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11/17/2017

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Integument

 Epidermis composed of stratified squamous


epithelium
 Basal layer of cells that undergo frequent mitosis

Support, Protection, and  Renew cell layers lying above


 Cornified, or dead transformed cells, are shed

Movement

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Integument Integument

 Animal Coloration
 Structural colors  Melanins
 Produced by the physical structure of the surface tissues  Black or brown polymers responsible for earth-colored
shades
 Pigments
 Carotenoid pigments
 Molecules that reflect specific light rays
 Impart yellow and red colors
 Crustaceans and ectothermic vertebrates
 Often contained inside xanthophores
 Pigments are in large cells with branching processes
called chromatophores  Ommochromes and pteridines
 Pigments may concentrate in center of cell or be  Responsible for yellow pigments of molluscs and
dispersed throughout cell arthropods
 Green coloration
 Usually produced by yellow pigment overlying blue
structural color

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Histology of the Skin Histology of the Skin

× Two major layers: the outer epidermis and the × chromatophores


inner dermis. junction of epidermis and dermis are
specialized connective tissue which contains pigments
× epidermis is a stratified epithelium consisting of black pigment containing cells called melanophores
two sublayers:
× which are in large part responsible for the
× stratum corneum color of the skin
outermost stratified layer
flattened, dead cells
constantly removed when the toad sheds its skin
× stratum germinativum
consisting of living and growing layer of stratified epithelial tissue
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Animal Body Plans

 Animal Symmetry
 Symmetry
Architectural Pattern  Correspondence of size and shape of parts on
opposite sides of a median plane
of an Animal

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Animal Body Plans Animal Body Plans

 Radial symmetry
 Body divided into similar halves by more than 2 planes  Bilateral Symmetry
passing through longitudinal axis  Organism can be divided along a sagittal plane into
 Usually sessile, freely floating, or weakly swimming animals two mirror portions
 No anterior or posterior end  Right and left halves
 Can interact with environment in all directions  Much better fitted for directional (forward) movement
 Associated with cephalization
 Differentiation of a head region with concentration of nervous
tissue and sense organs
 Advantageous to an animal moving through its
environment head first
 Always accompanied by differentiation along an
anteroposterior axis.

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Animal Body Plans

 Regions of bilaterally symmetrical animals


 Anterior
 Head end
 Posterior
 Tail end
 Dorsal
 Back or upper side
 Ventral
 Front or belly side
 Medial
 Midline of body
 Lateral
 Sides
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External Anatomy of the Toad External Anatomy of the Toad

× anterior – head end  three planes


× posterior – tail end; (a) frontal – into dorsal and ventral sections;
× dorsal – back side; (b) sagittal (longitudinal) into right and left sections;
(c) transverse (cross) –into anterior and posterior sections.
× ventral – belly side

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External Anatomy of the Toad External Anatomy of the Toad

 With reference to location relative to the center AXIAL REGION = head + trunk
of the body × snout - most anterior portion of the head
× external nares - pair of openings at the tip of the snout
(a) medial – near the middle; × bulging eyes - upper and lower eyelids
(b) lateral – to the sides; × nictitating membrane – transparent structure, keeps the eyes
moist when underwater
(c) proximal – part of a structure that is
× tympanic membrane (eardrum)- covering auditory canal
nearer the origin; × paratoid gland / poison gland -large swelling at each side
(d) distal – part farther from the origin. of the head
× cloacal aperture – most posterior part of the trunk, on the
dorsal side
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External Anatomy of the Toad External Anatomy of the Toad

MALE FEMALE
APPENDICULAR REGION = forelimbs + hindlimbs
FORELIMBS (anterior) - short The skin on the ventral side of the head The pigments are diffused; hence, there
× upper arm, forearm, wrist/carpus, near the angles of the jaw has a is no distinct dark pigmentation at
× hand/manus – four digits, rudimentary thumb (prepollux)
distinct dark pigmentation due to this area.
concentration of pigments.
HINDLIMBS (posterior) - long The thumb pads of inner fingers are The thumb pads of the inner fingers are
× thigh, shank, ankle/tarsus, enlarged or "swollen". These are not "swollen".
× foot/pes – five digits, sixth rudimentary toe (prehallux) used during amplexus or false
copulation.
× Note the webbed toes
Sexually mature male frogs are Sexually mature female frogs are
generally smaller than female. relatively bigger than males.

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 TASK 1:
Observe live frog/toad and label the different
external structures. Both axial and appendicular
regions. Use colored pins and tape for labeling.

 TASK 2:
Determine the sex of the toad based on the
following tabulated distinguishing external
characteristics.

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Skeletal Systems Skeletal Systems

Several functions:  Rigid Skeletons


 Provide rigid elements to which muscles can
1) serves as support or framework for the softer attach
 Exoskeleton
parts of the body
consists of the hardened bony or horny structures that develop in the
(2) provides a firm surface for the attachment of skin and provides external protection to the animal.
muscles used in movement and locomotion  often must be molted to allow growth
 In molluscs, the shell grows with the animal
(3) supplies calcium to the blood
 Endoskeleton
(4) important site in the formation of blood cells.
 Found in echinoderms and vertebrates
 Vertebrate endoskeleton is composed of bone and
cartilage
 Functions include protection, support, reservoir for calcium and
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phosphorus, and blood cell production

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Skeletal Systems

 Bone
 Living tissue with significant deposits of calcium
salts in an extracellular matrix
 A few bones are formed within connective tissue
membranes
 Intramembranous bone formation
 Ex: bones of face and cranium
 Two types of adult bone: Spongy (cancellous) and
compact (lamellar)

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Skeletal Systems Skeletal Systems

 Microscopic Structure of Bone  Osteonic canal


 Osteon  Space through which blood vessels, lymphatics
 Structural and functional unit of compact bone and nerves pass
 Compact bone  Lacunae are interconnected by canaliculi
 Composed of a calcified bone matrix arranged in  Passages that allow communication between
concentric rings adjacent bone cells and the osteonic canal
 Transport nutrients and wastes
 Cavities between rings (lacunae) contain
mature bone cells (osteocytes)
 Materials cannot diffuse through bone tissue

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Skeletal Systems Skeletal Systems

 Plan of the Vertebrate Skeleton  Task: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton


 Composed of the axial and appendicular  Axial endoskeleton – composed of all endoskeletal
skeleton structures located at the center or axis of the body.
 Axial skeleton a.1 Skull
 skull, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs a.2 Visceral skeleton
 Appendicular skeleton a.3 Vertebral column and ribs (it lacks true ribs)
 bones of limbs and pectoral and pelvic girdles a.4 Sternum

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Skeletal Systems Skeletal Systems

 Task: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton  Task 2: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton
 Appendicular endoskeleton – consists of all The Skull-Dorsal View
endoskeletal structures located laterally or in the  nasal bones- a pair of flat, triangular-shaped bones just
region of the extremities or appendages. behind the nares
b.1 Girdles  Frontoparietals - two long, slender, flat bones, posterior to
nasal bones
Pectoral girdle  foramen magnum – posterior, large opening
Pelvic girdle  Occipital condyle
b.2 Bones of the limbs  Exoccipital
Anterior limbs or forelimbs
Posterior limbs or hindlimbs
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 Task 2: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton  Task 2: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton
The Skull-Dorsal View
The Skull-Ventral View

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 Task 2: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton  Task 2: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton
Lower Jaw or Mandible Hyoid Apparatus

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 Task 2: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton  Task 2: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton
Vertebral Column Pectoral Girdle + Sternum

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 Task 2: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton  Task 2: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton
Pelvic Girdle Bones of the Forelimbs

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 Task 2: Gross Anatomy of Toad Skeleton


Bones of the Hindlimbs

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Animal Movement Animal Movement


 Ameboid Movement
 Ameboid cells change shape by extending and
withdrawing pseudopodia on any cell surface Muscular Movement
 Ciliary and Flagellar Movement  Contractile Tissue
 Cilia are minute, hairlike, motile processes that  Contractile tissue is most highly developed in muscle
extend surfaces of many animal cells cells, called fibers
 Function to move whole unicellular organisms  During ciliary flexion, dynein arms link to adjacent
 All cilia have a uniform diameter of 0.2 to 0.5 microtubules, swivel and release in cycles
micrometers
 9+2 arrangement of microtubules (composed of
tubulin)
 Flagella occur in flagellate protozoans, animal
spermatozoa, and in sponges
 The flagellum is whiplike, longer than a cilium and
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Animal Movement

Types of Vertebrate Muscle


 Skeletal (Striated) Muscle
 Transversely striped with alternating dark and
light bands (striations)
 Organized into sturdy, compact bundles
 Most are attach to skeletal elements and move
the trunk, appendages, eyes, etc.
 Muscle fibers are very long, cylindrical cells
with many nuclei
 Packed together in bundles called fascicles and
enclosed in connective tissue
 Fascicles are grouped into a discrete muscle
enclosed in connective tissue
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Animal Movement

× Skeletal muscles and skeleton - together


as functional unit that permit body
movements and locomotion.
× Muscles are attached to the bones by
connective tissue called tendon- broad,
flat and sheetlike tendon is called
aponeurosis.

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Animal Movement Muscle Identification


Two points of attachment
Naming muscles
(1) fixed or stationary - anatomical origin
(2) Movable -insertion × Locating its anatomical origin and
belly of the muscle- middle
insertion
× the shape and relative size of the muscles
Heads- more than one origin
Slips - have several insertions
× direction of the muscle fibers/ action of
the muscles.

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Muscle Identification Animal Movement

 Cardiac Muscle
 Muscle fibers
 Striated
 Branched
 Adjacent cells joined by specialized junctional complexes:
Intercalated discs
 1 – 2 centrally located nuclei
 Associated with myocardium and is fatigue resistant
 Contraction is under autonomic control (involuntary)
 The heartbeat originates within specialized muscle
fibers (nodal tissue)

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Animal Movement Animal Movement


Several terminologies are commonly used to
 Smooth Muscle describe the action of muscles:
 Lacks striations
 Cells are much smaller, tapering at both ends
 Single, centrally located nucleus a. adductor – move a part towards the main axis of
 Smooth muscle cells form sheets of muscle circling the body
the walls of the alimentary canal, blood vessels, b. abductor – move a part away from the main axis
respiratory passages, and urinary and reproductive
ducts and cavities of the body
 Maintains prolonged contractions using little energy c. extensor – move jointed parts away from each
 Controlled by the autonomic nervous system, other
contractions are involuntary and unconscious d. flexor – move jointed parts toward each other
 Most smooth muscles push material in a tube or
regulate tube diameter e. levator – raises a part
f. depressor – lowers a part
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Animal Movement Animal Movement

Activities: Task 1- Skinning the specimen


1. Obtain a preserved toad/frog and rinse off excess formalin
with tap water. Place the specimen ventral side up on a
1. dissect the frog/toad to demonstrate major
dissecting pan.
muscle groups. 2. With the use of a scissors, make a midventral slit on the
2. identify the major muscles in frog/toad. skin of the specimen from the anal region up to the tip of the
3. relate the action of the muscles based on their lower jaw. Be sure that the pointed ends of the scissors are
anatomical location and attachment. directed upward while making the slit to avoid injuring the
underlying muscles.
3. Make a transverse cut around the body just above the
hindlimbs, and another one anterior to the forelimbs.
4. Carefully pull off the skin of the hindlimbs and forelimbs,
inner side out.
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Animal Movement Animal Movement


Task 2- Identification of the muscles
Task 1- Skinning the specimen
Ventral Muscles of the Head and Trunk
5. Remove the skin of the head around the eyes. In toad, the × Submentalis
skin covering the head can be removed but with difficulty. Origin - anterior tip of the mandible
6. Notice the large spaces between the skin and muscles Insertion - anterior angle of the lower jaw
where the skin is not attached. These are the Action - raises the tip of the lower jaw
× Mylohyoid
subcutaneous lymph sacs. Origin - median surface of the mandible
Insertion - median raphe
Action - raises the floor of the mouth during breathing or Swallowing
× Geniohyoid
Origin - anterior angle of the lower jaw
Insertion - posterior cornua and thyroid processes of the hyoid
Action - draws the hyoid forward and upward
× Sternoradialis
Origin - episternum and omosternum
Insertion - proximal end of the radius
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Action - flexor of the forearm

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Animal Movement
× Cutaneous pectoralis
Origin – xiphisternum
Insertion - dermis of the skin at the pectoral region
Action - tense the skin which overlies the pectoral girdle
× Anterior Pectoralis
Origin - Sternum
Insertion - Humerus
Action - flexor, adductor, rotator of the arm
× Rectus Abdominis
Origin - pubic border
Insertion - Sternum
Action - support the abdominal viscera; hold the sternum in place
× External oblique
Origin - ilium, dorsal fascia of vertebrae
Insertion - on the linea alba
Action - help constrict the abdomen and support the viscera

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Animal Movement
Ventral Muscles of the Thigh and Shank
× Sartorius
Origin - Pubis
Triceps brachii Insertion - Tibiofibula
Action - flexes the shank and adducts the thigh
× Adductor longus
Origin - Ilium
Insertion - Femus
Action - adducts the thigh
× Adductor magnus
Origin - pubic and ischial symphysis
Insertion - distal end of the femur
Action - adducts the thigh and flexes or extends the shank
× Gracilis major
Origin - Ischium
Insertion - Tibiofibula
Action - adducts the thigh and flexes the shank
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Animal Movement Animal Movement


Ventral Muscles of the Thigh and Shank Ventral Muscles of the Thigh and Shank
× Gracilis minor
Origin, insertion and action are the same with gracilis major × Extensor cruris
× Semitendinosus Origin - distal end of the femur
× Origin - Ischium Insertion - anterior surface of the proximal half of the tibiofibula
Insertion - Tibiofibula Action - extensor of the foot
Action - adducts the thigh and flexes the leg × Flexor tarsi anterior
× Gastrocnemius Origin - anterior surface of the middle and distal half of the tibiofibula
Origin - distal end of the femur, anterior portion of the knee Insertion - proximal end of the astragalus and fascia of the foot
Insertion - ankle of the foot Action - flexor of the foot
Action - extensor of the foot × Tibialis anticus
× Tibialis posticus Origin - Femur
Origin - posterior surface of the tibiofibula Insertion - distal end of the astragalus and calcaneus
Insertion - proximal end of the astragalus Action - flexor of the foot
Action - extensor or flexor of the foot depending on the position of the foot

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