Chemical for Consumers

SOAP AND DETERGENT

Soap Preparation Process

Soaps can be made from animal fats and vegetable oils. Soaps are prepared by hydrolyzing fats
or oils under alkaline condition. The reaction is called saponification. This process involves
boiling fats or oils with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution or concentrated potassium
hydroxide solution to produce glycerol and the salts of fatty acids which are soaps.

General equation for saponifaction

Sodium palmitate (Soap from palmitic acid)

1. The fats or oils are hydrolysed first to form glycerol and fatty acids. The soap produced can
be precipitated by adding common salt (sodium chloride) to the reaction mixture.
2. The sodium chloride added reduced the solubility of soap in water. As a result, precipitation of
soap occurs.
3. The properties of soap depend on :
a) The type of alkali used for saponification
b) The type of animal fats or vegetable oils used.
4. Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard, whereas soaps produced from potassium
hydroxide are soft.
5. Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as palm oil or olive oil) ae used for making
soap.
Detergent

1. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum
fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals. Detergents are usually sodium salts of sulphuric
acid.
2. Detergents can be classified into three main types, depending on the charge on the detergent ion.
a) Anionic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a negatively charged
ion.
Negatively
Example: R – O – SO3-Na+ (Sodium alkyl sulphate) charged ion

b) Cationic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a positively charged
ion.
Example: R – N (CH3)3+BR- Positively
charged ion

c) Non ionic detergents

Example: R – O – CH2CH2OH

Preparation of detergents

1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain lengths of 12 to 18
carbon atoms in two steps.

Steps 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

Step 2: Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution.

2. An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan – 1 –ol, CH3(CH2)10CH2OH. The detergent prepared
from dodecan -1 –ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPAC name) or sodium lauryl sulphate
(common name). CH3(CH2)10CH2O-SO3-Na+ .
3. Sodikum alkylbenzene sulphinates, were first used in 1940s. It can be prepared in three steps. The
starting materials for making this detergents in a long chain alkene, RCH = CH2 , obtained from the
cracking of petroleum.

a) Step 1 : Alkylation

Alkylation is the introduction of the alkyl group to an organic molecule.

b) Step 2 : Sulphonation
Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric acid acid to form
alkylbenzene sulphonic acid.

Sulphonation is the introduction of the sulphonic acid group, -SO3H to an organic molecule
to form sulphonic acid.

c) Step 3 : Neutralisation
Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced reacted with sodium hydroxide to form sodium
alkylbenzene sulphonate, the detergent
The cleansing of soap and detergent
The following explains the cleansing action of a soap or detergent on a piece of cloth with a greasy
stain:
a) When soap or detergent is added to water, it reduces the surface tension of water. Therefore,
the surface of the cloth is wetted throughout.

b) The hydrophobic part of the soap or detergent anion is soluble in the grease. The
hydrophilic part is soluble in water.

c) Mechanical agitation during scrubbing helps to pull the grease free and also break the
grease into small droplets

d) The droplets do not coagulate and redeposit on the surface of the cloth due to the repulsion
between the negative charges on their surface.
Effectiveness of Cleansing Action of Soap And Detergent.

Property Soap Detergent

Cleaning power Less powerfull More powerfull
Ease of rinsing It is difficult to wash away all Rinse out well from clothes
soap on clothes. The soap that
remains leave and odour and
spoils the fabric
pH Slightly alkaline Can be controlled to suit the
cleaning task
Molecular structure Determined by the fatty acids Can be modified to suit the
found in the oil or fat used to cleaning task. For example, a
produce soap detergent can be made specially
for cleaning toilet bowls.
Formation of scum Forms scum with hard water Does not form scum with hard
water

Additives in Detergent and Their Function

Addictives Example Function

Biological enzyme Amylases, proteases, To remove protein
cellulases stains such as blood
Whitening agent Sodium perborate To convert stains into
colourless substances
Optical whitener Fluorescent dyes To add brightness and
whiteness to white
fabrics
Builder Sodium tripolyphosphate To enhance the
cleaning efficiency of
detergent by softening
the water
Suspension agent carboxymethylcellulose To prevent the dirt
particles removed from
redepositing onto
cleaned fabrics.
Filler Sodium sulphate, sodium To add to tha bulk of the
silicate detergents and enable it
to be poured easily
Foam control agents Silicones To control foaming in
detergent
Fragrance - To add fragrance to
both detergent and
fabrics
 Food Additives

Uses of food additives

 To make food last longer (to extend the shelf life)
 To make foods taste better and look better

Types of food additives Effects on health

 Preservatives: sodium nitrite,  Allergy: MSG

sodium benzoate  Carcinogenic: NaNO₂
 Antioxidant: ascorbic acid  Brain damage
 Flavoring: Monosodium  Hyperactivity
glutamate(MSG), aspartame
 Stabilizer and thickener:
gelatin and acacia gum
 Dye: azo compounds,
triphenyl compounds Functions of food additives

 Preservatives: to inhibit or prevent the growth of

moulds, yeast and bacteria that spoil foods
 Antioxidants: to prevent spoilage of food due to
oxidation by oxygen
 Flavorings agents: to enhance the taste of food
 Stabilizers and thickeners: to improve the texture of
foods
 Coloring agents: to restore the color or to enhance
the natural color

Types of Food Additives and Their Functions.

Anti-caking agents – stop ingredients from becoming lumpy.
Antioxidants – prevent foods from oxidising, or going rancid.
Artificial sweeteners – increase the sweetness.
Emulsifiers – stop fats from clotting together.
Food acids – maintain the right acid level.
Colours – enhance or add colour.
Humectants – keep foods moist.
Flavours – add flavour.
Flavour enhancers – increase the power of a flavour.
Foaming agents – maintain uniform aeration of gases in foods.
Mineral salts – enhance texture and flavour.
Preservatives – stop microbes from multiplying and spoiling the food.
Thickeners and vegetable gums – enhance texture and consistency.
Stabilisers and firming agents – maintain even food dispersion.
Flour treatment – improves baking quality.
A. Preservatives:

 Benzoic acid and benzoates - are found in soft drinks, beer, margarine and acidic
foods. They are use to extend shelf life and protect food from fungi and bacteria.
 Nitrites and nitrates - are found in processed meats, such as sausages, hot dogs,
bacon, ham, and luncheon meats, smoked fish. They are used to extend shelf life
and protect food from fungi and bacteria; preserve color in meats and dried fruits.
 Sulfites - are found in dried fruits, shredded coconut, fruit based pie fillings. They
are used to extend shelf life and protect food from fungi and bacteria.

B. Antioxidants: Vitamin and minerals is important additive they help to prevent fats from turning rancid and also
may protect against cancer, heart disease, and other diseases.

 Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and ascorbates - are used in fruit products (juices,
jams, and canned fruits), acidic foods, and fatty foods. Ascorbates prevent fruit
juices from turning brown and fatty foods from becoming rancid. They also improve
baking quality in wheat.
 BHA or BHT - are used to prevent fatty foods from turning rancid when exposed to
oxygen. They are added in baked products, cereals, potato chips, and fats and oils.
 Tocopherols (vitamin E) - are used to prevent rancidity in fats and other damage to
food due to exposure to oxygen. They are used in oils and shortenings.
C. Colorings: are used to make food more visually appealing.

Beta carotene, Caramel, Carrot oil, Citrus red # 1, Dehydrated beets, FD&C colors:
Blue # 1, 2: Red # 3, 40; Yellow # 5, 6 - used in processed foods, especially sweets and
products marketed for children, soft drinks, baked goods, frosting, jams, and margarine.

D. Flavor Enhancers: Improve the flavor of many canned or processed foods.

 Dioctyl sodium-sulfosuccinate - used in processed foods.

 Disodium granulate - used in canned meats, meat based foods.
 Hydrolyzed vegetable - used in mixes, stock, processed meats.
 Monosodium glutamate (MSG) - used in Chinese food, dry mixes, stock cubes, and
canned, processed, and frozen meats.
E. Emulsifiers, stabilizers and thickeners:

Carrageenan, Cellulose, Glycerol, Guar gum, Gum Arabic, lecithin, pectins - is used to
improve texture and consistency of processed foods by increasing smoothness, creaminess,
and volume.
Hold in moisture and prevent separation of oil and water. They are found insauces, soups,
breads, baked goods, frozen desserts, ice cream, low-fat and artificial cream cheese,
condiments, jams, jellies, chocolate, puddings, and milk shakes.
 MEDICINE
 A medicine is a substances used to prevent or cure disease or to reduce pain and suffering due to illness. It can be
classified into tradisional medicines and modern medicines.
 Modern Medicine - Made by scientists in laboratories and are based on substances found in nature
 Traditional Medicine - Derived from plants and animals.

Medicinal Animal Functions

Sea cucumber (gamat) To treat Japanese encephalitis and hole in the heart.
Centipede To threat lockjaw and convulsion.
Ant To treat hepatitis B

Plant Local name Uses Type of modern Function Examples

Aloe vera Lidah buaya Sap used to relieved pain from medicine
burns Analgesics- Do not treat the cause Aspirin,
Betel Sireh Leaves relieved sore eyes medicines used to of the pain but merely paracetamol
relieve pain without provide enough relief to
Bitter gourd Peria Fruit used to cure diabetes
causing numbness of the patients to allow
Coconut Kelapa Young coconut water reduces affecting them to carry out their
fever consciousness. daily routine.
Garlic Bawang putih Reduces infection and Antibiotics-used to Treat infections caused Penicillin,
hypertension kill or slow down the by bacteria. They will streptomycin
Ginger Halia Reduces inflammation and growth of bacteria. not cure infections
improves blood circulation caused by viruses.
and digestion Psychotherapeutic Do not cure mental Stimulants,
Ginseng Ginseng Roots maintain good health medicines- used to illness but can reduce antidepressants,
Hibiscus Bunga Raya Leaves relieves headache and alter abnormal many of the symptoms antipsychotic
hair loss thinking, feelings or of mental illness.
Turmeric Kunyit Cures pimples behavior.