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CHAPTER - 3
8 The vertebral column has 33 individual vertebrae 8 The humerus is joined to the pectoral girdle at a
separated from each other by a cartilage disk. joint and is held in place by muscles and
These disks allow a certain flexibility to the spinal ligaments. A dislocated shoulder occurs when the
column, although the disks deteriorate with age, end of the humerus slips out of the socket of the
producing back pain. The sternum is connected scapula, stretching ligaments and muscles. The
to all the ribs except the lower pair. Cartilage pelvic girdle consists of two hipbones that form
allows for the flexibility of the rib cage during a hollow cavity, the pelvis.
breathing. 8 The vertebral column attaches to the top of the
8 The arms and legs are part of the appendicular pelvis; the femur of each leg attaches to the
skeleton. bottom. The pelvic girdle in land animals transfers
8 The upper bones of the limbs are single: humerus the weight of the body to the legs and feet. Pelvic
(arm) and femur (leg). girdles in fish, which have their weight supported
8 Below a joint (elbow or knee), both limbs have a by water, are primitive; land animals have more
pair of bones (radius and ulna in the arms; tibia developed pelvic girdles.
and fibula in legs) that connect to another joint 8 Pelvic girdles in bipeds are recognizable different
(wrist or ankle). from those or quadrupeds.
8 The carpals makeup the wrist joint; the tarsals
are in the ankle joint. BONE
GROWTH OF BONE the two cartilage caps on the bones from rubbing together.
Some joints also have tendons (connective tissue linking
Endochondral ossification is the process of converting muscles to bones). Bursae are small sacs filled with synovial
the cartilage in embryonic skeletons into bone. Cartilage is fluid that reduce friction in the joint. The knee joint contains
deposited early in development into shapes resembling the 13 bursae.
bones-to-be. Cells inside this cartilage grow and begin
depositing minerals. SKELETAL DISORDERS
8 The spongy bone forms, and osteoblasts attach
8 Injury, degenerative wear and tear, and
and lay down the mineral portions of spongy bone.
inflammatory disorders affect joints. Sprains are
Osteoclasts remove material from the center of
common injuries that cause ligaments to rip of
the bone, forming the central cavity of the long
separate from the bone. Tendinitis (such as tennis
bones. The perichondrium, a connective tissue,
elbow) and bursitis are inflammations of the
forms around the cartilage and begins forming
tendon sheaths.
compact bone while the above changes are
8 Osteoarthritis is a degenerative condition
occurring. Blood vessels form and grow into the
associated with the wearing away of the
perichondrium, transporting stem cells into the
protective caps of cartilage covering the bone-
interior.
ends. Bony growths or spurs develop as the
8 Two bands of cartilage remain as the bone
cartilage degenerates, causing restriction of
develops, one at each end of the bone.
movement and pain. The cause is not known and
8 During childhood, this cartilage allows for growth
may just be wear-and-tear associated with aging.
and changes in the shape of bones. Eventually
8 Rheumatoid arthritis is a severely damaging
the elongation of the bones stops and the cartilage
arthritis that begins with inflammation and
is all converted into bone.
thickening of the synovial membrane followed by
8 Bones continue to change as adults, to adapt to
bone degeneration and disfigurement. More
the stresses generated by physical activity.
women than men are affected. There may be a
Exercise can increase the diameter and strength
genetic predisposition to rheumatoid arthritis.
of bone; inactivity can decrease them. Age is a
Joint replacement may in some cases restore
factor: osteoporosis is a disease that primarily
function.
affects older, postmenopausal women. Increasing
calcium intake, reducing protein intake, exercise
SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE
and low doses of estrogen are effective treatments
for osteoporosis. 8 Muscle fibers are multinucleated, with the nuclei
located just under the plasma membrane. Most
TYPES OF JOINTS of the cell is occupied by striated, thread-like
myofibrils. Within each myofibril there are dense
There are three types of joints: immovable, partly
movable, and synovial. Z lines. A sarcomere (or muscle functional unit)
8 Immovable joints, like those connecting the extends from Z line to Z line. Each sarcomere
cranial bones, have edges that tightly interlock. has thick and thin filaments. The thick filaments
8 Partly movable joints allow some degree of are made of myosin and occupy the center of
flexibility and usually have cartilage between the each sarcomere. Thin filaments are made of
bones; example: vertebrae. action and anchor to the Z line.
8 Synovial joints permit the greatest degree of 8 Muscles contract by shortening each sarcomere.
flexibility and have the ends of bones covered The sliding filament model of muscle contraction
with a connective tissue filled with synovial fluid; has thin filaments on each side of the sarcomere
example: hip. sliding past each other until they meet in the
The outer surface of the synovial joints contains middle. Myosin filaments have club-shaped heads
ligaments that strengthen joints and hold bones in position. that project toward the actin filaments.
The inner surface (the synovial membrane) has cells 8 Myosin heads attach to binding sites on the actin
producing synovial fluid that lubricates the joint and prevents filaments. The myosin heads swivel toward the
center of the sarcomere, detach and then reattach
to the nearest active site of the actin filament. There is an electrical gradient across the muscle cell
Each cycle of attachment, swiveling, and membrane: the outside is more positive than the inside.
detachment shortens the sarcomere 1%. Stimulus causes an instantaneous reversal of this polarity,
Hundreds of such cycles occur each second causing the muscle to contract (the mechanical
during muscle contraction. characteristic) producing a twitch or movement.
8 Energy for this comes from ATP, the energy coin
of the cell. ATP binds to the cross bridges between CONTROL OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
myosin heads and actin filaments. The release of
8 Neuromuscular junctions are the point where a
energy powers the swiveling of the myosin head.
motor neuron attaches to a muscle. Acetylcholine
Muscles store little ATP and so must recycle the
is released from the axon end of the nerve cell
ADP into ATP rapidly. Creatine phosphate is a
when a nerve impulse reaches the junction. A
muscle storage product involved in the rapid
wave of electrical changes are produced in the
regeneration of ADP into ATP.
muscle cell when the acetylcholine binds to
8 Calcium ions are required for each cycle of
receptors on its surface. Calcium is released from
myosin-actin interaction. Calcium is released into
its storage area in the cell’s endoplasmic reticulum.
the sarcomere when a muscle is stimulated to
An impulse from a nerve cell causes calcium
contract. This calcium uncovers the actin binding
release and brings about a single, short muscle
sites. When the muscle no longer needs to
contraction called a twitch.
contract, the calcium ions are pumped from the
8 Skeletal muscles are organized into hundreds of
sarcomere and back into storage.
motor units, each of which is a motor neuron
and a group of muscle fibers. A graded response
SKELETAL MUSCLE SYSTEMS
to a circumstance will involve controlling the
Vertebrates move by the actions of muscles on bones. number of motor units. While individual muscle
Tendons attach many skeletal muscles across joints, allowing units contract as a unit, the entire muscle can
muscle contraction to move the bones across the joint. contract on a graded basis due to their organization
Muscles generally work in pairs to produce movement: into motor units.
when one muscle flexes (or contracts) the other relaxes, a
process known as antagonism. CONTRACTION OF NONMUSCULAR CELLS
Skeleton Muscles
8 Actin and myosin, whose interaction causes
(FRONT) muscle contraction, occur in many other cells.
(FRONT) (BACK)
Skull
Actin is attached to the inner surface of the plasma
Sterno-mastoid
Trapezius
membrane. The interaction of cytoplasmic myosin
Clavicle
and this actin causes contraction of the cell, such
Sternum Deltoid
Pectoralis a the coordinated contractions of intestinal cells
Humerus Major
Ticeps to absorb nutrients.
Biceps
Spine Latissimus 8 Some fish have modified muscles that discharge
Dorsi
Radius electricity. These fish have electric organs
Ulna External
Pelvis oblique consisting of modified muscles known as
Sacrum Gluteus electroplates. The South American electric eel has
Maximus
more than 6000 plates arranged into 70 columns.
MUSCLES AND JOINTS (2) Myosin filaments are thick, and make up the
dark bands.
The fundamental property of muscle tissue is 8 The scanning of electrical activity of the heart is
contraction. called ‘electro-cardiogram (ECG), the scanning
8 Muscle are categorised into three varieties— a electrical activity of muscle is called an
(1) Cardiac edectsomyogram. ECG).
(2) Smooth 8 ECG is useful for diagnosing and tracing the
(3) Skeletal progress of several disorder of muscles.
Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart. Smooth
muscle in the muscle of internal organs such an stomach, HEARING AND NOISE
intestines, urinary bladder blood vessels or uterus.
Skeletal muscle are also known as voluntary muscles The sound waves are funded into the ear by the cup
as they are under the control of will power. like external ear. The waves strike the ear drum and throw
Tendons are whitish cond-like structures ‘which are it into vibration. The vibration of the ear drum are
attached to bones. communicated to a system of three minute bones.
8 A skeletal muscle always crosses a joint between The bones act like an efficient lever. The last of the
two bones bones fits like a piston into the inner ear. The inner ear is
Skeletal muscles are also called ‘striated muscles’. snail shaped and is a long coiled tube. The major potion called
8 The two types of filaments in a skeletal muscles the basilar membrane have small hair like outgrowths.
Vibration of hair cells make the hair rub against a shelf in
are made up of the proteins, actin and myosin.
the inner ear-the tectorial membrane. Rubbing of the hair
(1) Actins filaments are thin, and make up the high
result in transmission of a message to the brain which make
bands
us aware of the sound.