, Basic Input/
Output System (BIOS), memory, storage, interfaces, serial and parallel
ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers for standard peripheral
devices, such as the display monitor, disk drive, and keyboard.

CHAPTER 2: Computers: The Machines Behind Computing 27

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 TABLE 2.1 HARDWARE GENERATIONS
Generation Date
First 1946–1956
Second 1957–1963
Third 1964–1970
Fourth 1971–1992
Fifth 1993–present
(BIOS), memory, storage, interfaces, serial and parallel
ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers for standard
peripheral devices, such as the display monitor, disk drive,
and keyboard. A serial port is a communication interface
through which information is transferred one bit at a
time; a parallel port is an interface between a computer
and a printer that enables the computer to transfer mul-
tiple bits of information to the printer simultaneously.
2-2 THE HISTORY OF
COMPUTER HARDWARE
AND SOFTWARE
Major developments in hardware have taken place
over the past 60 years. To make these developments
more clear, computers are often categorized into
“generations” that mark technological breakthroughs.
Beginning in the 1940s, first-generation computers
used vacuum tube technology. They were bulky and
unreliable, generated excessive heat, and were diffi-
cult to program. Second-generation computers used
transistors and were faster, more reliable, and easier
to program and maintain. Third-generation comput-
ers operated on integrated circuits, which enabled
computers to be even smaller, faster, more reliable,
and more sophisticated. Remote data entry and
telecommunications were introduced during this
generation. Fourth-generation computers continued
several trends that further improved speed and ease
of use: miniaturization, very-large-scale integration
(VLSI) circuits, widespread use of personal computers,
and optical discs (discs written or encoded and read
using a laser optical device). The current fifth-gen-
eration computers include parallel processing (com-
puters containing hundreds or thousands of CPUs for
28 PART ONE: Fundamentals of Information Systems
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Major Technologies Example
Vacuum tube ENIAC
Transistors IBM 7094, 1401
Integrated circuits, remote data IBM 360, 370
entry, telecommunications
Miniaturization, VLSI, personal Cray XMP, Cray II
computers, optical discs
Parallel processing, gallium arsenide IBM System zEnterprise EC12
chips, optical technologies
rapid data processing), gallium arsenide chips that run
at higher speeds and consume less power than silicon
chips, and optical technologies. Table 2.1 summarizes
these hardware generations.
Because silicon cannot emit light and has speed lim-
itations, computer designers have concentrated on tech-
nology using gallium arsenide, in which electrons move
almost five times faster than in silicon. Devices made
with this synthetic compound can emit light, withstand
higher temperatures, and survive much higher doses of
radiation than silicon devices. The major problems with
gallium arsenide are difficulties in mass production.
This material is softer and more fragile than silicon, so it
breaks more easily during slicing and polishing. Because
of the high costs and difficulty of production, the military
is currently the major user of this technology. However,
research continues to eliminate some shortcomings of
this technology.
In October 2012, IBM stated that it would start
using carbon nanotubes (CNTs) instead of silicon in
its computer chips. CNTs are developed using nano-
technology, which is discussed in Chapter 14. It is one
of the methods that should keep chip sizes shrinking
after the current silicon-based technology has reached
its limit.1
On July 9, 2015, IBM announced that it is producing
a prototype chip with transistors that are just
7 nanometers wide, or about 1/10,000th the width of a
human hair. Those in use currently are twice as big.2
The field of optical technologies involves the appli-
cations and properties of light, including its interactions
with lasers, fiber optics, telescopes, and so forth. These
technologies offer faster processing speed, parallelism
(several thousand light beams can pass through an ordi-
nary device), and interconnection; much denser arrays
of interconnections are possible because light rays do
not affect each other. Optical computing is in its infancy,
and more research is needed to produce a full-featured
IBM Watson: A Supercomputer
with Artificial Intelligence
Capabilities

Source: YouTube/IBM
On February 16, 2011, an IBM supercomputer named Watson beat two
former champions of the television game show Jeopardy and took away
the $1 million prize. At first, Watson did poorly on a variety of subjects,
from politics to USA Today’s 2008 price hike. The supercomputer also
did not know that Slovenia was the only former Yugoslav republic cur-
rently in the European Union. Eventually, though, it pulled ahead, with
Watson has been seen convers-
18 correct answers compared to Ken Jennings’ 7 and Brad Rutter’s 4.
ing with musician Bob Dylan in
To achieve its victory, Watson needed massive computing power and
storage space, including 10 server racks, each with 10 IBM Power 750 IBM commercials.
servers; it drew on 200 million pages of content stored on 4 terabytes of
disk space.3 Thousands of algorithms and computer programs allowed it to break down human language into pieces so
it could search for answers in its massive database. It answered questions without exactly understanding them, but it
answered them with a high degree of confidence! Overall, this was a significant improvement in a computer’s ability to
understand context in human language. IBM believes that the technology behind Watson can be applied to a variety of
fields, including medicine. Voice integration is the next step in the development of Watson-related applications.4,5
Watson powered apps are now available that can serve as personal shopping assistant and help brick-and-motor
companies to increase their cross-sell and up-sell opportunities.6
IBM and Pathway Genomics are developing an app that uses personal history and genetics to evaluate risks and
recommend exercises. This app enables an individual to find out what exercises to do, what to eat, and what medical
tests to ask from a doctor.7
Watson has also been used as a trip-planning service providing travelers with relevant information in order to better
plan their trips.8
Some of the new features and capabilities of Watson include vision-recognizing images and patients’ records,9 bat-
tling cancer with advanced genomics,10 and managing call centers.11

optical computer. Nevertheless, storage devices using
this technology are revolutionizing the computer field by
enabling massive amounts of data to be stored in very
small spaces.
Computer languages and software have also devel-
oped through five generations. They are discussed in
more detail in the “Computer Languages” section, but
Table 2.2 summarizes these generations.
The information box titled “IBM Watson: A
Supercomputer with Artificial Intelligence Capabilities”
TABLE 2.2 COMPUTER LANGUAGE TRENDS
describes a supercomputer that has several features of
a fifth-generation computer as well as artificial intelli-
gence capabilities.
2-3 TTHE POWER OF COMPUTERS
Computers draw their power from three factors that far
exceed human capacities: speed, accuracy, and storage
and retrieval capabilities. These are discussed in the fol-
lowing sections.

Generation Major Attribute

2-3a Speed
First Machine language
Computers process data with amazing speed. They are
Second Assembly language
capable of responding to requests faster than humans can,
Third High-level language
which improves efficiency. Today’s high-speed computers
Fourth Fourth-generation language
make it possible for knowledge workers to perform tasks
Fifth Natural language processing (NLP) much faster than with the slower computers of the past.

CHAPTER 2: Computers: The Machines Behind Computing 29

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 Typically, computer speed is measured as the number of
instructions performed during the following fractions of
a second:
● Millisecond: 1/1,000 of a second
● Microsecond: 1/1,000,000 of a second
● Nanosecond: 1/1,000,000,000 of a second
● Picosecond: 1/1,000,000,000,000 of a second
2-3b Accuracy
Unlike humans, computers do not make mistakes. To
understand computer accuracy more clearly, take a look
at these two numbers:
● 4.0000000000000000000000001
● 4.0000000000000000000000002
To humans, these two numbers are so close that they
are usually considered equal. To a computer, however,
these two numbers are completely different. This degree
of accuracy is critical in many computer applications. On
a space mission, for example, computers are essential for
calculating reentry times and locations for space shuttles.
A small degree of inaccuracy could lead the space shuttle
to land in Canada instead of the United States.
2-3c Storage and Retrieval
Storage means saving data in computer memory, and
retrieval means accessing data from memory. Computers
can store vast quantities of data and locate a specific item
quickly, which makes knowledge workers more efficient
in performing their jobs.
In computers, data is stored in bits. A bit is a single value
of 0 or 1, and 8 bits equal 1 byte. A byte is the size of a charac-
ter. For example, the word computer consists of 8 characters
or 8 bytes (64 bits). Table 2.3 shows storage measurements.
Every character, number, or symbol on the keyboard
is represented as a binary number in computer memory.
TABLE 2.3 STORAGE MEASUREMENTS
(APPROXIMATIONS)
1 bit A single value of 0 or 1
8 bits 1 byte or character
210 bytes 1,000 bytes, or 1 kilobyte (KB)
220 bytes 1,000,000 bytes, or 1 megabyte (MB)
2 bytes
30
1,000,000,000 bytes, or 1 gigabyte (GB)
240 bytes 1,000,000,000,000 bytes, or 1 terabyte (TB)
2 bytes
50
1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes, or 1 petabyte (PB)
260 bytes 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes, or 1 exabyte (EB)
30 PART ONE: Fundamentals of Information Systems
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
A binary system consists of 0s and 1s, with a 1 repre-
senting “on” and a 0 representing “off,” similar to a light
switch.
Computers and communication systems use data
codes to represent and transfer data between com-
puters and network systems. The most common data
code for text files, PC applications, and the Internet is
American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII), developed by the American National Standards
Institute. In an ASCII file, each alphabetic, numeric, or
special character is represented with a 7-bit binary num-
ber (a string of 0s or 1s). Up to 128 (27) characters can
be defined. There are two additional data codes used by
many operating systems: Unicode and Extended ASCII.
Unicode is capable of representing 256 (28) characters,
and Extended ASCII is an 8-bit code that also allows
representation of 256 characters.
Before the ASCII format, IBM’s Extended Binary
Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) was
popular. In an EBCDIC file, each alphabetic, numeric,
or special character is represented with an 8-bit binary
number.
The information box on the next page highlights the
power of smartphones that are higher than a supercom-
puter of a few years ago.
2-4 COMPUTER OPERATIONS
Computers can perform three basic tasks: arithmetic
operations, logical operations, and storage and retrieval
operations. All other tasks are performed using one or a
combination of these operations. For example, playing
a computer game could require a combination of all
three operations. During a game, your computer may
perform calculations in order to make a decision (such
as whether to move from point A to point B), it may
compare two numbers, and it may perform storage and
retrieval functions for going forward with the process.
Computers can add, subtract, multiply, divide, and
raise numbers to a power (exponentiation), as shown in
these examples:
A 1 B (addition) 5 1 7 5 12
A 2 B (subtraction) 52253
A p B (multiplication) 5 p 2 5 10
A / B (division) 5 / 2 5 2.5
A ⋀ B (exponentiation) 5 ⋀ 2 5 25
Computers can perform comparison operations by
comparing two numbers. For example, a computer can
compare x to y and determine which number is larger.
A Supercomputer in Your Pocket
A modern smartphone today has more computing
power and memory than all of NASA during its 1969
mission that placed two astronauts on the moon and
brought them back safely.12 The Apollo 11 astronauts’

© Everett Historical/Shutterstock.com
guidance computer was two feet wide, weighed 70
pounds, and had 4KB of memory. Its cost in today’s
dollars was about $150,000.13 Apple iPhone 6, iPhone
6 Plus, and Samsung Galaxy S6 edge now come with
128GB of RAM. They are more than 2000 times faster
than the Apollo 11 computer at a fraction of its cost.
You can use your smartphone to order a latté
or perform a sophisticated statistical analysis. You
can shop or manage a smart home (a home con-
nected to the Internet) from thousands miles away. The Apollo 11 lunar module ascends from the
Smartphones serve as the gate to the Internet of moon in this July 20, 1969, photo.
things (IoT) discussed in chapter 7 that can connect
you to billions of devices.
As of July 2015 there were more than 1.6 million apps for Android devices and more than 1.5 million for iOS
devices.14 When you combine the speed, memory, and ease of use of smartphones with the number, variety, and
sophistication of over 3 million apps, many of which are available for free, you can easily see that a supercomputer is
in the palm of your hand.

Computers can store massive typewriters, but several modifications have

amounts of data in very small spaces
and locate a particular item quickly.
For example, you can store the text
of more than one million books in a
memory device about the size of your
fist. Later in this chapter, you will
learn about different storage media,
such as magnetic disks and tape.
2-5 INPUT, OUTPUT, AND
been made to improve their ease of use.
You can store the For example, most keyboards include control
text of more than one keys, arrow keys, function keys, and other spe-
million books in a cial keys. In addition, some keyboards, such
as the split keyboard, have been developed
memory device about for better ergonomics. You can perform most
the size of your fist. computer input tasks with keyboards, but for
some tasks a scanner or mouse is faster and
more accurate.
● Mouse—This point-
ing device moves

© Benko Zsolt/Shutterstock.com
the cursor on the
MEMORY DEVICES screen, allowing
fast, precise cursor
positioning. With
To use a computer and process data, three major com- programs that use
ponents are needed: input, output, and memory devices. graphical interfaces,
These are discussed in the following sections. such as Microsoft
Windows or Mac OS, the mouse has become the
2-5a Input Devices input device of choice.
Input devices send data and information to the com-
puter. They are constantly being improved to make data
input easier. Examples of input devices include:
Input devices send data and information to the computer.
● Keyboard—This is the most widely used input device. Examples include a keyboard and mouse.
Originally, keyboards were designed to resemble
CHAPTER 2: Computers: The Machines Behind Computing 31

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Touchless Computing:
The New Paradigm in
User System Interface
Imagine using your tablet, PC, or Macintosh without
needing a mouse, keyboard, or touchpad. Like Tom Cruise
in Minority Report
Report, you may soon be able to interact with
your device without touching it, using only gestures. In
fact, touchless computing enables you to control what
is on the screen with the movements of your finger. The
goal of touchless computing is to provide an environ-
ment similar to the real world, in which you are able to
manipulate objects using only your fingers.15
This technology should be particularly useful for social
networking sites such as Facebook, in situations where a
user wants to navigate through different types of data in
multiple settings. A San Francisco-based startup company
named Leap Motion has designed a device called the
Leap that is the size of a thumb drive. The Leap enables
you to control your computer with high degree of accu-
racy by waving your hands around. This technology could
also radically change our interaction with our TV sets. You
will be able to navigate through channels and programs
without touching the remote or the TV set.16
Engineers who use this technology will be able to
manipulate 3D models on the screen by mere gesture.
The New York Times has developed a 3D news reader
and video reader based on this technology.17
● Touch screen—This is a combination of input devices,
usually working with menus. Some touch screens rely
on light detection to determine which menu item has
been selected; others are pressure sensitive. Touch
screens are often easier to use than keyboards, but they
might not be as accurate because selections can be
misread or mistouched. You probably saw touch screens
used extensively on television during the 2012 presiden-
tial election to quickly show electoral maps and analyze
election data in different ways. The information box on
the next page discusses touchless computing, which may
become popular in near future.
● Light pen—This is a light-sensitive stylus connected
to the monitor with a cable. When it is placed on an
on-screen location, the data in that spot is sent to the
computer. The data can be characters, lines, or blocks. A
An output device is capable of representing information from a
computer. The form of this output might be visual, audio, or digital;
examples include printers, display monitors, and plotters.
32 PART ONE: Fundamentals of Information Systems
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
light pen is easy to use, inexpensive, and accurate, and it
is particularly useful for engineers and graphic designers
who need to make modifications to technical drawings.
● Trackball—This is kept in a stationary location, but it
can be rolled on its axis to control the on-screen cursor.
Trackballs occupy less space than a mouse, so they are
ideal for notebook computers. However, positioning with
a trackball is sometimes less precise than with a mouse.
● Data tablet—This consists of a small pad and a pen.
Menus are displayed on the tablet, and you make
selections with the pen. Data tablets are used most
widely in computer-aided design and manufacturing
applications.
● Barcode reader—This is an optical scanner that uses
lasers to read codes in bar form. These devices are fast
and accurate and have many applications in inventory,
data entry, and tracking systems. They are used mostly
with UPC systems in retail stores.
● Optical character reader (OCR)—This works on the
same principle as a barcode reader but reads text
instead. OCRs must be able to recognize many special
characters and distinguish between uppercase and
lowercase letters, so using one is more difficult than
using a barcode reader. Nevertheless, OCRs have
been used successfully in many applications and are
improving steadily. The United States Postal Service
uses OCRs to sort mail.
● Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) system—
This reads characters printed with magnetic ink and is
used primarily by banks for reading the information at
the bottom of checks.
● Optical mark recognition (OMR) system—This is
sometimes called a “mark sensing” system because it
reads marks on paper. OMRs are often used to grade
multiple-choice and true/false tests.
2-5b Output Devices
Many output devices are available for both main-
frames and personal computers. Output displayed
on a screen is called “soft copy.” The most common output
devices for soft copy are cathode ray tube (CRT), plasma
display, and liquid crystal display (LCD). Soon, OLED
(organic light-emitting
diode) displays will
replace LCDs. OLED
screens are brighter,
thinner, and consume
© f9photos/Shutterstock.com
less power than LCD
technology. However,
they are more expen-
sive than LCD
technology.
 The other type of output is “hard copy,” for which the
most common output device is a printer. Inkjet and laser
printers are standard printers used today. Inkjet printers
produce characters by projecting onto paper electrically
charged droplets of ink that create an image. High-quality
inkjet printers use multicolor ink cartridges for near-photo
quality output and are often used to print digital photo-
graphs. Inkjet printers are suitable for home users who
have limited text and photo printing needs. When selecting
a printer, consider cost (initial and maintenance), quality,
speed, space that it occupies, and networking facilities.
Laser printers use laser-based technology that
creates electrical charges on a rotating drum to attract
toner. The toner is fused to paper using a heat process
that creates high-quality output. Laser printers are
better suited to larger office environments with high-
volume and high-quality printing requirements. Other
output devices include plotters for converting computer
output to graphics and voice synthesizers for converting
computer output to voice. Voice synthesis has become
common. Cash registers at grocery stores use it to repeat
item prices. When you call directory assistance, the
voice you hear is probably computer generated. Voice
output is also being used for marketing. A computer
can dial a long list of phone numbers and deliver a mes-
sage. If a number is busy, the computer makes a note
and dials it later. Although the value of this method
has been questioned, it is constructively used in some
political campaigns to deliver messages about voting.
2-5c Memory Devices
Two types of memory are common to any computer:
main memory and secondary memory. Main memory
stores data and information and is usually volatile, mean-
ing its contents are lost when electrical power is turned
off. Secondary memory, which is nonvolatile, holds
data when the computer is off or during the course of
a program’s operation. It also serves as archival storage.
Main memory plays a major role in a computer’s perfor
perfor-
mance; to some extent, the more memory a computer
has, the faster and more efficient its input/output (I/O)
operations are. Graphics cards, also called video adapt-
ers, enhance computer performance, too. High-end
graphics cards are important for graphic designers, who
need fast rendering of 3D images. Many video games
also require high-end graphics cards for the best display.
Main Memory Devices
The most common type of main memory is a semicon-
ductor memory chip made of silicon. A semiconductor
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
memory device can be volatile or nonvolatile. Volatile
memory is called random access memory (RAM),
although you could think of it as “read-write memory.”
In other words, data can be read from and written to
RAM. Some examples of the type of information stored
in RAM include open files, the Clipboard’s contents,
running programs, and so forth.
A special type of RAM, called cache RAM, resides
on the processor. Because memory access from main
RAM storage generally takes several clock cycles (a few
nanoseconds), cache RAM stores recently accessed mem-
ory so the processor is not waiting for the memory transfer.
Nonvolatile memory is called read-only memory
(ROM); data cannot be written to ROM. The type of
data usually stored in ROM includes BIOS informa-
tion and the computer system’s clock. There are two
other types of ROM. Programmable read-only memory
(PROM) is a type of ROM chip that can be programmed
with a special device. However, after it has been pro-
grammed, the contents cannot be erased. Erasable pro-
grammable read-only memory (EPROM) is similar to
PROM, but its contents can be erased and reprogrammed.
Secondary Memory Devices
Secondary memory devices are nonvolatile and used for
storing large volumes of data for long periods. As men-
tioned earlier, they can also hold data when the computer
is off or during the course of a program’s operation. There
are three main types: magnetic disks, magnetic tape, and
optical discs. Large enterprises also use storage area net-
works and network-attached storage (discussed in the next
section) for storing massive amounts of data in a network
environment.
Main memory stores data and information and is usually volatile;
its contents are lost when electrical power is turned off. It plays a major
role in a computer’s performance.
Secondary memory, which is nonvolatile, holds data when the
computer is off or during the course of a program’s operation. It also
serves as archival storage.
Random access memory (RAM) is volatile memory,
in which data can be read from and written to; it is also called
read-write memory.
Cache RAM resides on the processor. Because memory access from
main RAM storage takes several clock cycles (a few nanoseconds),
cache RAM stores recently accessed memory so the processor is not
waiting for the memory transfer.
Read-only memory (ROM) is nonvolatile; data cannot
be written to ROM.
CHAPTER 2: Computers: The Machines Behind Computing 33
 A magnetic disk, made of Mylar or
metal, is used for random-access process-
ing. In other words, data can be accessed
Exhibit 2.3
in any order, regardless of its order on the
Magnetic memory devices
surface. Magnetic disks are much faster
but more expensive than tape devices.
Magnetic tape, made of a plastic

© Claudio Divizia/Shutterstock.com
material, resembles a cassette tape and
stores data sequentially. Records can be

© Avera/Shutterstock.com
stored in a block or separately, with a gap
between each record or block, called the
interrecord gap (IRG). Magnetic tape is
sometimes used for storing backups,
although other media are more common
now. Exhibit 2.3 shows both types of
magnetic memory devices.
high-volume storage and updating are essential. Video-
Optical discs use laser beams to access and store
on-demand and various streaming options should reduce
data. Optical technology can store vast amounts of data
demand for optical media such as Blu-Ray.19
and is durable. Three common types of optical storage
Other secondary memory devices include hard disks,
are CD-ROMs, WORM discs, and DVDs.
USB flash drives, and memory cards (see Exhibit 2.4).
Compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), as
Hard disks come in a variety of sizes and can be internal
the name implies, is a read-only medium. CD-ROMs
are easy to duplicate and distribute and are widely used
in large permanent databases, such as for libraries, real Exhibit 2.4
estate firms, and financial institutions. They are some- Examples of memory devices
times used for multimedia applications and to distribute
software products. However, because of its larger
capacity—a minimum of 4.7 GB—digital versatile disc

© Timurpix/Shutterstock.com
read-only memory (DVD-ROM) is used more often
now, particularly for software distribution.
A write once, read many (WORM) disc is also a per per-
manent device. Information can be recorded once and
cannot be altered. A major drawback is that a WORM
disc cannot be duplicated. It is used mainly to store infor
infor-
mation that must be kept permanently but not altered— © Martin Petransky/Shutterstock.com
for example, annual reports and information for nuclear
power plants, airports, and railroads. SanDisk recently
announced a Secure Digital (SD) card, a type of WORM
disc, that can store data for 100 years but can be written
on only once with 512 GB of memory.18
Unlike with CD-ROMs and WORM discs, infor infor-
mation stored on an erasable optical disc can be erased
and altered repeatedly. These discs are used when

A magnetic disk, made of Mylar or metal, is used for random-

access processing. In other words, data can be accessed in any order,
© Yojik/Shutterstock.com

regardless of its order on the surface.

Magnetic tape, made of a plastic material, resembles a cassette
tape and stores data sequentially.
Optical discs use laser beams to access and store data. Examples
include CD-ROMs, WORM discs, and DVDs.

34 PART ONE: Fundamentals of Information Systems

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
or external, and their costs have been decreasing steadily.
Memory sticks have become popular because of their
small size, high storage capacity, and decreasing cost. Flash A Popular Application
memory is nonvolatile memory that can be electronically of Cloud Storage:
erased and reprogrammed. It is used mostly in memory Keeping Photos Online
cards and USB flash drives for storing and transferring
If you want to share photos with family and friends
data between computers and other devices. Table 2.4
there are several options. Social media such as
compares the capacity of common storage devices.
Facebook and Instagram are two major options.
Another type of memory device that is gaining in
However, there are issues with social media such as
popularity is Solid State Drive (SSD). With SSDs, similar
privacy concerns (who sees which photos), and some
to a memory stick, there are no moving parts. That is why
people who are intended to have access may not be
an SSD-equipped PC will boot very fast, in seconds, much
users of a particular social media.
faster than a PC equipped with a hard disk. On July 6, 2015,
There are better options for sharing photos with
Samsung announced an SSD that offers 2TB of capacity in
enhanced capabilities through cloud storage. Dropbox,
a 2.5-inch form factor for laptops and desktops.20
Flickr, Shutterfly, SmugMug, and Google Drive are
A redundant array of independent disks
among the top options. Some are free, and others
(RAID) system is a collection of disk drives used for
involve annual fees for terabytes of storage.
fault tolerance and improved performance, and is
The problem with using a smartphone for taking and
typically found in large network systems. Data can be
sharing a photo is that the photo may never leave its origi-
stored in multiple places to improve the system’s reli-
nal place! The user has to move it to social media and may
ability. In other words, if one disk in the array fails, data
have to sync a smartphone with a tablet or laptop. Cloud
is not lost. In some RAID configurations, sequences of
storage can do all of these things automatically. Most cloud
data can be read from multiple disks simultaneously,
storage systems come with a variety of options, including
which improves performance.
public and private galleries and automatic uploading from
Cloud storage (discussed in Chapter  14) has
phones and tablets. They also offer drag-and-drop upload-
become a popular option for many organizations and
ing, organizing, and the ability to edit photos online.22
individuals in recent years. Used for online storage and
backup, it involves multiple virtual servers that are usu-
ally hosted by third parties. Examples include JustCloud,
ZipCloud, MyPCBackup, and Dropbox. Cloud storage
Storage Area Networks
may reduce the demand for some of the traditional stor stor-
age devices or even replace some of them. 21 and Network-Attached Storage
Large corporations and enterprises that need a A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated high-
lot of storage space use a server farm or server clus- speed network consisting of both hardware and software
ter. This is a collection of hundreds or thousands of used to connect and manage shared storage devices, such
computers that require a large amount of power to run as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical storage devices.
and keep cool. The information box in the next column A SAN network makes storage devices available to all serv-
highlights a popular application of cloud storage. ers on a local area network (LAN) or wide area network

TABLE 2.4 CAPACITY OF SECONDARY MEMORY

DEVICES A redundant array of independent disks (RAID) system
is a collection of disk drives used for fault tolerance and improved
Device Storage Capacity performance, and is typically found in large network systems.
Memory stick 16 GB
Used for online storage and backup, cloud storage involves
Hard disk 2 TB multiple virtual servers that are usually hosted by third parties.
CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW 800 MB Customers buy or lease storage space from third parties based on
their current or future needs.
DVD-ROM, DVD-R, DVD-RW 4.7 GB or more
Blu-Ray (latest generation Up to 25 GB on a single-layer disc A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated high-speed
optical disc) and 50 GB on a dual-layer disc network consisting of both hardware and software used to connect
and manage shared storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape
SD Card 512 GB
libraries, and optical storage devices.
SSD 2 TB

CHAPTER 2: Computers: The Machines Behind Computing 35

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 (WAN). (LANs and WANs will be discussed in Chapter 6.)
Because a SAN is a dedicated network, servers can access
storage devices more quickly and do not have to use their
processing power to connect to these devices. Typically,
SANs are used only in large enterprises because of their
cost and installation complexity.
SANs speed up data access performance, and
despite their cost, they are more economical than having
storage devices attached to each server. A SAN’s capacity
can be extended easily, even to hundreds of terabytes.
Network-attached storage (NAS), on the
other hand, is essentially a network-connected com-
puter dedicated to providing file-based data storage
services to other network devices. Software on the
NAS handles features such as data storage, file access,
and file and storage management.
When choosing between a SAN and a NAS system,
consider the following factors:
● Hybrid solutions (combining a SAN and a NAS) might
be available.
Network-attached storage (NAS) is essentially a network-
connected computer dedicated to providing file-based data storage
services to other network devices.
● A SAN offers only storage; a NAS system offers both
storage and file services.
● NAS is popular for Web servers and e-mail serv-
ers because it lowers management costs and helps
make these servers more fault tolerant. It is also
becoming a useful solution for providing large
amounts of heterogeneous data (text, documents,
voice, images, movies, and so forth) for consumer
applications.
● The biggest issue with NAS is that, as the number of
users increases, its performance deteriorates. How-
ever, it can be expanded easily by adding more servers
or upgrading the CPU.
2-6 CLASSES OF COMPUTERS
Usually, computers are classified based on cost, amount
of memory, speed, and sophistication. Using these crite-
ria, computers are classified as subnotebooks, notebooks,
personal computers, minicomputers, mainframes, or
supercomputers. Supercomputers are the most power power-
ful; they also have the highest storage capabilities and
the highest price.

Popular iPad Business Applications

The iPad is a tablet computer designed and developed
by Apple. iPad users can browse the Web, read and send
e-mail, share photos, watch HD videos, listen to music,
play games, read e-books, and much more by using a
multitouch user interface. Currently, iPads are used by

© wavebreak media/Shutterstock.com
many business professionals, including the following:23,24
Health care workers—To access medical applications and
for bedside care
Sales agents and service workers—To perform on-the-
road sales presentations and to display product information
Insurance agents—To display quotes
Real estate agents—To provide remote, interactive, visual
home tours for interested home buyers
Legal professionals—To access legal documents and conduct a NexisLexis search from a car, office, or courtroom
Teachers and students—To access Windows applications and resources
Financial professionals—To access Windows trading applications, dashboards, documents, real-time quotes,
Bloomberg Anywhere, and portfolio analysis tools
Corporate campus workers—To access corporate data so employees can collaborate with their colleagues while
moving from office to office
Remote and mobile workers—To access Windows business applications, desktops, and data while on the road

36 PART ONE: Fundamentals of Information Systems

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 A notebook computer today has more

power than a mainframe of the 1970s,

and all indications suggest that

this trend will continue.

Mainframe computers are usually compatible
with the IBM System/360 line introduced in 1965. As
mentioned in the Industry Connection later in this
chapter, IBM System zEnterprise EC12 is the latest
example in this class. Systems that are not based on
System/360 are referred to as “servers” (discussed in
the next section) or supercomputers. Supercomputers
are more expensive, much bigger, faster, and have
more memory than personal computers, minicomput-
ers, and mainframes.
Applications for computers include anything from
doing homework (subnotebook, notebook, and personal
computer) to launching space shuttles (supercomputer).
Because all computers are steadily increasing in speed and
sophistication, delineating different classes of computers
is more difficult now. For example, a notebook computer
today has more power than a mainframe of the 1970s,
and all indications suggest that this trend will continue.
The information box on the previous page highlights some
of the business applications available for the iPad.

Ubiquitous Computing
Experts describe the current state of computing as ubiq-
uitous computing or pervasive computing. It is also called
the third wave. The first wave was identified by mainframe
computers, the second wave by personal computers, and
the third wave by small computers embedded into many
devices used daily—cellphones, cameras, watches, and so

©iStockPhoto.com/Ferrantraite
forth. Because people usually carry these devices around, the
term “wearable” has been coined to describe them. Wearable
computers are also used in medical monitoring systems, and
they can be helpful when people need to use computers—to
enter text, for example—while standing or walking around.
There are many platforms and several players in this market.
The following are three popular examples:25
● Google Glass—Displays information in a hands-free format; can communicate with the user and the Web in a
natural language
● Nike+ FuelBand—Uses a sensor that runners can slip into their shoes to track performance
● Jawbone Up— Tracks one’s movements around the clock
A new type of wearable computing using ingestible sensors and implantable chips may soon become common.
These devices can be used to collect information about what is going on inside a person’s body. They can be used for
treating chronic illnesses and could assist the medical community in coming up with more suitable drugs faster. At the
same time, these devices may create some legal issues. For instance, they could reveal that someone has a particular
illness, which could result in a higher insurance fee.26 Apple Watch is the newest player in this fast-growing market.
The popularity of wearable devices continues to grow; in 2015 Target Corporation announced that it would be giv-
ing its 335,000 employees in the United States Fitbit Trackers as the company focuses more on wellness.27

CHAPTER 2: Computers: The Machines Behind Computing 37

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Experts believe we are entering the era of wearable,
ubiquitous computing. See the information box on the
previous page for more on this topic.
2-6a Server Platforms: An Overview
A server is a computer and all the software for man-
aging network resources and offering services to a net-
work. Many different server platforms are available for
performing specific tasks, including the following:
● Application servers store computer software, which
users can access from their workstations.
● Database servers store and manage vast amounts of
data for access from users’ computers.
● Disk servers contain large-capacity hard drives and
enable users to store files and applications for later
retrieval.
● Fax servers contain software and hardware
components that enable users to send and
receive faxes.
● File servers contain large-capacity hard drives for
storing and retrieving data files.
● Mail servers are configured for sending, receiving,
and storing e-mails.
● Print servers enable users to send print jobs to
network printers.
● Remote access servers (RAS) allow off-site users to
connect to network resources, such as network file
storage, printers, and databases.
● Web servers store Web pages for access over the
Internet.
Current trend in I/O devices could be summa-
rized as:28
● Thinner and lighter laptops and tablets
● Faster and larger memory
● Widespread applications of wireless devices
● Increased applications of interactive computing
using gesture, touch, and voice.
A server is a computer and all the software for managing network
resources and offering services to a network.
An operating system (OS) is a set of programs for controlling
and managing computer hardware and software. It provides an
interface between a computer and the user and increases computer
efficiency by helping users share computer resources and by
performing repetitive tasks for users.
38 PART ONE: Fundamentals of Information Systems
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
2-7 WHAT IS SOFTWARE?
W
Software is all the programs that run a computer system.
It can be classified broadly as system software and appli-
cation software. For example, Microsoft Windows is the
OS for most PCs and belongs to the system software
group. This type of software works in the background
and takes care of housekeeping tasks, such as deleting
files that are no longer needed. Application software is
used to perform specialized tasks. Microsoft Excel, for
example, is used for spreadsheet analyses and number-
crunching tasks. The information box below highlights
Google Docs, a Web-based software application.
2-7a Operating System Software
An operating system (OS) is a set of programs for
controlling and managing computer hardware and soft-
ware. It provides an interface between a computer and
Google Docs:
Applications and
Challenges
Google Docs is a free, Web-based application for creating
word-processor documents, spreadsheets, presenta-
tions, and forms. You can use it to create and edit docu-
ments online while collaborating in real time with other
users, and you can send files you create to others via
the Internet or e-mail. You can save files in a variety of
formats: .doc, .xls, .rtf, .csv, .ppt, and so forth. By default,
files are saved to Google’s servers, using the Google
cloud computing platform. Cloud computing is covered
in more detail in Chapter 14; basically, it makes data and
applications more portable so you can work with a pro-
gram from anywhere. Another popular feature of Google
Docs is collaboration. Multiple users can share and edit
files at the same time. With spreadsheets, users can even
be notified of changes by e-mail.29 Google Drive is used to
store documents, photos, music, and videos in one place.
It syncs with your mobile devices and your computer so
if you make a change using one device, the change will
automatically show up on your other devices.30
Cloud computing and Google Docs do present
some challenges and security risks. On March 10,
2009, Google Docs revealed some private documents
to unauthorized users because of a security flaw.
According to Google, the flaw has been corrected.31
ios: The Brain Behind Apple Devices
iOS is the operating system that enables all apps to run on an iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch. The latest version is
iOS 9.3. It offers major updates to popular apps such as Messages and Photos and new ways to share content with
other users, as well as new ways to connect apps and devices. Features include the following:32
Maps—Provides visual and spoken turn-by-turn navigation and real-time traffic updates
Siri—Provides voice interface for many ordinary tasks including information on restaurants, movies, and sports
Facebook integration—Allows direct interaction from your Apple device using voice or typed instructions without
leaving your app
AirDrop—Allows you to share photos, videos, and contacts from any app with a Share button
Control Center—Gives you quick access to frequently used apps
Shared photo stream—Allows sharing just the photos you want, with the people you choose
Passbook—Allows you to add passes to Passbook through apps, e-mails, and Web sites from participating airlines,
theaters, stores, and many more
FaceTime—Allows you to see the person that you are talking to on your iPhone or iPad
Phone—Allows you to decline an incoming call, instantly reply with a text message, or set a callback
Mail—Allows you set up a VIP list so you will never miss an important message from important people in your list
Safari—In addition to navigation, now allows you to save Web pages as well as links
Accessibility—Makes it easier to use Apple devices for people with vision, hearing, learning, and mobility disabilities
Camera with Panorama—Allows you to shoot up to 240 degrees horizontally as well as vertically

the user and increases computer efficiency by help-
ing users share computer resources and by performing
repetitive tasks for users. A typical OS consists of control
programs and supervisor programs.
Control programs manage computer hardware and
resources by performing the following functions:
● —Control and prioritize tasks per
Job management—Control per-
formed by the CPU.
● Resource allocation—Manage computer resources,
such as storage and memory. In a network, control
programs are also used for tasks, such as assigning a
print job to a particular printer.
● Data management—Control data integrity by gen-
erating checksums to verify that data has not been
corrupted or changed. When the OS writes data to
storage, it generates a value (the checksum) along
with the data. The next time this data is retrieved, the
checksum is recalculated and compared with the orig-
inal checksum. If they match, the integrity is intact. If
they do not, the data has been corrupted somehow.
● Communication—Control the transfer of data among
parts of a computer system, such as communication
between the CPU and I/O devices.
The supervisor program, also known as the kernel, is
responsible for controlling all other programs in the OS,
such as compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and utilities
for performing special tasks.
In addition to single-tasking and multitasking OSs,
time-shared OSs allow several users to use computer
resources simultaneously. OSs are also available in a variety
of platforms for both mainframes and personal comput-
ers. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, and Linux are examples
of personal computer OSs, and mainframe OSs include
UNIX and OpenVMS as well as some versions of Linux.
Two new operating systems for smartphones and other
handheld devices have attracted much attention in recent
years: iOS and Android. The iOS and its various versions run
on iPad, iPhone, and iPod Touch. (See the information box
above on iOS.) The Android operating system by Google
runs on non-Apple smartphones and handheld devices,
such as HTC Inspire, Samsung Galaxy, and LG Thrill.
2-7b Application Software
A personal computer can perform a variety of tasks by
using application software, which can be commercial
Application software can be commercial software or
software developed in house and is used to perform a variety of
tasks on a personal computer.

CHAPTER 2: Computers: The Machines Behind Computing 39

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 software or software developed in house. In-house soft-
ware is usually more expensive than commercial software
but is more customized and often fits the users’ needs
better. For almost any task you can imagine, a software
package is available. The following sections give you an
overview of common categories of commercial applica-
tion software for personal computers. In addition to these,
many other categories of software are available, such as
information management software, Web-authoring soft-
ware, and photo and graphics software.
Word-Processing Software
You are probably most familiar with word-processing
software used to generate documents. Typically, this
includes editing features, such as deleting, inserting, and
copying text. Advanced word-processing software often
includes sophisticated graphics and data management
features. Word-processing software saves time, particu-
larly for repetitive tasks, such as sending the same letter
to hundreds of customers. Most word-processing soft-
ware offers spell checkers and grammar checkers. Some
popular word-processing programs are Microsoft Word,
Corel WordPerfect, and OpenOffice.
Spreadsheet Software
A spreadsheet is a table of rows and columns, and
spreadsheet software is capable of performing numerous
tasks with the information in a spreadsheet. You can even
prepare a budget and perform a “what-if” analysis on the
data. For example, you could calculate the effect on other
budget items of reducing your income by 10 percent,
or you could see the effect of a 2 percent reduction in
your mortgage interest rate. Common spreadsheet soft-
ware includes Microsoft Excel, IBM’s Lotus 1-2-3, and
Corel Quattro Pro. Appendices A, B, and C, which can
be accessed at the Cengage MIS7 site (see Study Tools
Box on page 43), explain many of Excel’s features.
Database Software
Database software is designed to perform operations
such as creating, deleting, modifying, searching, sorting,
and joining data. A database is essentially a collection of
tables consisting of rows and columns. Database soft-
ware makes accessing and working with data faster and
more efficient. For example, manually searching a data-
base containing thousands of records would be almost
impossible. With database software, users can search
information quickly and even tailor searches to meet
specific criteria, such as finding all accounting students
younger than 20 who have GPAs higher than 3.6. You will
40 PART ONE: Fundamentals of Information Systems
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
learn more about databases in Chapter 3. Popular data-
base software for personal computers includes Microsoft
Access, FileMaker Pro, and Alpha Software’s Alpha Five.
High-end database software used in large enterprises
includes Oracle, IBM DB2, and Microsoft SQL Server.
Presentation Software
Presentation software is used to create and deliver slide
shows. Microsoft PowerPoint is the most commonly
used presentation software; other examples include
Adobe Persuasion and Corel Presentations. You can
include many types of content in slide shows, such as
bulleted and numbered lists, charts, and graphs. You can
also embed graphics as well as sound and movie clips.
Presentation software also offers several options
for running slide shows, such as altering the time inter
inter-
val between slides. In addition, you can usually convert
presentations into other formats, including Web pages
and photo albums with music and narration. Another
option in some presentation software is capturing what
is on the computer screen and then combining sev-
eral screen captures into a video for demonstrating a
process, which can be useful in educational settings or
employee training seminars, for example.
Graphics Software
Graphics software is designed to present data in a
graphical format, such as line graphs and pie charts.
These formats are useful for illustrating trends and
patterns in data and for showing correlations. Graphics
are created with integrated packages, such as Excel,
Lotus 1-2-3, and Quattro Pro, or dedicated graph-
ics packages, such as Adobe Illustrator and IBM
Freelance. Exhibit 2.5 shows the types of graphs you
can create in Microsoft Excel.
Desktop Publishing Software
Desktop publishing software is used to produce
professional-quality documents without expensive
hardware and software. This software works on a “what-
you-see-is-what-you-get” (WYSIWYG, pronounced
“wizzy-wig”) concept, so the high-quality screen dis-
play gives you a good idea of what you will see in the
printed output. Desktop publishing software is used
for creating newsletters, brochures, training manuals,
transparencies, posters, and even books. Many desktop
publishing packages are available; three popular
ones are Adobe InDesign, QuarkXPress, and Microsoft
Office Publisher.
 Exhibit 2.5
TTypes of graphs in Microsoft Excel
Financial Planning and Accounting Software
Financial planning software, which is more powerful
than spreadsheet software, is capable of performing
many types of analysis on large amounts of data. These
analyses include present value, future value, rate of
return, cash flow, depreciation, retirement planning, and
budgeting. A widely used financial planning package is
Intuit Quicken. Using this package, you can plan and
analyze all kinds of financial scenarios. For example, you
can calculate how much your $2,000 IRA will be worth at
5 percent interest in 30 years, or you can determine how
to save $150,000 in 18 years toward your child’s college
education, using a fixed interest rate.
In addition to spreadsheet software, dedicated
accounting software is available for performing many
sophisticated accounting tasks, such as general ledgers,
accounts receivable, accounts payable, payroll, balance
sheets, and income statements. Some popular account-
ing software packages include Intuit QuickBooks, a
small-business accounting software, and Sage Software’s
Peachtree.
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Microsoft product screenshots used with permission from Microsoft Corporation.
Project Management Software
A project, such as designing a Web site or setting up an
order entry system, consists of a set of related tasks. The
goal of project management software is to help project
managers keep time and budget under control by solv-
ing scheduling problems, planning and setting goals,
and highlighting potential bottlenecks. You can use such
software to study the cost, time, and resource impact of
schedule changes. There are several project management
software packages on the market, including Microsoft
Project and Micro Planning International’s Micro Planner.
Computer-Aided Design Software
Computer-aided design (CAD) software is used for draft-
ing and design and has replaced traditional tools, such as
T-squares, triangles, paper, and pencils. It is used exten-
sively in architecture and engineering firms, but because
of major price reductions and increases in PC power,
small companies and home users can now afford this
software. Widely used CAD software includes Autodesk
AutoCAD, Cadkey, and VersaCAD.
CHAPTER 2: Computers: The Machines Behind Computing 41
 depends on the machine, so code writ-
ten for one type of computer does not
work on another type of computer.
Writing a machine-language program is

© FERNANDO BLANCO CALZADA/Shutterstock.com

time consuming and painstaking.
Assembly language, the second
generation of computer languages, is a
higher-level language than machine lan-
guage but is also machine dependent. It
uses a series of short codes, or mnemon-
ics, to represent data or instructions. For
example, ADD and SUBTRACT are
typical commands in assembly language.
Writing programs in assembly language is
easier than in machine language.
Third-generation computer lan-
CAD software allows architects and engineers to create guages are machine independent and are
3D visualizations of homes and other structures. called high-level languages. Three
of the most widely used languages
are C++, Java, and VB.NET. These

2-8 COMPUTER LANGUAGES languages are used mostly for Web development and
Internet applications. High-level languages are more like
English, so they are easier to learn and code. In addition,
As mentioned earlier, computer lan- they are self-documenting, meaning that you
guages have developed through four can usually understand the programs with-
generations, and the fifth generation Fourth-generation out needing additional documentation.
is currently being developed. The first languages (4GLs) are Fourth-generation languages
generation of computer languages, (4GLs) are the easiest computer languages
the easiest computer
machine language, consists of a to use. The commands are powerful and
series of 0s and 1s representing data languages to use. easy to learn, even for people with little com-
or instructions. Machine language puter training. Sometimes, 4GLs are called
nonprocedural languages, which means you
do not need to follow a rigorous command syntax to use
Machine language, the first generation of computer languages,
consists of a series of 0s and 1s representing data or instructions. It is them. Instead, 4GLs use macro codes that can take the
dependent on the machine, so code written for one type of computer place of several lines of programming. For example, in a
does not work on another type of computer. 4GL you might issue the PLOT command, a macro code
Assembly language, the second generation of computer that takes the place of 100 or more lines of high-level pro-
languages, is a higher-level language than machine language gramming code. One simple command does the job for
but is also machine dependent. It uses a series of short codes, or you. SQL (structured query language), which will be dis-
mnemonics, to represent data or instructions.
cussed in Chapter 3, is an example of a 4GL.
High-level languages are machine independent and part Fifth-generation languages (5GLs) use some
of the third generation of computer languages. Many languages of the artificial intelligence technologies (discussed in
are available, and each is designed for a specific purpose.
Chapter  13), such as knowledge-based systems, natural
Fourth-generation languages (4GLs) use macro codes that language processing (NLP), visual programming, and
can take the place of several lines of programming. The commands are
a graphical approach to programming. Codes are auto-
powerful and easy to learn, even for people with little computer training.
matically generated and designed to make the com-
Fifth-generation languages (5GLs) use some of the puter solve a given problem without a programmer or
artificial intelligence technologies, such as knowledge-based systems,
natural language processing (NLP), visual programming, and a with minimum programming effort. These languages
graphical approach to programming. These languages are designed to are designed to facilitate natural conversations between
facilitate natural conversations between you and the computer. you and the computer. Imagine that you could ask your
computer, “What product generated the most sales last

42 PART ONE: Fundamentals of Information Systems

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
year?” Your computer, equipped with a voice synthesizer,
could respond, “Product X.” Dragon NaturallySpeaking
Solutions is an example of NLP. Research continues
in this field because of the promising results so far.
Programming languages used for Internet program-
ming and Web development include ActiveX, C++,
Java, JavaScript, Perl, Python, PHP, Visual Basic, and
Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL). The most impor
impor-
tant Web development languages are Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) and Extensible Markup Language
(XML). Both languages are markup languages, not full-
featured programming languages.
The 10 best and most popular programming lan-
guages in 2015 included: (1) Java, (2) PHP, (3) JavaScript,
(4) Python, (5) Objective-C, (6) Ruby, (7) Perl, (8) C,
C++, and C#, (9) SQL, and (10) Swift.33
The Industry Connection highlights IBM and its
most popular product areas.

Industry Connection: International Business

Machines (IBM)34
IBM, the largest computer company in the world, is active in almost every aspect of computing, including hardware, software,
services, and collaboration tools such as groupware and e-collaboration. IBM has also been a leader in developing mainframe
computers; its latest mainframe is the IBM System zEnterprise EC12. IBM’s most popular product areas include the following:

Software: IBM offers software suites for all types of
computers. Lotus, for example, includes features for e-mail,
calendaring, and collaborative applications as well as
business productivity software, much like Microsoft Office
does. Tivoli, another software suite, has many features for
asset management, security management, backup and
restore procedures, and optimization of storage systems
and data management. IBM also offers several different
types of software for business analytics.
Storage: IBM’s storage devices include disk and tape
systems, storage area networks, network-attached
storage, hard disks, and microdrives. A microdrive is
a 1-inch hard disk designed to fit in a CompactFlash
Type II slot.
Servers: IBM offers a variety of servers, including UNIX and
Linux servers, Intel-based servers, AMD-based servers, and
more.

IBM is also active in e-commerce software, hardware, and security services, such as encryption technologies, firewalls,
antivirus solutions, and more.

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CHAPTER 2: Computers: The Machines Behind Computing 43

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 Reviews and Discussions
1. Define a computer.
2. What are two applications of IBM’s Watson?
3. Computers draw their power from three factors. What
are these factors?
4. What are two advantages of solid state drives?
Projects
1. A local law firm needs your advice. It currently has
20 PCs being used by its attorneys and staff, and it is
debating whether to use Google Apps or Office 365
as its productivity tools. Write a two-page paper that
summarizes your recommendation. What are two
advantages and two disadvantages of each choice?
Which alternative is less expensive? What are two
advantages of Office 365 over traditional Office?
2. After reading the information presented in this
chapter and other sources, write a one-page paper
that describes two advantages and two disadvantages
of SAN and NAS. Name two vendors of each technol-
ogy. Which one is less expensive? Which one do you
recommend for Project #1 above?
3. A classmate of yours is not sure whether to buy a
PC or a tablet. He needs the device for schoolwork
(mostly Microsoft Office), for Web access, and as an
e-reader. After reading the information presented in
this chapter and other sources, write a one-page paper
that summarizes your recommendation to this fellow
student. Also mention two choices that you consider
as top of the line for each alternative.
Are You Ready to Move On?
1. The central processing unit (CPU) is the heart of a com-
puter. It is divided into two components: the arithmetic
logic unit (ALU) and the control unit. True or False?
2. ROM is volatile. True or False?
3. Network-attached storage (NAS) is essentially a
network-connected computer dedicated to provid-
ing file-based data storage services to other network
devices. True or False?
4. Choose the incorrect answer.
a. First generation—Vacuum tube
b. Second generation—Transistors
c. Third generation—Parallel processing
d. Fourth generation—Miniaturization
44 PART ONE: Fundamentals of Information Systems
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
5. What are two OSs for smartphones?
6. What are two classes of software for PCs?
7. What are five generation of computer software?
8. What are three business applications of an iPad?
4. IBM Watson has created a lot of excitement in the
computing field. After reading the information
presented in this chapter and other sources, write a
one-page paper that summarizes three commercial
applications of this platform. What are two advantages
of using Watson compared to using humans in the
medical field? What are two disadvantages? How can
Watson be used as a trip-planning service?
5. Android and iOS are two major operating systems for
smartphones and other mobile devices. After reading the
information presented in this chapter and other sources,
write a two-page paper that summarizes the key features of
each OS. What are two advantages and two disadvantages
of each? Which OS has a bigger market share and why?
6. Dragon NaturallySpeaking Solutions is an example
of an NLP. After reading the information presented
in this chapter and other sources, write a two-page
paper that describes five commercial applications for
this platform. Which businesses will benefit the most
from this platform? What are two other products that
compete with this software?
5. Which one is not an application software?
a. MS Word
b. Apple iOS
c. MS Excel
d. Adobe InDesign
6. All of the following are among the current trend in
I/O devices except:
a. Widespread applications of mainframe computers
b. Thinner and lighter laptops and tablets
c. Faster and larger memory
d. Widespread applications of wireless devices
CASE STUDY 2-1
Become Your Own Banker
Using one of the many finan- apps help you track and report
cial apps (most of them free) work-related travel expenses. An
that are available for your tablet example is an iPhone app called
or smartphone these days, you QuickShot. It allows you to take
can become your own banker. photos of your receipts, and the

© Bloom Design/Shutterstock.com
In fact, trips to the bank or even photos are automatically stored
to an ATM could soon become a in an account on Dropbox, an
thing of the past. The new apps Internet file-storage service.35
let you do all the functions that Banks, brokerage firms, and other
you could do on a bank’s Web financial institutions have devel-
site and more. For example, to oped their own apps that simplify
deposit a check into your bank- their customers’ financial interac-
ing account, you can simply take tions with the institution.
a photograph of the front and back of the check, after
which the app will ask you for the amount you want to Answer the following questions:
deposit. Then you type the account number and then press 1. Using your smartphone and a financial app, how do
“OK” to complete the deposit. With the Mint app (mint you deposit a check into your checking account?
.com) from Intuit, you can even perform all sorts of analytics 2. Name some financial apps introduced in this case.
on your account. For example, you can establish a budget 3. What are some examples of analytics that can be done
and keep track of the expenses in various categories, such using financial apps?
as food, gas, and groceries. Another app that offers simi- 4. What are some other examples of financial apps? What
lar services is HelloWallet from hellowallet.com. Still other are their applications?

CASE STUDY 2-2

iPads: New Productivity Tools for Service Workers
Cornell University’s utilities department serves over 30,000
people in the campus community in Ithaca, NY. In the past
when there was an outage related to power, water, or steam
(used for heating), the utility manager was contacted by
phone to look into the problem and come up with a course
of action to fix the problem. This usually caused some delays,
as a manager might be off campus or busy with other things.
Those phone calls are still being made in some cases
but most of the utility personal are able to use their iPads in
order to log onto the system and diagnose the problem—
and in some cases, even fix the problem remotely. They
can also use their iPhones to log onto the system. The uni-
versity issues iPads to all mechanics and technicians for the
same reason.
The equipment used by Cornell University’s utilities
department comes from GE and has an iOS app for drilling
down into the utility management system and analyzing
the available data. The utility personnel have access to a
Web app for those analyses that are not suitable for the iOS
app. The Web app allows personnel to control the equip-
ment and see more detailed information, such as the per-
centage of valves that are open.
The utility personnel can use the Web app to remotely
control the utility management system from their brows-
ers. Access is given through VPN (discussed in Chapter 5)
in order to increase the security of the system and to pro-
vide additional authentication. According to the university,
the iPad provides easy access to key information anywhere
and at any time.36
Answer the following questions:
1. According to this case study, how were outages
reported to the utilities department manager in the
past?
2. What are the two apps that are being used by the utilities
department?
3. What are two advantages of using iPad at the utilities
department?

CHAPTER 2: Computers: The Machines Behind Computing 45

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203