1 (1) the instrument used during the visual test and (2) the required Effects of Test

illumination. Objective distance, object size, discontinuity size, Object

reflectivity, entry port size, object depth and direction of
view are all critical aspects of the test object that affect the visual test
2 the coddington magnifier, has a thick groove cut into the outer Coddington magnifier
diameter of a thick lens to eliminate spherical aberration
3 A loupe (or loupe) is a single or double lens magnifier where the lenses
are held
at the recommended working distance with a transparent cylinder. The
clear
spacing cylinder allows the use of ambient lighting to illuminate the
test piece
4 The surface comparator is a magnifier that provides a means for Surface Comparators
comparing a test surface against a standard surface finish.
The observer views the two surfaces side by side, as shown in Fig. 10.
The surface comparator uses a small battery powered light source, a
semitransparent beam divider and a 10triplet.
5 Field, pocket, pen or measuring microscopes are all terms used to
describe
small handheld magnifiers that have magnifying powers between
10and 50
6 Applications of the shop microscope include (1) on-site tests of plated, shop microscope
painted
or polished surfaces, (2) detection of cracks, blowholes and other
discontinuities and (3) measurement checking wear in mechanical
components.
7 Fabric finishes, markings, lusters and dye transfers can be inspected shop microscope
for penetration and quality. In the paper industry, the shop microscope
is used to check fiber uniformity, evenness of coating and wear of
Fourdrinier wires
8 Most laboratory microscopes were developed for medical use and rely 100to 2000
on the
transmission of light through the object, so they are limited to
translucent objects
9 Metallurgical Microscope
The metallurgical microscope is similar to a laboratory microscope
with the addition of top or vertical illumination to permit viewing of
opaque materials. The vertical illuminator, directly above the objective
lens, is a semireflecting, thin, transparent plate
10 Common metallographic techniques
include dark field illumination, polarized light, phase contrast and
differential
interference. These techniques are increasingly being applied to the
analysis
 of the microstructures of many nonmetallic and composite materials.
A metallographic microscope is a metallurgical microscope
designed to integrate a camera for photographic documentation.
11 The addition of two polarizing elements and a circular stage converts a Polarizing
laboratory microscope into an elementary polarizing microscope. Microscope
is related to their directional properties
12 The interference microscope is a tool using the wavelength of light as a Interference
unit of Microscope
measure for surface contour and other characteristics.
13
PART 1. Metal Processing
14 Discontinuity Location Cause
Bursts surface or subsurface forming processes at excessive or improper
temperatures
Cooling cracks surface uneven cooling during cold drawing
Cupping subsurface internal stresses during cold drawing, forging or extrusion
Hydrogen flakes subsurface abundance of hydrogen during elevated
temperatures
Laminations subsurface elongation and compression of inherent discontinuities
during rolling
Laps surface material folded over and not fused
Seams surface elongation of unfused surface discontinuities in rolled products
Stringers subsurface elongation and compression of inherent discontinuities
during forming

15 Forging laps are the result of metal being folded over, forming an area Forged and Rolled
that is Laps
squeezed tight but not fused (Fig. 8). They are caused by faulty or
misaligned dies,
oversized blanks or improper handling of the metal in the die. Forging
laps are usually open to the surface and are either parallel or at a small
angle to the surface.
16 Another very important characteristic of abrasive wear is the heat
generated by friction between the two materials
17 Erosive wear (or erosion) occurs when particles in a fluid or other
carrier slide
and roll at relatively high velocity against a surface.
Each moving particle contacting the surface cuts a minute particle from
the surface. An individual particle is insignificant, but removal of many
particles is erosion.
18 A general removal of soft surface coatings or material is a common Erosive wear
form
of wear for fan and propeller blades. In automotive applications, for
example, the paint on the trailing end of the concave side of the fan
blade is usually removed by the scouring or cutting action of dust and
 dirt particles in the air
Grooves or channels eroded in the test surface are common in Erosive wear
19 assemblies that
move liquids or gases where the design of the component is such that
the
fluid flows faster or in a different direction at certain locations.
Examples include impellers with vanes that push particle laden fluids
into various passages. The inside of tubes or pipes is often damaged at
curves because the inertia of the particles and the fluid forces them
against the outside of the curve. Sudden, sharp curves or bends cause
more erosion problems than gentle curves.
20 In textile machinery, high velocity thread or yarn can cause erosion Erosive wear
when a sudden change in direction causes grooving in an eyelet.
Grooving and channeling are also quite common in various types of
nozzles where high speed or high pressure fluids scour through the
metal. Drops of liquid can lead to erosive wear, as is frequently seen on
the leading edges of high speed
aircraft.
21 Grinding wear occurs primarily when
particles under high pressure cut small grooves at low speed across a
metal surface. High pressure, low speed operation is characteristic of
tillage tools (plows, cultivators, rakes) and other ground contact
components such as bulldozer track shoes and the cutting edges of
blades.
22 Gouging wear is caused by high pressure impact that lifts large
fragments from a metal surface.
23 Adhesive wear can be characterized as microwelding. Other terms are
sometimes used, including scoring, scuffing, galling and seizing, but
adhesive wear is preferred because it accurately characterizes the
phenomenon when two surfaces slide against each other, with or
without lubricant. When a rough peak (or asperity) from one surface
comes in contact with a peak from the other surface, there may be
instantaneous microwelding caused by frictional heat
24 Fretting wear is also known as fretting corrosion, false brinnelling, Fretting wear
friction oxidation, chafing
fatigue and wear oxidation
25 The components are checked for cracks and signs of erosion or Circulating Water
cavitation damage. Pumps
26 Particular attention is given to the inlet
a nd discharge areas of each impeller vane.
The vane tips and edges are inspected on
vertical column pumps with an impeller to-impeller cone design.
27 The diffuser vanes are inspected in the same manner as the impeller diffuser vanes
vanes. Areas of wear or erosion should be repaired and ground smooth.
28 Check the shaft sleeves for scoring. A scored sleeve accelerates bearing
wear and should be replaced. Polishing is acceptable if the scoring is
minor
29 The preferred method of checking babbitt adherence is liquid Check all running
penetrant clearances with a
testing feeler gage.
30 A valve is a mechanical device that controls flow into, inside of or out of valve
enclosed conduits such as piping and tubing. The first step in
performing an
inservice test is to review the preservice, maintenance and past
inspection records
31 In gate valves, the upstream seat of the wedge and downstream body
seat are the most likely places for erosion and wear.
32 Diaphragm Valves
Inspect the sealing surface of the body
partition for evidence of corrosion,
erosion or damage. Most importantly,
visually inspect the diaphragm for
evidence of aging and cracking,
33 Ball Valves
Sealing surfaces are visually inspected for evidence of physical damage,
wear or corrosion that causes leakage. The horizontal plane at the flow
centerline is the first location to show wear because it always seals
against the full differential pressure. Check the stuffing box and stem
thrust bearing surface for evidence of corrosion or wear
34 Proper alignment between the components in the plug and body Plug Valves and
prevent excessive turbulence and pressure Butterfly Valves
drop that may cause accelerated erosion
34s In a swing check valve, inspect sealing surfaces of the disk and body for
evidence of physical damage and perform a liquid penetrant test if
possible.
35 Alignment of the seal and disk when closed is vital to the satisfactory
operation of a butterfly valve.
36 The most common locations for fastener failures are in the
head-to-shank fillet, through the first thread inside the nut on threaded
fasteners or at the transition from the thread to the shank.
37 Surface tears occur along the length of a bar or threaded fastener and
are caused by faulty extrusion dies or inadequate lubrication during
extrusion. Surface tears can resemble seams
38 Extrusions can have surface discontinuities that appear as scrapes and Drawing, Extruding and Piercing

tears.
39 Unfused chills and chaplets appear as irregularly shaped cavities on the unfused
surface of the casting. The cavity varies from the entire shape of the chills and unfused
chill or chaplet, such as a square, to a portion of the shape, depending chaplets and
 on
the amount of fusion. Chills and chaplets differ in shape, so their
cavities also differ. Each foundry selects the chills and chaplets it
prefers, so the shapes of these discontinuities cannot be defined here.
40 Drawn products usually exhibit gross failure if any discontinuity is Drawing, Extruding and Piercing

present.
Because most drawn products have thin
walls, failure usually appears as a
through-wall break
41 Pierced pipe can contain slugs of metal that are easily identified. Severe Drawing, Extruding and Piercing

score
marks usually lead to the slug.
42 inclusions and gas holes are affected by rolling, forming laminar Rolling
discontinuities
parallel to the rolling direction. When any of these discontinuities are
moved to the surface of a rolled product, a seam (Fig. 49), stringer (Fig.
50) or crack can
form. The location of the discontinuity on the component helps to
classify it. Seams, cracks and stringers can appear anywhere on a rolled
product. Seams and stringers follow the direction of rolling.
Laminations detected by visual inspection appear on the edges of plate
or the ends of pipe
43 Excess view rinkles, holes, gaps between adjacent plies, surface voids,
cracks, buckling and other conditions.
44 This may entail looking for resin rich or resin starved areas, blisters or
delaminations in the exterior plies, surface voids and edge separations.
If the matrix material is semitransparent, this evaluation may also
include looking for internal voids by shining a high intensity light
through the structure and viewing in a darkened area.
45 thin sheets of composite material bonded to a in low stress
honeycomb core may show visibly the large voids and delaminations applications
that need
to be detected(a sonic tap test may be performed )
46 performing visual testing on composite materials. As noted
above, 5to 10seems to be an appropriate viewing magnification.
47 The test results clearly show that the diffracted light technique can
detect barely visible impact damage in composite laminates and can
also detect cold worked holes in wrought aluminum panels and fatigue
cracks extending from holes in wrought aluminum panel
48 Multiple-segment technique is used to measure length of nonlinear
feature
by combining lengths of shorter segments.
49 Particle Theory Isaac Newton
50 Light measurement involves a Principles of Light
 consideration of the inverse square law Measurement1-3
and the cosine law.
51 Cosine Laws1-3
Lambert’s cosine law (Fig. 1b) states that the illuminance E2 at a point
on a surface varies with the cosine of the angle of incidence
52 The inverse square law states that the illumination E (lux) at a point
on a surface varies directly with the luminous
intensity I (candela) of the source and inversely as the square of the
distance d (meter) between the source and the point
53 All forms of electromagnetic radiation travel through a vacuum at the
same
speed, 299 793 km·s–1
54 Two common types of prisms are the right angle prism and the porro
prism (Fig. 9).The right angle prism deflects the light rays 90 degrees.
The porro prism produces a 180 degree reflection.
Both prisms are common in optical instruments
55 Prisms are also used to separate the frequencies of a chromatic light
source by diffraction
56 Light sources are frequently compared to a theoretical light source The blackbody’s ideal
known as a blackbody emissivity equals one
Radiation that exits through the small hole will have the characteristics
of a perfect radiator for that specific temperature.
57 When the spectral emissivity is uniform for all wavelengths, the
radiator
is known as a graybody carbon filament exhibits very nearly
graybody.
58 Rigorously speaking, color temperature is used only for light sources
that have planckian-like spectral distributions.
The term correlated color temperature is used for sources (such as
fluorescent lamps) that have different spectral distributions
59 The color temperature of a given light source is determined by the
temperature at which a blackbody must be operated to produce the
spectral distribution that most closely matches the spectral
distribution of the light source.
The color temperature may be used to measure the color from
incandescent light sources. For example, as a blackbody source heats
up, the color temperature of emitted light increases as the visible color
changes from dull red to bluish white. In many photographic and
electronic imaging applications, the color of the light source must be
known to get accurate color response in the imager.
60 Each subtractive primary absorbs one of the additive primaries and
reflects the other two. The subtractive primaries are magenta, yellow,
and cyan.
61 goniometer is also a photometric instrument, it is called a
 goniophotometer
and measures precisely the direction of light
62 A monochromator separates or disperses the wavelengths of the Spectrophotometers
spectrum using a prism (diffraction grating) to disperse the luminous
flux into a spectrum for analysis
63 A receptor measures the power contained within a certain wavelength Spectrophotometers
range of the dispersed light
64 When a spectroradiometer measures the spectral power distribution of spectroradiometer
a radiant energy source, the radiation enters the entrance window
(entrance slit) and is diffracted by the diffraction grating.
65 photopic vision assumes additivity of sensation and a 2 degree field of
view at luminance levels above ~3 cd·m–2.
66 Vision at low luminance is called scotopic vision
67 In the twenty-first century, most photometers contain solid state
devices such as photovoltaic cells.
A photovoltaic cell converts radiant energy directly into electrical
energy. It provides a small current proportional to the incident
illumination and also produces a small electromotive force that forces
this current through a low resistance circuit.
68 Liquid crystal allows the display to be much thinner than cathode
ray tube technology and consumes much less power.
a layer of liquid crystal between two polarizing filters and the
transparent electrodes between them
69 Plasma displays operate similarly to liquid crystal displays. Electric
charges stimulate minuscule packets of gas on the viewing surface so
that they glow with desired color and intensity and together form a
two-dimensional image.
70 A light emitting diode (LED) is a kind of transistor. Two-dimensional
arrays of these transistors are actuated by the video signal and emit
light of desired frequencies and intensities.
71 The ray is a stream of electrons that pour off the heated cathode Cathode Ray Tubes
in a vacuum.
In a black and white screen, there is only one phosphor that glows
white when struck by the beam of electrons.
In a color screen, there are three types of phosphors— red, green and
blue
72 Human perception performs well in viewing frames rates over 20
frames per second.
Frame Rate
Personal computers can display video recordings at any frame rate the
visual inspector is likely to encounter
73 The main task of video technology is to convert an optical image of a Video Tape Technology
dynamic scene into an electrical signal that can be transmitted in real
time to another location, and converted back without delay into an
optical image that faithfully reproduces the original scene.
74 (262.5 scan lines each) which are combined and interlaced to produce Line Scanning
a complete frame of 525 lines. The 2:1 standard interlace ratio means
that even fields of horizontal scan fit neatly into odd fields of horizontal
scan.
75 Qualification demonstrates that an individual has the required training,
experience, knowledge and abilities;
certification provides written testimony that an individual is qualified
76 In such flexible instruments, the image remains round and sharp when
the tube is bent to an angle of about 34 degrees.
Beyond that limit, the image becomes elliptical but remains clear until
obliterated at about 45 degrees of total bending.
77 Torsion Bar Core Corrosion Pitting
78 Instances of slat bell crank failures were reported by operators.
Investigation revealed that failures were caused by fatigue cracks that
initiated at the bell crank-to-collar attachment holes
79 Fatigue cracks may occur in the wing rear spar cap web and doubler
under the trapezoidal panel attachment fitting
80 The stress corrosion fracture in the lubrication hole results from
severe pitting caused by inadequate lubrication. If this condition is not
corrected, the truck beam assemblies are vulnerable to failure
81 Regardless of form, electrical discharge damage is local, unlike erosion
pitting.
Electrical discharge damage is not repairable by blending. Electrical
discharge damage produces a heat affected area that may extend 1.5
mm (0.06) in.) deeper than visible damage
82 When checking blades for foreign object damage, they should be Blending is intended to
visually tested for arc burn. Arc burn is evidenced by a small circular or ensure that all subsurface
semicircular heat affected area on the blade surface that as well as surface damage
may contain shallow pitting, remitting or cracking. is removed.
83 Concave mirrors make objects look smaller or farther away; convex Interpretation of
mirrors (sometimes called fish eye mirrors) make objects look larger or Mirror Images
closer to the viewer.

84 other than normal to the surface being inspected. These Interpretation of

factors can cause indications to be interpreted as smaller than they are. Mirror Images
Measuring the size of the indication at the reflection in the mirror is
only appropriate when pinpoint accuracy is unimportant or when the
mirror is close to the surface being inspected.
A set of pliable wires of known diameters is valuable when measuring
85 A mirror image is reversed, so an object on the right appears on the left Interpretation of
and one on the left appears right. Mirror Images
86 Types of light sources: (a) condenser reflector; (b) spot projector; (c)
diffuse light source; (d) collimated light source
87 Diffuse front illumination floods the area of interest with as much light
 as possible and minimizes shadow formation. It typically is used on
opaque materials where there are prismatic reflections or where the
contrast values are very high. A directional light source makes
differences in the surface texture more apparent
88 Light sources for visual and optical inspection may be divided into five
categories: solar, incandescent, luminescent, polarized and coherent
Light Sources
light.
89 Incandescence is the emission of light due to the thermal excitation of
atoms or molecules. Sources of incandescent light include filament
lamps, pyroluminescence (such as glow in furnaces or foundries),
gas mantles and carbon arc lamps
90 Luminescence results from the excitation of a single valence electron.
Luminescent light is more monochromatic in nature than incandescent
light sources. Sources of luminescent light include gaseous
discharge lamps, lasers, light emitting diodes and fluorescent lamps
91 Polarizing filters are also used in many glare reducing products
such as sunglasses
92 Coherent light, such as light from a laser, is visible radiant energy or
light with a high degree of phase coherence. Phase coherence requires
both frequency coherence and the spatial coherence of polarized light.
93 Ambient lighting is diffuse, directing light upward, downward and
sideways.
This type of lighting generally provides good brightness relationships
throughout the room and produces horizontal illuminance to soften
shadows. Glare is minimal with this type of lighting.
94 In image data, there are various noises of which the noise called salt The operation called
and pepper is typical smoothing is a simple way
to reduce such noises
95 Smoothing blurs the image.The smoothing operation is a kind of low
pass filtering in the frequency domain
96 An effective technique to remove noise is median filtering.
is nonlinear. Smoothing blurs the edges of an image, but the median
filter does not
97 The importance of the binarization is how to estimate the threshold
value. Two popular techniques for estimating the threshold, P tile and
discriminant analysis, are described below.
98 Template matching is usually used to search for an object in an image.
In this technique, a small image of an object called the template is
Pattern
prepared first. The next step is to match the template with the whole
image
Recognition
99 Corroded product is of much higher volume than the original material
and this will cause an expansion of the skins between rivets. This
phenomenon is known as pillowing
100 Profile gages may also help determine whether an anomaly is causing a
protrusion or whether all protruding metal has been removed.