CO
M/EDUCATION/MATH/CALCU
LUS/HOW-TO-PLOT-POLAR-
COORDINATES/
RELATED BOOK
Pre-Calculus For Dummies, 2nd Edition
In the figure, you can see that the plane is no longer a grid of
rectangular coordinates; instead, it’s a series of concentric circles
around a central point, called the pole. The plane appears this way
because the polar coordinates are a given radius and a given angle in
standard position from the pole. Each circle represents one radius
unit, and each line represents the special angles from the unit circle.
which has a positive value for both the radius and the angle — you
simply move from the pole counterclockwise until you reach the
appropriate angle (theta). You start there in the following list:
1. Locate the angle on the polar coordinate plane.
Refer to the figure to find the angle:
Polar coordinate pairs can have positive angles or negative angles for
values of theta. In addition, they can have positive and negative radii.
This concept is new; in past classes you’ve always heard that a radius
must be positive. When graphing polar coordinates, though, the radius
can be negative, which means that you move in the opposite direction
of the angle from the pole.
https://www.whitman.edu/mathematics/calculus_online/section10.01.html
Coordinate systems are tools that let us use algebraic methods to understand geometry. While
the rectangular (also called Cartesian) coordinates that we have been using are the most
common, some problems are easier to analyze in alternate coordinate systems.
A coordinate system is a scheme that allows us to identify any point in the plane or in three-
dimensional space by a set of numbers. In rectangular coordinates these numbers are interpreted,
roughly speaking, as the lengths of the sides of a rectangle. In polar coordinatesa point in the
plane is identified by a pair of numbers (r,θ)(r,θ). The number θθ measures the angle between the
positive xx-axis and a ray that goes through the point, as shown in figure 10.1.1; the
number rr measures the distance from the origin to the point. Figure 10.1.1 shows the point with
rectangular coordinates (1,3–√)(1,3) and polar coordinates (2,π/3)(2,π/3), 2 units from the origin
and π/3π/3 radians from the positive xx-axis.
11
3–√3
(2,π/3)(2,π/3)
Figure 10.1.1. Polar coordinates of the point (1,3–√)(1,3).
Just as we describe curves in the plane using equations involving xx and yy, so can we describe
curves using equations involving rr and θθ. Most common are equations of the
form r=f(θ)r=f(θ).
Example 10.1.1 Graph the curve given by r=2r=2. All points with r=2r=2 are at distance 2 from
the origin, so r=2r=2 describes the circle of radius 2 with center at the origin.
π/2π/2
ππ
3π/23π/2
2π2π
11
22
Figure 10.1.2. A cardioid: y=1+cosxy=1+cosx on the left, r=1+cosθr=1+cosθ on the right.
Each point in the plane is associated with exactly one pair of numbers in the rectangular
coordinate system; each point is associated with an infinite number of pairs in polar coordinates.
In the cardioid example, we considered only the range 0≤θ≤2π0≤θ≤2π, and already there was a
duplicate: (2,0)(2,0) and (2,2π)(2,2π) are the same point. Indeed, every value of θθ outside the
interval [0,2π)[0,2π) duplicates a point on the curve r=1+cosθr=1+cosθ when 0≤θ<2π0≤θ<2π.
We can even make sense of polar coordinates like (−2,π/4)(−2,π/4): go to the
direction π/4π/4 and then move a distance 2 in the opposite direction; see figure 10.1.3. As usual,
a negative angle θθ means an angle measured clockwise from the positive xx-axis. The point in
figure 10.1.3 also has coordinates (2,5π/4)(2,5π/4) and (2,−3π/4)(2,−3π/4).
11
11
−1−1
−1−1
22
22
−2−2
−2−2
π/4π/4
Figure 10.1.3. The point (−2,π/4)=(2,5π/4)=(2,−3π/4)(−2,π/4)=(2,5π/4)=(2,−3π/4) in polar coordinates.
The relationship between rectangular and polar coordinates is quite easy to understand. The point
with polar coordinates (r,θ)(r,θ) has rectangular
coordinates x=rcosθx=rcosθ and y=rsinθy=rsinθ; this follows immediately from the
definition of the sine and cosine functions. Using figure 10.1.3 as an example, the point shown
has rectangular coordinatesx=(−2)cos(π/4)=−2–
√≈1.4142x=(−2)cos(π/4)=−2≈1.4142 and y=(−2)sin(π/4)=−2–√y=(−2)sin(π/4)=−2. This
makes it very easy to convert equations from rectangular to polar coordinates.
Example 10.1.3 Find the equation of the line y=3x+2y=3x+2 in polar coordinates. We merely
substitute: rsinθ=3rcosθ+2rsinθ=3rcosθ+2, or r=2sinθ−3cosθr=2sinθ−3cosθ.
(1,1)(1,1) (−1,−1)(−1,−1)
(π/2,π/2)(π/2,π/2) (−π/2,−π/2)(−π/2,−π/2)
(π,π)(π,π) (−π,−π)(−π,−π)
(2π,2π)(2π,2π) (−2π,−2π)(−2π,−2π)
Figure 10.1.4. The spiral of Archimedes and the full graph of r=θr=θ.
Converting polar equations to rectangular equations can be somewhat trickier, and graphing
polar equations directly is also not always easy.
Example 10.1.6 Graph r=2sinθr=2sinθ. Because the sine is periodic, we know that we will get
the entire curve for values of θθ in [0,2π)[0,2π). As θθ runs from 0 to π/2π/2, rr increases from 0
to 2. Then as θθ continues to ππ, rr decreases again to 0. When θθ runs from ππ to 2π2π, rr is
negative, and it is not hard to see that the first part of the curve is simply traced out again, so in
fact we get the whole curve for values of θθ in [0,π)[0,π). Thus, the curve looks something like
figure 10.1.5. Now, this suggests that the curve could possibly be a circle, and if it is, it would
have to be the circle x2+(y−1)2=1x2+(y−1)2=1. Having made this guess, we can easily check it.
First we substitute for xx and yy to get (rcosθ)2+(rsinθ−1)2=1(rcosθ)2+(rsinθ−1)2=1;
expanding and simplifying does indeed turn this into r=2sinθr=2sinθ.
π/2π/2
11
11
11
−1−1
−1−1
ππ
Figure 10.1.5. Graph of r=2sinθr=2sinθ. You can drag the red point in the graph on the left, and the
corresponding point on the right will follow.
Exercises 10.1
Find an equation in polar coordinates that has the same graph as the given equation in
rectangular coordinates.
Ex 10.1.2 y=3xy=3x (answer)
Ex 10.1.13 r=cosθr=cosθ
Ex 10.1.14 r=sin(θ+π/4)r=sin(θ+π/4)
Ex 10.1.15 r=−secθr=−secθ
Ex 10.1.17 r=1+θ1/π2r=1+θ1/π2
Ex 10.1.18 r=cotθcscθr=cotθcscθ
Ex 10.1.19 r=1sinθ+cosθr=1sinθ+cosθ
Ex 10.1.20 r2=−2secθcscθr2=−2secθcscθ
In the exercises below, find an equation in rectangular coordinates that has the same graph as the
given equation in polar coordinates.
(x2+y2)2=4x2y−(x2+y2)y(x2+y2)2=4x2y−(x2+y2)y
(x2+y2)3/2=y2(x2+y2)3/2=y2
x2+y2=x2y2x2+y2=x2y2
x4+x2y2=y2x4+x2y2=y2
https://www.ck12.org/trigonometry/plot-polar-coordinates/lesson/Polar-Coordinates-MAT-ALY/
https://www.ck12.org/trigonometry/plot-polar-coordinates/lesson/Polar-Coordinates-MAT-ALY/
Everyone has dreamed of flying at one time or another. Not only would there be much
less traffic to worry about, but directions would be so much simpler!
Walking or driving: "Go East 2 blocks, turn left, then North 6 blocks. Wait for the train.
Turn right, East 3 more blocks, careful of the cow! Turn left, go North 4 more blocks and
park."
Flying: "Fly 30 deg East of North for a little less than 11 and 1/4 blocks. Land."
Nice daydream, but what does it have to do with polar coordinates?
Polar Coordinates
The polar coordinate system is an alternative to the Cartesian coordinate
system you have used in the past to graph functions. The polar coordinate system is
specialized for visualizing and manipulating angles.
Angles are identified by travelling counter-clockwise around the circular graph from the
0 deg line, or r-axis (where the + x axis would be) to a specified angle.
To plot a specific point, first go along the r-axis by r units. Then, rotate counterclockwise
by the given angle, commonly represented "θ". Be careful to use the correct units for the
angle measure (either radians or degrees).
Radians
Usually polar plots are done with radians (especially if they include trigonometric
functions), but sometimes degrees are used.
A radian is the angle formed between the r axis and a polar axis drawn to meet a
section of the circumference that is the same length as the radius of a circle.
Given that the circumference of a circle is 2π⋅r, and since r is the radius, that means there
are 2π radians in a complete circle, and 1π radians in 1/2 of a circle.
If 1/2 of a circle is π radians, and is 180 deg, that means that there are 180π degrees in each
radian.
Examples
Example 1
Plot the points on a polar coordinate graph: Point A (2,π3), Point B (4,135o), and Point
C (−2,π6).
Example 2
Plot the following points.
a. (4,30o)
b. (2.5,π)
c. (−1,π3)
d. (3,5π6)
e. (−2,300o)
Example 3
Use a graphing calculator or plotting program to plot the following equations.
a. r=1+3sinθ
b. r=1+2cosθ
Review the steps above under graphing using technology if you are having trouble.
Example 4
Convert from radians to degrees.
Recall that πrad=180o and 1rad=180π≈57.3o.
a. π2
If πrad=180o then π2rad=90o
b. 5.17
If 1rad≈57.3o then 5.17rad≈296o
c. 3π2
If πrad=180o then 3π2rad=270o
Example 5
Convert from degrees to radians.
Recall that 180oπ=57.3o≈1rad.
a. 251o
If 57.3o≈1rad then 251o≈4.38rad≈1.4πrad
b. 360o
If 57.3o≈1rad then 360o≈6.28rad
c. 327o
If 57.3o≈1rad then 327o57.3o≈5.71rad
Example 6
Convert from degrees to radians, answer in terms of π.
a. 90o
If πrad=180o then π2rad=90o
b. 270o
If πrad=180o and π2rad=90o then 112πrad→32π→3π2rad=270o
c. 45o
If π2rad=90o then π4rad=45o
Review
1. Why can a point on the plane not be labeled using a unique ordered pair (r,θ).
2. Explain how to graph (r,θ) if r<0 and/or θ>360.
Graph each point on the polar plane.
3. A (6,145o)
4. B (−2,13π6)
5. C (74,−210o)
6. D (5,π2)
7. E (3.5,−π8)
Name two other pairs of polar coordinates for each point.
8. (1.5,170o)
9. (−5,π−3)
10. (3,305o)
Graph each polar equation.
11. r=3
12. θ=π5
13. r=15.5
14. r=1.5
15. θ=−175o
Find the distance between the given points.
16. P1(5,π2) and P2(7,3π9)
17. P1(1.3,−52o) and P2(−13.6,−162o)
18. P1(3,250o) and P2(7,90o)
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-
algebra/chapter/the-polar-coordinate-system/
The polar coordinate system is an alternate coordinate system where the two variables
are rr and θθ, instead of xx and yy.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Key Terms
When we think about plotting points in the plane, we usually think of rectangular
coordinates (x,y)(x,y) in the Cartesian coordinate plane. However, there are other ways
of writing a coordinate pair and other types of grid systems. Polar coordinates are points
labeled (r,θ)(r,θ) and plotted on a polar grid. The polar grid is represented as a series of
concentric circles radiating out from the pole, or the origin of the coordinate plane.
The reference point (analogous to the origin of a Cartesian system) is called the pole,
and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis. The distance from
the pole is called the radial coordinate or radius, and the angle is called the angular
coordinate, polar angle, or azimuth. The radial coordinate is often denoted by rr or ρρ,
and the angular coordinate by ϕϕ, θθ, or tt.
Examples of Polar Coordinates: Points in the polar coordinate system with pole 00 and polar axis LL. In
green, the point with radial coordinate 33 and angular coordinate 6060 degrees or (3,60∘)(3,60∘). In blue, the
point (4,210∘)(4,210∘).
Polar Graph Paper: A polar grid with several angles labeled in degrees
Angles in polar notation are generally expressed in either degrees or radians ( 2π2π rad
being equal to 360∘360∘). Degrees are traditionally used in navigation, surveying, and
many applied disciplines, while radians are more common in mathematics and
mathematical physics. In many contexts, a positive angular coordinate means that the
angle ϕϕ is measured counterclockwise from the axis. In mathematical literature, the
polar axis is often drawn horizontal and pointing to the right.
The polar grid is scaled as the unit circle with the positive xx–axis now viewed as the
polar axis and the origin as the pole. The first coordinate rr is the radius or length of the
directed line segment from the pole. The angle θθ, measured in radians, indicates the
direction of rr. We move counterclockwise from the polar axis by an angle of θθ,and
measure a directed line segment the length of rr in the direction of θθ. Even though we
measure θθ first and then rr, the polar point is written with the rr-coordinate first. For
example, to plot the point (2,π4)(2,π4),we would move π4π4 units in the
counterclockwise direction and then a length of 22 from the pole. This point is plotted on
the grid in Figure.
Plotting a point on a Polar Grid: Plot of the point (2,π4)(2,π4),by moving π4π4 units in the counterclockwise
direction and then a length of 22 from the pole.
Adding any number of full turns (360∘360∘ or 2π2π radians) to the angular coordinate
does not change the corresponding direction. Also, a negative radial coordinate is best
interpreted as the corresponding positive distance measured in the opposite direction.
Therefore, the same point can be expressed with an infinite number of different polar
coordinates(r,ϕ±n⋅360°r,ϕ±n⋅360°) or (−r,ϕ±(2n+1)⋅180°−r,ϕ±(2n+1)⋅180°),
where nn is any integer. Moreover, the pole itself can be expressed as (0,ϕ0,ϕ) for any
angle ϕϕ.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Derive and use the formulae for converting between Polar and Cartesian coordinates
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
To convert from polar to rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates use the following formulas
(derived from their trigonometric function definitions):
cosθ=xr→x=rcosθsinθ=yr→y=rsinθr2=x2+y2tanθ=yxcosθ=xr→x=rcosθsinθ=y
r→y=rsinθr2=x2+y2tanθ=yx
When given a set of polar coordinates, we may need to convert them to rectangular
coordinates. To do so, we can recall the relationships that exist among the variables
xx, yy, rr, and θθ, from the definitions of cosθcosθ and sinθsinθ. Solving for the
variables xx and yy yields the following formulas:
cosθ=xr⇒x=rcosθcosθ=xr⇒x=rcosθ
sinθ=yr⇒y=rsinθsinθ=yr⇒y=rsinθ
An easy way to remember the equations above is to think of cosθcosθ as the adjacent
side over the hypotenuse and sinθsinθ as the opposite side over the
hypotenuse. Dropping a perpendicular from the point in the plane to the xx–axis forms
a right triangle, as illustrated in Figure below.
Trigonometry Right Triangle: A right triangle with rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates and equivalent polar
coordinates.
1)
Write cosθ=xr⇒x=rcosθcosθ=xr⇒x=rcosθ and sinθ=yr⇒y=rsinθsinθ=yr⇒y=rsin
θ.
2) Evaluate cosθcosθ and sinθsinθ.
x=rcosθ=3cosπ2=0x=rcosθ=3cosπ2=0
y=rsinθ=3sinπ2=3y=rsinθ=3sinπ2=3
To convert rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates, we will use two other familiar
relationships. With this conversion, however, we need to be aware that a set of
rectangular coordinates will yield more than one polar point.
Converting from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates requires the use of one or
more of the relationships illustrated below. Recall:
cosθ=xr⇒x=rcosθsinθ=yr⇒y=rsinθr2=x2+y2tanθ=yxcosθ=xr⇒x=rcosθsinθ=yr⇒y
=rsinθr2=x2+y2tanθ=yx
Trigonometry Right Triangle: A right triangle with rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates and equivalent polar
coordinates.
Example:
Convert the rectangular coordinates (3,3)(3,3) to polar coordinates.
We are given the values of xx and yy and need to solve for θθ and rr. Start by solving
for θθ using the tantan function:
tanθ=yx=33=1tanθ=yx=33=1
So:
θ=tan−1(1)=π4θ=tan−1(1)=π4
r2=x2+y2=32+32=18r2=x2+y2=32+32=18
So:
r=√18=3√2r=18=32
Note that r2=18r2=18 implies r=±√18r=±18. We chose to ignore the negative rr value.
Also note that tan−1(1)tan−1(1) has many answers. This corresponds to the non-
uniqueness of polar coordinates. Multiple sets of polar coordinates can have the same
location as our first solution. For example, the points
(−3√2,5π4)(−32,5π4)
and (3√2,−7π2)(32,−7π2) will coincide with the original solution of (3√2,π4)(32,π4).
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Conic sections have several key features which define their polar equation; foci,
eccentricity, and a directrix.
All conic sections have the same basic equation in polar coordinates, which demonstrates
a connection between all of them.
Key Terms
Defining a Conic
Previously, we learned how a parabola is defined by the focus (a fixed point ) and the
directrix (a fixed line).
Parts of a Parabola: Consider the parabola x=2+y2x=2+y2. Any conic may be determined by three
characteristics: a single focus, a fixed line called the directrix, and the ratio of the distances of each to a point
on the graph.
We can define any conic in the polar coordinate system in terms of a fixed point, the
focus P(r,θ)P(r,θ) at the pole, and a line, the directrix, which is perpendicular to the
polar axis.
With this definition, we may now define a conic in terms of the directrix: x=±px=±p, the
eccentricity ee, and the angle θθ. Thus, each conic may be written as a polar equation in
terms of rr and θθ.
For a conic with a focus at the origin, if the directrix is x=±px=±p, where pp is a positive
real number, and the eccentricity is a positive real number ee, the conic has a polar
equation:
r=e⋅p1±e⋅cosθr=e⋅p1±e⋅cosθ
For a conic with a focus at the origin, if the directrix is y=±py=±p, where pp is a positive
real number, and the eccentricity is a positive real number ee, the conic has a polar
equation:
r=e⋅p1±e⋅sinθr=e⋅p1±e⋅sinθ
Some curves have a simple expression in polar coordinates, whereas they would be
very complex to represent in Cartesian coordinates.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
The formulas that generate the graph of a rose curve are given
by: r=acosnθr=acosnθ and r=asinnθr=asinnθ where a≠0a≠0. If nn is even, the
curve has 2n2n petals. If nn is odd, the curve has nn petals.
The formula that generates the graph of the Archimedes’ spiral is given
by: r=θr=θ for θ≥0θ≥0. As θθ increases, rr increases at a constant rate in an ever-
widening, never-ending, spiraling path.
Key Terms
Polar equations can be used to generate unique graphs. The following type of polar
equation produces a petal-like shape called a rose curve. Although the graphs look
complex, a simple polar equation generates the pattern. The formulas that generate the
graph of a rose curve are given by:
r=a⋅cos(nθ)andr=a⋅sin(nθ)wherea≠0r=a⋅cos(nθ)andr=a⋅sin(nθ)wherea≠0
If nn is even, the curve has 2n2n petals. If nn is odd, the curve has nn petals.
Rose Curves: Complex graphs generated by the simple polar formulas that generate rose
curves:r=acosnθr=acosnθ and r=asinnθr=asinnθ where a≠0a≠0.
Archimedes’ spiral is named for its discoverer, the Greek mathematician Archimedes
(c.287BCE−c.212BCEc.287BCE−c.212BCE), who is credited with numerous
discoveries in the fields of geometry and mechanics.
The formula that generates the graph of the Archimedes’ spiral is given by:
r=a+bθforθ≥0r=a+bθforθ≥0
https://betterlesson.com/lesson/595128/the-polar-coordinate-system
Objective
SWBAT graph polar coordinates and convert points and equations between
polar and rectangular form.
Big Idea
How is the rectangular and polar coordinate systems related?
Bell work
5 MINUTES
Over the next few lessons I will be working with an idea is not specifically
discussed in the Common Core standards. By teaching the polar coordinate
system and its equations I am able to apply many of the previous topics we
learned in new and insightful ways. For example, we will review trigonometric
concepts, such as trigonometric identities and real valued functions with
points on the coordinate plane, when learning the polar coordinate system.
I begin today's lesson by reviewing how to graph points when of real-valued
functions. Polar graphing has a very similar structure, the only aspect that is
different is that the ordered pair is (r,theta) instead of (x,y)
To begin, I have one student in the class give an example by graphing the
point. I will then review with the students any idea they may have forgotten
since the real-valued unit last semester.
I now share the definition provided in the Larson textbook "Precalculus with
Limits, 2nd ed." We analyze together the definition that written in the book. My
goal is for students to see that you can relate a rectangular coordinate plane
with a polar coordinate system. I give every student a copy of a polar
coordinate (These are shared at the end of this section.)
If you were to label an x and y axis on this graph, where would they be?
The pole is the center point on this graph, how would you label this point as
an (x,y) point? What would it be for (r,theta)?
After examining a plane graph, I have the students practice by graphing some
points. I spend time on points that have negative r values since this is usually
one of the most challenging parts of a polar coordinate system. I review the
concept of how the negative value of an x or y coordinate reveals the direction
the point is from the origin. A negative value on the r coordinate also gives the
direction of the point.
Once the students see how to graph a point, I put a point in polar form on the
board and ask the students to find another way to label the point. I let the
students consider this question and discuss what a possible solution. I put the
students' ideas on the board and ask each student to explain how they arrived
at their answer. If a student does not use a -r, then I will ask what would the
label be if the r is negative.
Lastly, I ask "How many ways can we label a specific point in polar
coordinates?" Inevitably, I want students to realize that there are infinite many
ways. It is important to reinforce that the value is not just the angle to 2pi.
http://www.mathguide.com/lessons3/PolarC.html
Polar Coordinates
Home > Lessons > Polar Coordinates Search | Updated March 25th, 2018
Introduction
This lesson page will inform you about polar coordinates. Here are the sections within this
lesson page:
Introduction
Graphing Polar Coordinates
Converting from Polar to Rectangular Coordinates
Converting from Rectangular to Polar Coordinates
Instructional Videos
Related Lessons
Introduction
When graphing a point in the Cartesian coordinate system, we do so using horizontal and
vertical movements. This is similar to moving through a city that has nothing but East-West
and North-South streets.
There is another system for graphing points in a plane, called the polar system. This
system has its points defined by their distance from the origin and their angle from the
positive x-axis.
To graph this point, imagine starting at the origin and looking down the positive x-axis. It is
as if you are standing at the origin and looking east. Next, rotate 45° counter-clockwise and
then move 3 units from the origin.
Example 2: Graph (2, 210°).
Starting at the origin while facing east, turn 210° counter-clockwise. Then, move 2 units
from the origin. This is what the result looks like.
To convert from rectangular to polar coordinates, we have to use two equations. Here are
those equations.
The equations relate to the definition of the cosine and sine functions.
Cosine is defined as adjacent (x) over hypotenuse (r). Likewise, sine is defined as
opposite (y) over hypotenuse (r). With a little algebra, we can solve for ‘x’ and for ‘y’ to
achieve the conversion equations shown above.
For a purely algebraic solution, we can solve for the x-value and the y-value as follows,
keeping in mind that r=2 and θ= 135°.
Solve for the x-value and the y-value using the equations. Remember, r=-1 and θ= 330°.
To convert from rectangular to polar coordinates requires different equations. Here are
those equations.
Using knowledge of trigonometry, we can see the tangent of theta is equal to the
opposite (y) over adjacent (x) sides, which is the second conversion equation.
Now, let us look at two examples to see how these conversions are done.
It is helpful to get a diagram to see what is going on. Here is the graph of the rectangular
point.
To get the distance the point is from the origin, which is the r-value, we will use the first
conversion equation, like so.
Remember, this angle is the reference angle. Since the angle exists in the fourth
quadrant, we have to account for the traditional trigonometric angle relative to the positive
x-axis with a counter-clockwise motion. Therefore, the angle is 360° - 31° = 329.0°.
It is unnecessary to calculate the length of the hypotenuse if you recognize this special
right triangle. Assuming you do not recognize the triangle, let us view the calculation using
the first conversion equation.
Now, we must calculate the angle using the second conversion equation (if you do not
recognize the special right triangle). Since we already know the angle exists in the second
quadrant, only positive values are being used.
Remember, this is the reference angle not the angle to the positive x-axis. The angle to
the positive x-axis (rotating in the typical counter-clockwise fashion) is 120°.
Instructional Videos
Related Lessons
http://www.shelovesmath.com/trigonometry/polar-graphs/
So far, we’ve plotted points using rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinates, since the points since we
are going back and forth xunits, and up and down y units.
The ordered pairs, called polar coordinates, are in the form (r,θ), with r being the number of units
from the origin or pole (if r > 0), like a radius of a circle, and θ being the angle (in degrees or
radians) formed by the ray on the positive x-axis (polar axis), going counter-clockwise. If r < 0, the
point is r units (like a radius) in the opposite direction (across the origin or pole) of the angle θ.
If θ<0, you go clockwise with the angle, starting with the positive x-axis.
So to plot the point, you typically circle around the positive x-axis θ degrees first, and then go out from
the origin or pole r units (if r is negative, go the other way (180°) r units).
Here a polar graph with some points on it. Note that we typically count in increments of 15°, or π12.
For a point (r,θ), do you see how you always go counter-clockwise (or clockwise, if you have
a negative angle) until you reach the angle you want, and then out from the center r units,
if r is positive? If r is negative, you go in the opposite direction from the angle r units. If
both r and the angle θ are negative, you have to make sure you go clockwise to get the angle, but
in the opposite direction r units.
You may be asked to rename a point in several different ways, for example,
between [−2π,2π) or [−360∘,360∘). For example, if we wanted to rename the point (6,240∘) three
other different ways between [−360∘,360∘), by looking at the graph above, we’d
get (−6,60∘)(make r negative and subtract 180°), (6,−120∘) (subtract 360°), and (−6,−240∘) (make
both negative). (Remember that 240 and –120, and 60 and –240 are co-terminal angles). To get
these, if the first number (r) is negative, you want to go in the opposite direction, and if the angle is
negative, you want to go clockwise instead of counterclockwise from the positive x-axis.