Lec-6 Respiratory System

Pulmonary/Respiration
System
ECL 408/BIOMEDICAL ENGG
Respiration system
• Respiration is an act of breathing.
• It is exchange of air/gases in biological

process and the respiratory system in the
human body is a pneumatic system in
which an air pump (diaphragm)
alternately creates negative and positive
pressures in a sealed chamber (thoracic
cavity) and causes air to be sucked into
and forced out of a pair of elastic bags
(lungs).
• The lungs are connected to the

surrounding air medium through nasal
cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi
and bronchioles.
• The tubing between the lungs and nasal

cavities has a common path way for
carrying the air to the lungs and food to
the stomach.
• A special valve blocks the airway whenever

food passes through the common region.
Respiration system
• The respiratory system supplies the oxygen and disposes of carbon
dioxide.
• There are four processes involved with respiration.
– Pulmonary ventilation is the air being moved in and out of the

lungs.
– External respiration is the gas exchange in the alveoli.
– Transport of respiratory gases/air occurs via the cardiovascular

system.
– Internal respiration is the gas exchange that occurs at the capillaries

and intercellular tissues.
Respiration system
Inhaling (Inspiration)
is a process of flowing of air into the lungs. In this process, the

muscle will contract so that the ribs will lift and pull outwards
to increase the volume. The increase in the lungs volume will
allow more air to rush into the lungs.
• The inspired air contains 21% oxygen and may not contain
carbon dioxide.
Exhaling (Expiration)
is a process of flowing of air out of lungs. In this process,

muscle will relax and decreases the lung volume. The decrease
in the lung volume will exhaust the air out of lungs.
• The carbon dioxide content in the expired air is about 5%.
Respiration system
The parameters of the respiration are rhythm, rate and depth.
The rhythm of a patient's respirations is usually regular, but certain

conditions and illnesses can make it irregular.
Normal respiration rates for an adult person at rest range from 12 to 16

breaths per minute.
These parameters are controlled by the brain stem because of this, the
respiration parameters are adjusted depending upon the following situations.
1. Whenever the concentration of the carbon dioxide in the blood increases

which increase the depth and the rate of respiration.
2. Whenever lung tissue air pressure deviates from normal value.
3. Whenever increase the Blood pressure, slow down the respiration.
4. Decrease in blood pressure, which increases respiration rate and depth
5. Drop in blood pH, speeds up respiratory.
Anatomy of Respiration system
Two tracts
 Upper respiratory tract that includes nose
(nasal cavity, sinuses), mouth, larynx (voice
box) and trachea (windpipe)
 Lower respiratory tract that includes the
lungs, bronchi and alveoli
The lungs (two) are cone-shaped organs that lie

in the thoracic cavity.
 The right lung is larger than the left lung
and is divided into superior, middle, and
inferior lobes.
 The left lung has two lobes, the superior and
the inferior.
 Each lung contains thousands of alveoli
with their capillaries.
Pharynx
• The pharynx, or throat, serves both the respiratory and digestive
systems and aids in speech.
• The pharynx connects with the mouth and nasal chambers
posteriorly.
Epiglottis
• The epiglottis is a lid like, cartilaginous structure that covers the
entrance to the larynx and separates it from the pharynx.
• It acts as a trap door to deflect food particles and liquids from the
entrance to the larynx and trachea.
Larynx
• The larynx, or voice box, is a triangular cartilaginous structure located
between the tongue and the trachea.
• The larynx is responsible for the production of vocal sound (voice).
This sound production is accomplished by the passing of air over the
vocal cords.
Trachea
• The trachea, or windpipe, begins at the lower end of the larynx and
terminates by dividing into the right and left bronchi.
Bronchi
• The bronchi are the terminal branches of the trachea, which carry air
to each lung and further divide into the bronchioles.
Bronchioles
• The bronchioles are much smaller than the bronchi and lack
supporting rings of cartilage. They terminate at the alveoli.
Alveoli
• The alveoli are thin, microscopic air sacs within the lungs.
• They are in direct contact with the pulmonary capillaries.
• It is here that fresh oxygen exchanges with carbon dioxide by means
of a diffusion process through the alveolar and capillary cell walls
The organs of the respiratory system are divided into the conducting zone
and respiratory zone.
The conductive zone carries, filters, humidifies and warms incoming

air.
The respiratory zone is the site where the actual gas exchange occurs.
Air Distribution
• On inspiration, fresh air enters into lungs through upper respiratory
tract called nose and mouth. The dust particle and bacteria in air are
filtered by nasal hairs and mucus.
• In addition to this filtering effect, the air is humidified and

heated/warmed to body temperature, when inspired through nose.
• Filtering, warming and moisturizing will not happen when air is

inspired through the mouth.
• It is mixed with the gases already present in the region comprising in

the trachea and bronchi.
• The air flows through trachea branched into right and left bronchi.
The main bronchi is divided into smaller bronchi then into
bronchioles
• At the end of bronchioles, the gas is further mixed with the gases
residing in alveoli as it enters these small region a sacs in the wall of
the lungs.
Air Distribution
• At the throat two opening exist, one is esophagus for passage the
food and other is the larynx for passage the air.
When flood is swallowed, the opening of the larynx closes to prevent

from food entering the lungs.
When air is inspired, the opening of the larynx closes to prevent from
air entering the stomach.
• During inspiration, the chest cavity enlarges and a vacuum is
created in each alveoli. Hence oxygen rich air is entered into the
alveoli. Alveoli are also covered by tiny blood vessels and
capillaries.
• Oxygen diffuse from the alveoli to pulmonary capillaries for blood

supply, whereas carbon dioxide diffuse from the blood to alveoli.
• The oxygen is carried from the lungs and distributed among the
various cells of the body by the blood circulation system which also
return carbon dioxide to the lungs .
Air Distribution
The entire process of inspiring and expiring air,
exchange of gases,
distribution of oxygen to the various cell,
collection of carbon dioxide from the cell
known as PULMONARY FUNCTIONS
The oxygen carrying capacity of the blood depends on the

following factors:
– The difference in oxygen concentration of the blood in the

capillaries of the lungs and air in the alveoli.
– The efficient and healthy functioning of the alveoli.
– The rhythm, rate and depth of respiration.

Air Distribution
The test/measurement for assessing the various components of the
process is called pulmonary function test.
 First includes tests designed to measure the mechanics of breathing

and the physical characteristic of the lungs.
 Second category is involved with diffusion of gases in lungs,

distribution of oxygen and collection of carbon dioxide.
Pulmonary functions
• Three basic types of measurements are made in the

pulmonary clinic:
– ventilation,
– distribution and
– diffusion
Pulmonary functions
Ventilation
• deals with the measurement of the body as an air pump, determining its ability to
displace/move air volume and the speed/rate at which it moves the air.
• Usually this requires the patient to take a deep breath and then exhale as rapidly
and completely as possible. Called the Forced Vital Capacity, this gives an
indication of how much air can be moved by the lungs and how freely this air
flows.
• The most widely performed measurement is ventilation. This is performed using
devices called spirometers that measure volume displacement and the amount of
gas moved in a specific time.
Distribution
• it is the degree of lungs obstructions for the flow of the air and residual volume of
the lungs that can not be removed and provides an indication of where gas flows in
the lungs and whether or not disease has closed some sections to air flow.
Diffusion
• test the lung’s ability to exchange gas with the circulatory system.
• It measurements identify the rate at which gas is exchanged with the blood stream.
Respiratory/Lungs Volumes
The amount of the air that can hold by the lungs and can be divided into smaller
amounts called volumes.
 Tidal Volume (TV)
 Minute Volume (MV):
 Alveolar Ventilation (AV)
Alveolar Ventilation = (Breathing rate) × (Tidal volume – Dead space)
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
 Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
 Residual Volume (RV)
Respiratory/Lungs Volumes
The amount of the air that can hold by the lungs and can be divided into smaller
amounts called volumes.
Tidal Volume (TV): The amount of the air exchanged with each breath or a person
breathes in or out at rest is called tidal volume. (Normally 500 ml).
Minute Volume (MV): The volume of gas (air) exchanged per minute during quiet
breathing (rest). It is equal to the tidal volume multiplied by the breathing rate.
Alveolar Ventilation (AV): The volume of fresh air entering the alveoli with each
breath.
Alveolar Ventilation = (Breathing rate) × (Tidal volume – Dead space)
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): The additional amount of air inhaled by the person
under maximum physical activity (typically 3000 ml)
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): The additional amount of air a person could exhale
is called the expiratory reserve volume (approx 1000ml)
Residual Volume (RV): The amount of the air that stays in the lungs even after
maximum expiration is called residual volume
Respiratory/Lungs Capacities
Combinations of two or more volumes are called capacities.
 Total Lung Capacity (TLC): TLC=RV+ERV+TV+IRV
 Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): FRC=RV+ERV
 Vital Capacity (VC): VC=ERV+TV+IRV
 Inspiratory Capacity (IC): IC=TV+IRV
 Dead Space:
Respiratory Capacities
Total Lung Capacity (TLC): The amount of gas in the lungs at the end of maximal
inspiration. It is the total amount of the air, the lungs can contain
TLC=RV+ERV+IRV+TV
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): The volume of gas remaining in the lungs after
normal expiration. It is the total amount of the air left in the lungs at the end of a
normal exhalation
FRC=RV+ERV
Vital Capacity (VC): The maximum volume of gas that can be expelled from the lungs by
forceful efforts after maximal inspiration, irrespective of time.
VC=ERV+TV+IRV
Inspiratory Capacity (IC): The maximum volume that can be inspired after reaching the
end expiratory position.
IC=TV+IRV
Dead Space: is functional volume of the lung that does not participate in gas exchange.
• It means that most of air is required to fill the alveoli, but a certain amount of air is
required to fill the various cavities of air passages. The amount to air is called dead
space air and space it occupies is called DEAD SPACE
Speech Production Model
Anatomy Structure Mechanical Model
Speech Signal
• Speech produced by transmitting puffs of air from the
lungs through the vocal tract as well as the nasal tract.
• Vocal tract: starts at the vocal cords or glottis in the

throat and ends at the lips and the nostrils.
• Shape of vocal tract varied to produce different types of

sound units or phonemes which form speech.
• The vocal tract acts as a filter
• The system is dynamic: the filter and the speech signal

have time varying.
Human Speech Production
A key concept of speech production is phonemes a limited

set of individual sounds. There are two categories of
phonemes that are considered in LPC:
voiced sounds : Voiced sounds, e.g., ‘a’, ‘b’, are essentially

due to vibrations of the vocal cords, and are oscillatory.
Unvoiced sound: Unvoiced sounds such as ‘s’, ‘sh’, are more
noise-like
Human Speech Production of Voiced sounds
• Voiced sounds involve participation of the glottis.
• They are generated by the air form the lunges being

forced over the vocal cords at a certain tension.
• As a results vocal cords vibrate in somewhat a periodic

pattern that produce a series of air pulses or glottal
pulses.
• The rate at which vocal cord vibrate is what determines

the pitch of the sound produced.
• These air pulses finally pass through the vocal tract

(filtering operation) where some frequencies resonate.
Human Speech Production of Voiced sounds
• The input to the vocal tract may be treated as an
impulse train that is almost periodic.
• Features of interest in voiced signals are the pitch and

resonance or formant frequencies of the vocal tract
system.
Human Speech Production of UnVoiced sounds
• Unvoiced sound are usually consonants.
• They are produced when the air is forced through the vocal
tract in a turbulent flow.
• An unvoiced sound (fricative) is produced by forcing a steady

stream of air through a narrow opening or constriction
formed at a specific position along the vocal tract: turbulent
signal that appears like random noise.
• During the process, vocal cords do not vibrate, instead they

stay open until the sound is produced.
• Pitch is not a important attribute for the unvoiced speech.
Voiced and Unvoiced Speech
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Silence
unvoiced
voiced
Short-time Parameters
0.4
0.3
0.2
Short time
0.1
Power
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0.4
0.3
0.2 Waveform
0.1
Envelop
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0.5
0.4
Pitch
0.3
period
0.2
0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Speech Coding
• A speech signal is usually processed and coded in

order to reduce the amount of data needed to
represent it for transmission or storage. This
technique is referred to as speech coding, and it
obviously results in speech compression.
• Speech coding involves sampling, processing, and

quantization.
Speech Coding
• Bandwidth of speech is under 4 kHz
• Speech signals are typically sampled at 8 kHz
• In the simplest form of speech coding, the sampled

speech signal is quantized to 8 bits per sample
using a Pulse Code Modulator (PCM).
• The resulting data rate is 64 kb/sec.
• The device that performs speech coding is called a

vocoders
Human Speech Production: Key influences on
Articulaton
• Shape: As a person speaks, the vocal tract is constantly
changing shape at a very slow rate to produce different
sounds which flow together to create words.
• Amount of Air: The higher the volume of air that flows from
the lungs and through the vocal tract, the louder the sound.
• Glottal Pulse and Vocal Cord Vibrations: If the vocal cords

vibrate and the rate that the vocal cords vibrate affect speech
production.
Characteristics of Digital Speech
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2 Waveform
0
-0.2
Speech -0.4
-0.6
-0.8
10 0.5 1 1.5 2
4
x 10
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Spectrogram
Frequency
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 2000 ECL 408/BIOMEDICAL ENGG
4000 6000 8000 10000
Time
Speech Coding
• Similar to images, we can also compress speech to

make it smaller and easier to store and transmit.
• General compression methods such as DPCM can also

be used.
• More compression can be achieved by taking advantage

of the speech production model.
• There are two classes of speech coders:

– Waveform coder
– Vocoder
Coders
• Waveform coder,
• Transform coder
• Subband coder
• Linear Predictive Coder (LPC)
• Linear Prediction Analysis-by-Synthesis (LPAS)
Dr. Deep Gupta, ECED, Thapar University
Performance Measures
In terms of
1. Bit rate – lower bit rate, the better vocoder
2. Quality – can be subjective or objective
3. Complexity – For complex mixed signals or

hardware, software, size, and power requirements
of the vocoder, or number of multiplications and
number of additions per sample
4. Delay
• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
• Absolute category rating (ACR)
A technique in which human subjects listen to
pairs of sentences, and they rate the quality on
a scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best).
The mean of the ratings is used as a score for
the vocoder, this score is called the Mean
Opinion Score (MOS).
• Diagnostic Rhyme Test (DRT)

– Under this test, we have to identify one of two
possible words in a set of rhyming pairs, such as
pot-hot and pick-kick.
Quality Assessment

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Pulmonary/Respiration

• It is exchange of air/gases in biological

• The lungs are connected to the

• The tubing between the lungs and nasal

• A special valve blocks the airway whenever

• There are four processes involved with respiration.

– Pulmonary ventilation is the air being moved in and out of the

– External respiration is the gas exchange in the alveoli.

– Transport of respiratory gases/air occurs via the cardiovascular

– Internal respiration is the gas exchange that occurs at the capillaries

is a process of flowing of air into the lungs. In this process, the

is a process of flowing of air out of lungs. In this process,

• The carbon dioxide content in the expired air is about 5%.

The rhythm of a patient's respirations is usually regular, but certain

Normal respiration rates for an adult person at rest range from 12 to 16

1. Whenever the concentration of the carbon dioxide in the blood increases

2. Whenever lung tissue air pressure deviates from normal value.

3. Whenever increase the Blood pressure, slow down the respiration.

4. Decrease in blood pressure, which increases respiration rate and depth

5. Drop in blood pH, speeds up respiratory.

The lungs (two) are cone-shaped organs that lie

The conductive zone carries, filters, humidifies and warms incoming

• In addition to this filtering effect, the air is humidified and

• Filtering, warming and moisturizing will not happen when air is

• It is mixed with the gases already present in the region comprising in

When flood is swallowed, the opening of the larynx closes to prevent

• Oxygen diffuse from the alveoli to pulmonary capillaries for blood

distribution of oxygen to the various cell,

collection of carbon dioxide from the cell

known as PULMONARY FUNCTIONS

The oxygen carrying capacity of the blood depends on the

– The difference in oxygen concentration of the blood in the

– The efficient and healthy functioning of the alveoli.

– The rhythm, rate and depth of respiration.

 First includes tests designed to measure the mechanics of breathing

 Second category is involved with diffusion of gases in lungs,

• Three basic types of measurements are made in the

 Tidal Volume (TV)

 Minute Volume (MV):

 Alveolar Ventilation (AV)

Alveolar Ventilation = (Breathing rate) × (Tidal volume – Dead space)

 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

 Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

 Residual Volume (RV)

Alveolar Ventilation = (Breathing rate) × (Tidal volume – Dead space)

 Total Lung Capacity (TLC): TLC=RV+ERV+TV+IRV

 Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): FRC=RV+ERV

 Vital Capacity (VC): VC=ERV+TV+IRV

 Inspiratory Capacity (IC): IC=TV+IRV

• Vocal tract: starts at the vocal cords or glottis in the

• Shape of vocal tract varied to produce different types of

• The vocal tract acts as a filter

• The system is dynamic: the filter and the speech signal

A key concept of speech production is phonemes a limited

voiced sounds : Voiced sounds, e.g., ‘a’, ‘b’, are essentially

• They are generated by the air form the lunges being

• As a results vocal cords vibrate in somewhat a periodic

• The rate at which vocal cord vibrate is what determines

• These air pulses finally pass through the vocal tract

• Features of interest in voiced signals are the pitch and

• Unvoiced sound are usually consonants.

• An unvoiced sound (fricative) is produced by forcing a steady

• During the process, vocal cords do not vibrate, instead they

• Pitch is not a important attribute for the unvoiced speech.