CRUDE AND VACUUM UNIT DESIGN CHALLENGES

Arif Habibullah, P.E.

Specialized Consulting Services
Los Angeles, California, USA

ABSTRACT

This paper will describe the technical challenges encountered in designing the world’s largest single train
crude and vacuum units processing upwards of 400,000BPD, including crude preheat, desalting, pre-
flash, atmospheric fractionation and side stripping and vacuum fractionation.

In addition, this paper will summarize the design issues identified for achieving the extraordinary
economies of scale and an optimized overall facility design, including alternatives studied for overall
energy analysis, crude preheat network design, preflash drum vs prefractionator, preheat train hydraulics,
vacuum transfer lines hydraulics and design, and plot plan and equipment layout considerations.

One of the world’s largest vacuum column

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Mega Crude unit – ECONOMIES OF SCALE
The sheer size of equipment and piping required for a mega crude unit is noteworthy, e.g., large column
diameters, 56ft diameter vacuum column, 36ft diameter Crude column, 12ft diameter desalter 110ft long,
dual heaters for both CDU/VDU columns; two(2) 108- inch transfer lines with sixteen (16) 36-inch
manifolded sub-headers, 4000 HPx2 crude charge pumps, etc., see details in table below and on Page 19.

Equipment No. Size Comments

Trays Type: Valve
Trays 1-56
Trays.
Diameter: 36'-0"
No. of passes: 4
Stripping
Sulzer Mellapak
Section
Atmospheric Column 1 Structured Packing
Diameter:
or eq.:
20'-0"
8 ft height in Wash
Total Height
zone section or 4
T/T: 232'-6"
Wash Zone Trays
Trays Type: Valve
Kerosene Stripper 1 11'-0" x 55'-6" Trays.
No. of passes: 2
Trays Type: Valve
Diesel Stripper 1 11'-0" x 106'-0" Trays.
No. of passes: 4
Diameter: Top:
42'-0" Sulzer Mellapak
Diameter Structured Packing
Middle: 56'-0" or eq.:
Vacuum Column 1 6 ft height ea
Diameter
Bottom: 20'-0" section
Total Height
T/T: 156'-0"
Petrolite Design: 2
12.0'-0" x 110'- electrical grids
Desalter 1
0" To be finalized by
vendor
With 6" demister
Preflash Drum 1 24'-0" x 148'-0"
pad
Diameter: 21'-0"
Length: 55'-0"
Atmospheric
1 Boot: 10'-5"
Overhead Reflux Drum
Dia.x 18'-0"
OAL

Duty
Equipment No. (MMBtu/ Comments
hr)

Atmospheric Column Duty is for each

2 351.3
Heater furnace
Vacuum Column Duty is for each
2 176
Heater furnace

Equipment No. HP Comments

2 50% pumps / 1
Crude Charge Pump 3 2690
spare
2 50% pumps / 1
Desalted Crude Pump 3 2920
spare
2 50% pumps / 1
Flashed Crude Pump 3 3780
spare

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PROCESS DESCRIPTION

Overview of Unit

The Project Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) is designed to process 400,000 BPD of crude oil and Vacuum
Distillation Unit (VDU) for 210,000BPD of atmospheric resid (AR) . The Crude Distillation Unit (CDU),
comprises both the atmospheric and the vacuum distillation sections as well as a naphtha stabilizer along
with the appropriate heaters, coolers, and process-process heat exchanger network to enable energy-
optimal operation.

Crude Preheat, Desalting and Preflash

Crude comes to battery limits at ambient temperature, then is preheated to the desalting temperature with
hot product rundowns and pumparound streams. The crude is desalted in a single-stage system using
stripped sour water as the salt extractant. The desalted crude is next heated to a target preflash
temperature and fed to the preflash drum. The overhead vapor is heated in the convection section of the
atmospheric tower furnace and fed to the flash zone of that tower.

The flash drum bottoms (reduced crude) is exchanged against hotter process streams to recover as much
process duty as feasible. The reduced crude lastly runs to a fired heater which provides the process duty
necessary to satisfy the atmospheric column flash zone conditions. The vapors from the preflash drum are
heated in the convection section of the fired heater in order to minimize the temperature to which the
reduced crude itself must be heated.

Atmospheric Fractionation and Side Stripping

Crude is fractionated in the atmospheric column and side strippers into the following products:
 Overhead vapor collected by the Offgas Compressor and sent to the Stabilizer
 Naphtha sent to the Naphtha Stabilizer to remove LPG
 Kerosene to be used as fuel oil cutter or be sent to the Diesel Hydrotreater (DHT)
 Diesel sent to the DHT or to FO blending
 Heavy atmospheric gas oil (HAGO) sent to storage with VGO from the vacuum column
 Atmospheric Residue (AR) sent to the vacuum fractionation section

Vacuum Fractionation

AR goes directly to the vacuum heater(s) and then into the vacuum column, where it is separated into
Light Vacuum GO (LVGO), Heavy Vacuum GO (HVGO) and Vacuum Residue (VR). VR will go to
asphalt production and RTIP power plant.LVGO and HVGO are blended with HAGO and sent to storage.

Desired cutpoint of the net gas oil product can be controlled by draw rate of HVGO combined with
cutpoint and rate of LVGO product. Actual yields will vary according to the Flash Zone equivalent
Maxwell Bonnell temperature, which is a function of Vacuum column heater temperatures and vacuum
generation capabilities.

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ENERGY OPTIMIZATION FOR THE CDU/VDU

NOTE: Pinch Analysis is a well established technology and only an overview of the approach used
is discussed in this paper; no attempt is made to describe Pinch Technology, which is extensively
covered in open literature. Therefore, only a high level summary of the analysis results are
presented here.

This Process Design Basis for the Crude Distillation Unit (CDU), comprises the atmospheric and the
vacuum distillation sections, as well as a naphtha stabilizer along with the appropriate heaters, coolers,
and process-process heat exchanger network to enable energy-optimal operation. In brief, the unit
consists of:
1. Crude preheat upstream of the Desalter, to be 280-300F.
2. Electrostatic Desalting, to remove chlorides from the heater feed.
3. Crude preheat upstream of the Preflash Drum, to be about 450F and 50 psig.
4. Preflash Drum, to keep excessive vapor out of the heater feed streams.
5. Crude preheat downstream of the Preflash Drum, to reduce final heater duty. The minimum rule
of thumb for integrated crude-vacuum units is 1 square foot of surface area per BOPD feed,
which will provide above 510-520F depending upon tower operating temperatures.
6. Atmospheric fractionation, with product stripping to enhance separation.
7. Vacuum fractionation (damp), to remove as much useful feed as possible to the processes that
make the transportation fuels. Desired cutpoint (D-1160-95%) of the net gas oil product is
1030F.
8. Stabilization Column, for the naphtha produced from atmospheric fractionation making it suitable
for downstream operations that enhance its value as gasoline.

Figure 1 below presents a simplified CDU/VDU process flow diagram. While the crude feed Preheat
Exchanger Network (PEN) is simply represented as three heat exchanges in this figure, in reality it is a
complex network of over 100 shells in multiple services utilizing the rundown and reflux heat duty
requirements of the atmospheric and vacuum distillation columns.

Without the PEN, the fired duty required to heat the two column feeds would be over 2.5 Billion
BTU/HR, or nearly three times greater than is now required.

Thus, the CDU/VDU design requires a significant investment in optimal energy utilization to provide
operational reliability, while meeting all product specifications and fractionation requirements.

Table 1A below shows the hot and cold streams for the project crude feed case. The corresponding
composite and grand composite heating and cooling curves are shown in Figures 3A and 4A,
respectively. The composite curve represents the sum of the energy changes for a given temperature
range. The grand composite curve shows the variation of heat supply and demand within the process
and therefore, presents the external heating and cooling utility requirements after heat recovery has
taken place. The minimum heating and cooling duties are shown below Figure 3A.

The minimum approach temperature is selected as 70°F in this case. See Figure 2A and backup
material in Appendix A for temperature selection rationale.
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~5~
FIGURE 2A – 100% AH CASE OPTIMIUM NETWORK DTMIN VS. COST

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TABLE 1A – CDU/VDU AVAILABLE HOT SOURCES/COLD SINKS FOR

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Based on Figures 4A , the process pinch F (where the curve touches the temperature (Y) axis) is
shown to be at 490°F. The process pinch is determined by the process streams.

Table 2: Minimum Required Heating and Cooling Duties for Minimum

Approach Temperature (DTMIN) Of 70 F

Minimum Required Heating Process – Process Heat Exchange Minimum Required Cooling
Duty for DTMIN=70 F (MMBUT/hr) Duty for DTMIN=70 F
(MMBTU/hr) (MMBTU/hr)

465.01 1520.04 470.47

Note from Tables 1A that has an overall deficit of heat. However, from the Pinch Analysis shown
in Figures 3A, and Table 2, for a minimum approach temperature of 70°F, the minimum heating
duty is 465.01 MMBtu/hr.

Optimum Minimum Approach Temperature

The minimum approach temperature for the heat exchanger network design determines both the
operating cost and the capital costs for the exchangers, fired heaters, and air coolers. In general, a lower
minimum approach temperature results in larger process to process exchangers and, therefore, higher
capital costs for these exchangers. But also reduces the heating and cooling requirements and,
therefore, lowers the operating costs and lowers the capital costs for the fired heaters and air coolers.

It is clear that there is an economic trade-off between capital and operating costs and that, therefore,
there is an optimum minimum approach temperature for given capital and operating costs.

The optimum minimum approach temperature for the heat exchanger network design was determined
by estimating the minimum annualized total capital and operating costs for the design crude feed, using
the Process Integration software and by creating a spreadsheet tabulation for a range of minimum
approach temperature values as plotted in Figure 2A shown above. The minimum approach
temperature is selected as 70°F, based on approach described in this section and incorporating
engineering judgment.

Grid Diagram

The grid diagram of the final preheat exchanger network (PEN) for the design crude feed case is
shown in the Figure below. A simplified process sketch of the final preheat exchanger network is
shown in the preheat network hydraulics section.

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~9~
PREFLASH DRUM VS PREFRACTIONATOR STUDY

Introduction
In existing refineries where the Crude Column has reached its full capacity a preflash drum or pre-
fractionation tower are added to unload the atmospheric fractionator and heater and allow an increase in
throughput.

For Greenfield projects sometimes a prefractionation column is required to unload the atmospheric
column enough to stay within an allowable column diameter, limited due to constructability
considerations and/or transportation limitations.

For the original feed case was developed in which a Preflash Drum was used and the Crude Column ID
was approx. 36 ft, i.e., suitable for shop fabrication. This original design incorporating a preflash drum
was based on the assumption that the atmospheric column could be designed to 36 ft. diameter without
exceeding jet flooding limitations.

Initial simulation work using the base case design feed indicated that the Crude Column ID was approx.
37 to 38 ft ID, i.e., possibly too large for shop fabrication. Therefore, a study was initiated to do the
following:

1. Optimize the base case (Preflash Drum) to keep the Crude Column ID at 36 ft ID
2. Evaluate a Pre-tract Tower Case to develop the input (e.g., preliminary sizing of major
equipment) for a cost estimate comparison with the base case.

At the same time a concern was raised that the atmospheric column 720 ° F flash zone temperature and
corresponding 725° F heater outlet temperature would lead to coke formation in the crude heater and,
therefore, increase downtime due to the need for decoking activities. Therefore, reducing the flash zone
temperature was studied to keep the heater outlet temperature below 700° F.

The recommendation of this report is to use a Preflash Drum as this design maintains the product yields
for all cases while being simpler (less equipment) and safer to operate and maintain. Additionally, there is
less potential for coke buildup in the atmospheric column heaters and also the Preflash drum is able to
handle sudden water carryover with the crude feed.

The purpose of this report is to document the CDU/VDU plant design incorporating either ,a
prefractionation tower or, a preflash drum upstream of the atmospheric heater. Additionally, the designs
were evaluated for the operational flexibility to allow the crude column feed to exit the furnace at a
maximum of 700°F, the reported threshold for coking, thereby reducing maintenance downtime for heater
tube decoking. The target atmospheric column flash zone temperature to achieve this heater outlet
temperature was 680°F.

The crude assays and the boiling range of the different products as shown in Figures 1 and 2 were used to
estimate the target product yields given in Table 1. The original simulations incorporated a preflash drum
upstream of the atmospheric heater and a 720°F atmospheric column flash zone temperature.

~ 10 ~
 Table 1 : Target Product Yields for CDU/VDU Crude Feeds

Product Estimated TBP Product Specification Estimated Yield (BPD)

Range

Off-gas and LPG <100 oF 16,000

Naphtha o 68,000
100-380 F
o o
Kerosene 380 – 480 F ASTM D86 95% of 450 F 36,000
o o
Diesel (SRD+VDO) 480 – 720 F ASTM D86 95% of 680 F 90,000
Vacuum Residue o o 100,000
1030+ F ASTM D1160 95% of 1030 F

The other objective of this study is to provide preliminary equipment sizes for both the Preflash and Pre-
fractionator options to support a rough order-of-magnitude cost estimate.

Flash Zone Temperature Reduction

In order to reduce the atmospheric column flash zone temperature (FZT) from 720°F in the crude
distillation column and maintain the same product yields outlined in Table 1, the steam rate to the bottom
of the atmospheric column was increased.

The original methodology of the simulations was to be threefold. First, the steam rate to the atmospheric
bottoms was to be increased to maintain product yield, while reducing flash zone temperature. When no
more steam could be added without causing the water dew point to reach the approach temperature on the
top tray (30°F below top tray temperature), the next step would be to reduce the overhead pressure. If still
more reduction in FZT was needed, the Kerosene pumparound and product specification would have to be
modified to reduce furnace duty.

Besides maintaining the 30°F margin between top tray temperature and water dew point, there are other
design practices for the optimum and appropriate amount of stripping steam to the atmospheric column.
The typical design practice is 0.2 lb steam/gal of crude feed to the column (minus atmospheric residue).
Another design/operating practice is 200 lb/hr steam/1000 BPD of crude feed. Other design guides
recommend as a starting point steam rates of 4 wt-% of stripped residue in the main fractionator and 2 wt-
% of other products to the strippers. Sensible design should not stray too far from these guidelines.

Equipment Sizing
In addition to evaluating the flexibility to lower FZT, preliminary equipment sizes were evaluated for
both design cases.

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 56’-0”
(Mid)

13’-6” 50’-0”

13’-6” 50’-0”

56’-0”
(Mid)

~ 12 ~
IV.
Results

Table 2: Summary of Simulation Results

Product Yields Units Preflash case Prefractionator Case

Naphtha BPD 66,800 63,000

Kerosene BPD 32,500 35,800
Diesel (SRD + VDO) BPD 90,000 92,800
Total Distillate (Kero+Diesel) BPD 122,500 128,000
Total Gas Oil BPD 92,500 90,200
Vacuum Residue BPD 110,000 110,000

1. Preflash Cases
With a FZT of 680°F, equivalent product yields as compared to the 720°F FZT base cases were easily
achieved with stripping steam injection rates of about 0.2 lb steam/gal crude (or 350 lb/hr steam/MBPD),
corresponding to about 75°F difference between the top tray temperature and the water dew point. For
this case, the reduced crude temperature from the furnace is about 690°F. Additional duty to the flash
zone can be shifted to the flashed vapor from the Preflash Drum as this stream is not susceptible to
coking. Therefore, the furnace outlet temperature for the flashed vapor was higher, 720°F.

2. Prefractionation Cases
For the Prefractionation cases, the FZT was limited to 690°F, holding all else constant due to the heavier
feed to the flash zone and reduced lift from removing the naphtha from the feed. Considerably more
steam was required to obtain the equivalent product yields from the CDU as was for the Preflash cases. In
addition, the Naphtha yield could not be met with a reasonable amount of steam injection.

~ 13 ~
The steam injection rate corresponds to about 0.33 lb steam/gal crude, which still leaves a significant
cushion between the top tray temperature and water dew point (about 50-75°F). The Naphtha is slipping
to the kerosene and diesel cuts. It is likely that the additional naphtha will be removed in the DHT product
stabilizer and returned to the CDU naphtha stabilizer and ultimately recovered. However, sending non-
diesel material to the DHT, unnecessarily increases DHT capacity requirements, as shown in Table 2,
where the quantity of non-diesel material going to the DHT can be as much as 4 MBPD.

Due to the lowered FZT and thus reduced column reflux, the required column diameter for the Preflash
Drum design was able to be reduced to 36 feet even when considering the additional steam. However,
additional load on the Vacuum Column requires a larger diameter on the upper portion from 34 feet to 35
feet .

Due to the lowered FZT and thus reduced reflux along with reduced vapor traffic in the atmospheric
column, the atmospheric column diameter could be reduced to about 33 feet.

The most significant difference between the two designs is the decreased duty on the Naphtha Stabilizer
duties for the Prefractionation Column design case. The total overhead cooling duty for the crude
distillation columns for both cases is comparable. The Prefractionation Column design case does not need
as cold a reflux on the atmospheric column overhead and thus there is no need for cooling water and the
total cooling surface area is reduced.

Conclusions and Recommendation

For the Preflash Drum simulations, an operating point that reduces the crude outlet temperature from the
atmospheric heater to below 700°F exists. In order to achieve that corresponding FZT and maintain
product yields, additional steam must be added to the atmospheric column at about 0.2 lb steam/gal crude.
Operating at this FZT allows the maximum atmospheric column diameter to be reduced to 36 feet (to be
confirmed by the tray vendor). The operation is flexible but firing at a higher temperature (720°F)
requires operating at levels closer to flood.

For the Prefractionation Column simulations, an operating point that reduces the crude outlet temperature
from the atmospheric heater to below 700°F also exists. However, the design is not quite as flexible due
to the more complex operation and reduced lift from the flash zone.

The recommendation of this report is to use a Preflash Drum as this design maintains the product yields
for all cases while being simpler (less equipment) and safer to operate and maintain. Additionally, there is
less potential for coke buildup in the atmospheric column heaters and the Preflash drum is better at
handling sudden water carryover (and water slugs) with the crude feed.

PREHEAT TRAIN HYDRAULICS

As a part of the development of the CDU/VDU design development, two crude preheat train pumping
arrangements were studied:

Case 1: Crude Charge Pumps and Desalted Crude Pumps, pumping from Desalter in series pumping to
the Preflash Drum

Case 2: Higher head Crude Charge Pumps with the elimination of the Desalted Crude Pumps, pumping to
the Preflash Drum. This report summarizes the engineering basis for selecting Case 1 (dual stage
pumping system) versus Case 2 (single stage pumping system).
~ 14 ~
Summary

The following tables and schematics, summarize the operating pressure profile across all the equipment,
for both cases, as well as the pump deadhead pressures and flange rating limitations.

Case 1 will provide for an inherently safer design and will allow for the piping and equipment up to
utilize a Class 300 flange rating. The piping and equipment from desalter to atmospheric column will
require Class 600 flange rating. Additionally, the Crude Charge Pumps deadhead pressure will not exceed
the maximum allowable Desalter pressure.

Case 2 will require Class 600 flange rating for all piping and equipment from the Crude Charge Pumps to
the Atmospheric Tower, because of the high deadhead pressure associated with the higher head Crude
Charge Pumps that are required. Additionally, the Crude Charge Pumps deadhead pressure for Case 2 will
exceeds vendor maximum allowable Desalter pressure.

Table 1 – Pump Deadhead Pressures

Case 1 Case 2
Crude Charge Pumps Deadhead Pressure, psig 470 995
Desalter Pumps Deadhead Pressure, psig 665 N/A
Pre-Flash Drum Pumps Deadhead Pressure, psig 674 674

This report summarizes the engineering basis for selecting Case 1 (dual stage pumping system) versus
Case 2 (single stage pumping system).

Discussion

Two equipment vendors were consulted for information on Desalter design pressure. Both vendors
indicated that the pressure limiting component of the Desalter is the Entrance Bushing. At the desalter
operating temperature of 295oF, the maximum allowable Desalter pressure is 600 psig per vendor X, and
450 psig per vendor Y.

Preheat Train Flange Ratings

Case 1: The Crude Charge Pumps deadhead pressure is 470 psig, the Desalted Crude Pumps deadhead
pressure is 665 psig and the Preflash Drum Pumps deadhead pressure is 674 psig. The maximum
operating temperatures in the preheat train sections are 300, 450 and 688oF respectively.

Therefore, the preheat train section from pump to Desalter will need to have Class 300 flange rating, and
the sections from pump to atmospheric column will require Class 600 flange ratings.

~ 15 ~
Case 1 -Dual Stage Pumping

~ 16 ~
Case 2: The Crude Charge Pumps deadhead pressure is 995 psig and Preflash Drum Pumps deadhead
pressure is 674 psig. Per Table 2, the maximum operating temperatures in the preheat train sections are
also 300, 450 and 688oF respectively. Therefore, all of the piping and equipment from charge pump to
atmospheric column will require Class 600 flange rating.
Case 2 -Single Stage Pumping

~ 17 ~
Safety and Operability

From a safety standpoint it is more prudent to select Case 1. The two-stage pumping option provides a
lower operating pressure, resulting in an inherently safer design as the equipment and piping, upstream of
the Desalter will only require Class 300 flange ratings. Although Case 1 will have more operational
rotating equipment, a sparing philosophy for pumps was incorporated, resulting in the ability to mitigate
potential rotating equipment failures / trips.

The benefit associated with Case 2 is that fewer pieces of rotating equipment are needed with the
advantage of, potentially increased reliability and lower O&M costs. However, Case 2 will result in the
Crude Charge Pumps deadhead pressure (995 psig) exceeding the maximum allowable Desalter pressure
(600 psig).

In order to mitigate exceeding the maximum allowable Desalter pressure, relief valves sized for the full
charge rate (400,000 BPOD) will need to be incorporated, thereby increasing the complexity of the
design. Additionally, Class 600 flange rating piping and equipment will be required for the entire crude
preheat train.

Conclusion

Case 1 was implemented for the design of the CDU/VDU as it is inherently safer and provides a
simplified design. Additionally, the Crude Charge Pumps deadhead pressure (470 psig) will not exceed
the maximum allowable Desalter pressure available from vendors.

VACUUM TRANSFER LINE (VTL) HYDRAULICS

This report presents the results and discussions of the preliminary studies conducted for the VTL. The
scope of this study consists of two vacuum heaters, two transfer lines, and one vacuum column with two
tangential transfer line nozzles.

Hot atmospheric residue is pumped in parallel through two furnaces where it is heated before being fed to
the vacuum tower flash zone. The vacuum tower flash zone conditions are 750 oF and 25 mmHg
absolute. The transfer line calculations start from the heater outlet and terminate with a horizontal section
leading tangentially to the tower. The combined feed of reduced crude plus vacuum recycle starts
flashing in the heater and continues to do so in the VTL before entering the vacuum column flash zone.

The pressure drop in the VTL is dependent on the fluid velocity, physical properties and vaporization of
the oil, and the physical layout of the VTL. Due to the pressure drop in the VTL, phase changes are
continuous from the heater outlet and there is a temperature drop between the heater outlet and the flash
zone. The liquid and vapor phases in most of the possible flow regimes are non-uniformly mixed and
there is a poor vapor/liquid contact due to the low residence time.

The furnace coil outlet temperature was calculated as 778 oF with corresponding pressure of 6 psi
absolute. The furnace tubes were designed for a maximum of 85% of critical velocity. Given the flash
zone conditions, furnace outlet conditions, and the layout, a maximum pressure drop of 4.81 psi was
calculated for this study.

~ 18 ~
Vacuum Heater(s)
Transfer Line Layout

Vacuum column

Eight (8) 36 inch

connections

108 inch transfer lines

VDU heaters
eight (8)
passes each

Two cases were studied for the VTL each using a different set of line sizes. In each case, the pressure
drop was calculated and the temperature, pressure and velocity profile reviewed. Dukler friction and
holdup methods were used for all horizontal flows and the Beggs-Brill methods were used for all vertical
flows. For all cases, the transfer line header to the column was 108 inches in diameter.

The vacuum heater has 8 passes with outlet nozzle size of 10 inches. The VTL has 8 leads with the
following assumed sizes for each case:

Case A (Base Case)

 16” x 10” transition, 16”, 24” x 16’ transition, 24”, 36” x 24” transition, 36”, 48” x 36” transition,
48”, 60” x 48” transition, and 60” (to 108” header).
Case B
 16” x 10” transition, 16”, 24” x 16’ transition, 24”, 30” x 24” transition, 30”, 36” x 30” transition,
36”, 48” x 36” transition, and 48” (to 108” header).

~ 19 ~
 VTL Manifold & Transition
Plan View

VTL Plan View

. VTL Manifold & Transition

Elevation View A-A

Table 1 shows the pressure and velocity profiles for Case A. The flash zone pressure in the vacuum tower
is the anchor pressure at 0.5 psi absolute (25 mmHg) for both cases. Table 2 shows the pressure and
velocity profiles for Case B.
~ 20 ~
 TABLE 1 Case A Transfer Line Pressure and Velocity Profiles
Heater 16” X 10” 24” x 16” 36” x 24” 48” x 36” 60” x 48’’ 108’ x 60” 108” Flash
Outlet Nozzle Zone
Pressure (psia) 6.0 5.74 5.42 5.13 2.90 1.61 1.19 1.19 0.5
Velocity 77 77 44 19 16 27 32 79 79
(ft/sec)

TABLE 2 Case B Transfer Line Pressure and Velocity Profiles

Heater 16” X 10” 24” x 16” 30” x 24” 36” x 30” 48” x 36 108’ x 48” 108” Flash
Outlet Nozzle Zone
Pressure (psia) 6.0 5.74 5.42 5.14 3.03 1.78 1.35 1.34 0.5
Velocity 77 77 44 19 23 48 50 79 79
(ft/sec)

Results and Discussion

This study required the coordination of process design, piping design, vessel design, furnace design, and
stress analysis. The piping design group provided the layout including the lengths and elbows. Two
cases with similar layouts and assumed different sizes were considered for this study. The two-phase
pressure and velocity profiles at selected locations of the transfer line are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.
The stress analysis conducted for the Base Case (Case A) indicated that the piping sizes are adequate.
Stress analysis has not been conducted for Case B; however, the stress engineers indicated that reduced
sizes should be adequate from a piping stress standpoint.
For Case A, the calculated total pressure drop from the heater outlet to the flash zone pressure is
approximately 4.81 psi. The total static head pressure drop, which is governed by the two-phase flow
regime and elevation difference, is approximately 4.46 psi. The static head pressure drop is about 93% of
the total pressure drop. The horizontal run pressure drop is a small fraction of the total pressure drop.
The calculated velocities at the heater outlet and at the flash zone are approximately 77 ft/sec and 79
ft/sec, respectively. The critical velocity at the heater outlet is approximately 150 ft/sec. The critical
velocity at the 108” nozzle is approximately 250 ft/sec. The critical velocities are determined using the
two-phase mixture density. The velocities at the heater outlet and at the 108” nozzle are less than 80% of
the critical velocities.
The velocities at the heater outlet and at the 108” nozzle are also lower than the API erosion velocities of
90 ft/sec and 340 ft/sec. Low velocities are encountered in the vertical runs (risers) hence the possibility
of slug flow in these lines cannot be ruled out.
The VTL flow scheme is not isothermal. The temperature change between the heater outlet and the tower
inlet is about 27 oF. The temperature drop is a function of the pressure drop therefore significant
temperature drop occurs in the risers, where pressure drop is highest.

For Case B, the total pressure drop from the heater outlet to the flash zone pressure is approximately 4.66
psi. The total static head pressure drop is approximately 4.28 psi. The static head pressure drop is about
92% of the total pressure drop. The horizontal run pressure drop is a small fraction of the total pressure
drop. The total pressure drop for Case B is about 0.15 psi lower than Case A.
~ 21 ~
The velocities at the heater outlet and at the flash zone are approximately 77 ft/sec and 79 ft/sec,
respectively. The critical velocity at the heater outlet is approximately 150 ft/sec. The critical velocity at
the 108” nozzle is approximately 270 ft/sec. The velocities at the heater outlet and at the 108” nozzle are
less than 80% of the critical velocities.

The velocities at the heater outlet and at the 108” nozzle are also lower than the API erosion velocities of
90 ft/sec and 340 ft/sec. The velocity profile for this Case indicates slightly higher velocities than Case A
due to the reduced sizes, however, the possibility of slug flow in these lines still exist as with Case A.

The temperature change between the heater outlet and the tower inlet is about 24 oF, which is slightly
lower than Case A.

Conclusions and Recommendations

A maximum pressure drop of 4.81 psi between the heater outlet and the flash zone was calculated for this
study. Case A was chosen as the base case. The pressure drop between the heater outlet and the flash
zone for Case A was approximately 4.81 psi with a corresponding temperature drop of approximately 27
o
F. The pressure drop for Case B was approximately 4.66 psi with a corresponding temperature drop of
approximately 24 oF.

It can be concluded that the greater the pressure drop, the greater the temperature difference between the
furnace outlet and the column inlet. For both Cases, the pressure drop results in a temperature drop that is
close to the desired tower inlet temperature. Case B has a slightly lower pressure drop than Case A. The
relative contribution of static head to the total pressure drop for both cases is slightly greater than 90%.

The VTL pressure drop can be minimized and the design optimized. The advantage of lower VTL
pressure drop is that the flash zone temperature can be increased with minimal increase in the heater
outlet temperature. Higher heater temperatures can result in significant cracking of the feed to the
vacuum unit and coking of heater tubes.

The recommended maximum pressure drop for this service is approximately 3 psi with a corresponding
temperature drop not exceeding 25 oF. In order to stay within the recommended maximum pressure drop
of 3 psi, the VTL could be further reviewed including the heater layout, piping layout and the vacuum
column design.

It is also recommended that the lift be minimized as much as possible and the layout designed such that
the maximum lift is early in the VTL, as possible.

PLOT PLAN DEVELOPMENT

The proper spacing of process units is dictated by the available land space in the refinery land mass and
the distances that must be maintained between different types of process equipment, process equipment in
relation to buildings, flares, and off site equipment that constitute the infrastructure of the refinery.
Guidelines developed by the industry for this purpose are located in onsite and offsite charts located in
Plant Layout.

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 For process units, a central piperack is assumed parallel with the major dimension, with individual
equipment positioned along sub piperacks that are perpendicular to this central rack. Feedstocks,
processed products, utilities and effluents enter into and exit from the process plant via this plant central
rack, hence major offsite interconnecting pipeways (either elevated or on sleepers) must run past the
shorter plot dimension of each process unit. Additionally, burners, furnaces and incinerators are
positioned upwind of the process unit, preferably in the north and east edges of the process plants, where
possible.

Plot plan for the mega crude and vacuum unit is shown below with key pieces of equipment identified.

VDU heaters Crude Column CDU heaters Preheat train Preflash Drum

1150 ft

820 ft

Desalter Flare KO drums

Vacuum Column Vacuum Column

Transfer Lines
Naptha Stripper

Vacuum Resid Crude charge

pumps pumps

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TAKEAWAYS

Design of a mega crude and vacuum unit has several unique technical challenges and requires close
attention to design details in order to maximize economies of scale, energy efficiency, complexity of
hydraulics, and plot plan development considering constructability and transportation logistics of large
diameter equipment. In summary, critical design areas are:

 Large diameter columns – e.g., 56 ft diameter vacuum column, 36 ft crude column, etc.
 Vacuum transfer line hydraulics and layout – very large transfer lines(108 inches) ;
complexity of manifolding heater discharge lines and transition into the main transfer
line; hydraulics are critical to maintaining flash zone pressure and temperature, 25mmHg
and 750 oF max and meeting the recommended maximum pressure drop for this service is
approximately 3 psi with a corresponding temperature drop not exceeding 25 oF
 Multiple Column Heaters – dual heaters needed for each column limited by current
experience envelope
 Preheat train hydraulics - equipment design pressure limitations and optimization of
300# vs 600# flange ratings in the train vs eliminating equipment
 Parallel exchanger trains upstream of desalter - limited by exchanger shell size; and
improves plant availability and operational flexibility
 Minimum Approach Temperature - The optimum minimum approach temperature of 70
o
F for the heat exchanger network design is determined by estimating the minimum
annualized total CAPEX and OPEX for the design crude feed
 Preflash Drum vs Prefractionator evaluation - trade-off yields vs additional equipment
needed for prefractionator; impacts crude column diameter to stay within shop fabrication
and transportation envelope and maintaining heater outlet temperature below max 700oF
and thus reducing flash zone temperature of crude column
 Plot Plan considerations – constructability and transportation logistics considerations of
large equipment, complexity and space requirements for the piping manifolding around
the vacuum column transfer lines, parallel preheat trains, multiple heaters, etc.

REFERENCES

1. Crude Vacuum Distillation, Habibullah, A, et al, Institute of Chemical Engineers Conference,

Maastricht, Netherlands.
2. Revamping Crude Units to Increase Capacity, Habibullah A, et al, Petroleum Technology
Quaterly.

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