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1 Laws of Motion 1
2 Optics 16
3 Thermal Physics 32
4 Electicity 42
5 Acoustics 59
6 Nuclear Physics 74
9 Solution 124
18 Heredity 261
Practicals 334
Glassory 350
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson students will be able to:
� Understand the concepts of force and motion.
� Explain inertia and its types.
� State the three laws of Newton.
� Apply Newtonian concept of force and motion.
� Define force, momentum and impulse.
� Distinguish between mass and weight
� Analyze weightlessness and the principle of conservation of momentum.
� Explain the law of gravitation and its applications.
� Understand the variations in 'g' due to height and depth.
� Solve numerical problems related to force and motion
(a) Unlike parallel forces – (b) Unbalanced forces - (c) Like parallel forces
Tug of war Action of a lever
Figure 1.2 Combined effect of forces
If the resultant force of all the forces The door can be easily opened or closed
acting on a body is equal to zero, then the body when you apply the force at a point far away
will be in equilibrium. Such forces are called from the fixed edge. In this case, the effect
balanced forces. If the resultant force is not of the force you apply is to turn the door
equal to zero, then it causes the motion of the about the fixed edge. This turning effect of
body due to unbalanced forces the applied force is more when the distance
Examples: Drawing water from a well, force between the fixed edge and the point of
applied with a crow bar, forces on a weight application of force is more.
balance, etc. Axis of rotation z
+z
A system can be brought to equilibrium Hinges
F F
1.5.6 Moment of a Force
The rotating or turning effect of a force s s
about a fixed point or fixed axis is called
moment of the force about that point or
torque (τ). It is measured by the product F F
of the force (F) and the perpendicular Figure 1.4 (a) Figure 1.4 (b)
distance (d) between the fixed point or Clockwise moment Anticlockwise moment
the fixed axis and the line of action of the
force. τ = F × d
1.5.7 Application of Torque
Torque is a vector quantity. It is acting
along the direction, perpendicular to the 1. Gears:
plane containing the line of action of force A gear is a circular
and the distance. Its SI unit is N m. wheel with teeth around its
rim. It helps to change the
Couple: Two equal and unlike parallel forces
speed of rotation of a wheel
applied simultaneously at two distinct points
by changing the torque and
constitute a couple. The line of action of the
helps to transmit power.
two forces does not coincide. It does not
produce any translatory motion since the 2. Seasaw
resultant is zero. But, a couple results in causes Most of you have played on the seasaw.
the rotation of the body. Rotating effect of a Since there is a difference in the weight of the
couple is known as moment of a couple. persons sitting on it, the heavier person lifts
Examples: Turning a tap, winding or the lighter person. When the heavier person
unwinding a screw, spinning of a top, etc. comes closer to the pivot point (fulcrum)
Moment of a couple is measured by the distance of the line of action of the force
the product of any one of the forces and the decreases. It causes less amount of torque to
perpendicular distance between the line of act on it. This enables the lighter person to lift
action of two forces. The turning effect of a the heavier person.
couple is measured by the magnitude of its
3. Steering Wheel
moment.
A small steering wheel enables you to
Moment of a couple = Force × perpendicular manoeuore a car easily by transferring a
distance between the torque to the wheels with less effort.
line of action of forces
M=F×S 1.5.8 Principle of Moments
The unit of moment of a couple is newton When a number of like or unlike parallel
metre (N m) in SI system and dyne cm in forces act on a rigid body and the body is in
CGS system. equilibrium, then the algebraic sum of the
By convention, the direction of moment of moments in the clockwise direction is equal
a force or couple is taken as positive if the body to the algebraic sum of the moments in the
is rotated in the anti-clockwise direction and anticlockwise direction. In other words, at
5 Laws of motion
FB= m2 (v2–u2)/t
1.11 GRAVITATION
Force on body A due to B,
FA = m1 (v1–u1)/t 1.11.1 N
ewton’s universal law of
By Newton’s III law of motion, gravitation
Action force = Reaction force This law states that every particle of
FA = –FB matter in this universe attracts every other
m1 (v1-u1)/t = –m2 (v2-u2)/t particle with a force. This force is directly
proportional to the product of their masses
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2 ������ (1.6) and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between the centers of these
The above equation confirms in the masses. The direction of the force acts along
absence of an external force, the algebraic the line joining the masses.
sum of the momentum after collision is Force between the masses is always
numerically equal to the algebraic sum of the attractive and it does not depend on the
momentum before collision. medium where they are placed.
Hence the law of conservation linear
momentum is proved.
m1 F1 F2 m2
1.10 ROCKET PROPULSION
r
Propulsion of rockets is based on the law
of conservation of linear momentum as well Figure 1.8 Gravitational force between
as Newton’s III law of motion. Rockets are two masses
10th Std Science 8
G m1 m2
F= 2 F m
r
R
Object
Where G is the universal gravitational
–11 M
constant. Its value in SI unit is 6.674 × 10
2 –2
N m kg .
Earth
1.11.2 A
cceleration due to Figure 1.9 Relation between g and G
gravity (g) Here, the radius of the body considered
When you throw any object upwards, its is negligible when compared with the Earth’s
velocity ceases at a particular height and then radius. Now, the same force can be obtained
it falls down due to the gravitational force of from Newton’s second law of motion.
the Earth. According to this law, the force acting on
The velocity of the object keeps changing the body is given by the product of its mass
as it falls down. This change in velocity must and acceleration (called as weight). Here,
be due to the force acting on the object. The acceleration of the body is under the action
acceleration of the body is due to the Earth’s of gravity hence a = g
gravitational force. So, it is called as ‘acceleration
F=ma=mg
due to the gravitational force of the Earth’ or
‘acceleration due to gravity of the Earth’. It is F = weight = mg �������������������� (1.8)
–2
represented as ‘g’. Its unit is m s Comparing equations (1.7) and (1.8), we get
Mean value of the acceleration due to GMm
mg = 2
������������������������� (1.9)
–2
gravity is taken as 9.8 m s on the surface of the R
Earth. This means that the velocity of a body
Acceleration due to gravity
during the downward free fall motion varies GM
–1
by 9.8 m s for every 1 second. However, the g= 2
����������������������������� (1.10)
R
value of ‘g’ is not the same at all points on the
surface of the earth.
1.11.4 Mass of the Earth (M)
1.11.3 Relation between g and G
Rearranging the equation (1.10), the mass
When a body is at rests on the surface of of the Earth is obtained as follows:
the Earth, it is acted upon by the gravitational 2
Mass of the Earth M = g R /G
force of the Earth. Let us compute the
magnitude of this force in two ways. Let, M Substituting the known values of g, R and G,
be the mass of the Earth and m be the mass you can calculate the mass of the Earth as
24
of the body. The entire mass of the Earth is M = 5.972 × 10 kg
9 Laws of motion
Case 1: Lift Case 2: Lift Case 3: Lift is at rest. Case 4: Lift is falling down
is moving is moving freely
upward with an downward with
acceleration 'a' an acceleration 'a'
1.13.2 W
eightlessness of
the astronauts
Some of us believe that the astronauts in
the orbiting spacestation do not experience
any gravitational force of the Earth. So they
float. But this is absolutely wrong.
Astronauts are not floating but falling
Figure 1.11 Weightlessness in a roller coaster
freely around the earth due to their huge
Its amazing!!. You actually feel as if you are oribital velocity. Since spacestation and
falling freely without having any weight. This is astronauts have equal acceleration, they are
due to the phenomenon of ‘weightlessness’. You under free fall condition. (R = 0 refer case
seem to have lost your weight when you move 4 in Table 1.2). Hence, both the astronauts
down with a certain acceleration. Sometimes, and the spacestation are in the state of
you experience the same feeling while travelling weightlessness.
in a lift.
When the person in a lift moves down with
an acceleration (a) equal to the acceleration due
to gravity (g), i.e., when a = g, this motion is
called as ‘free fall’. Here, the apparent weight
(R = m (g – g) = 0) of the person is zero.
This condition or state refers to the state of
weightlessness. (Refer case 4 from Table 1.2).
The same effect takes place while falling
freely in a roller coaster or on a swing or in a
vertical giant wheel. You feel an apparent weight Figure 1.12 Weightlessness of astronauts
11 Laws of motion
I. Choose the correct answer. 9) If the Earth shrinks to 50% of its real radius
its mass remaining the same, the weight of a
1) Inertia of a body depends on
body on the Earth will
a) weight of the object
a) decrease by 50% b) increase by 50%
b) acceleration due to gravity of the planet
c) decrease by 25% d) increase by 300%
c) mass of the object
10) To project the rockets which of the follow-
d) Both a & b ing principle(s) is /(are) required?
2) Impulse is equals to a) Newton’s third law of motion
a) rate of change of momentum b) Newton’s law of gravitation
b) rate of force and time c) law of conservation of linear momentum
c) change of momentum d) both a and c
d) rate of change of mass II. Fill in the blanks.
3) Newton’s III law is applicable 1. To produce a displacement ___________
a) for a body is at rest is required
b) for a body in motion 2. Passengers lean forward when sudden
brake is applied in a moving vehicle. This
c) both a & b
can be explained by ___________
d) only for bodies with equal masses 3. By convention, the clockwise moments
4)
Plotting a graph for momentum on the are taken as ___________ and the
X-axis and time on Y-axis. slope of momen- anticlockwise moments are taken
tum-time graph gives as__________
a) Impulsive force b) Acceleration 4. ___________ is used to change the speed
of car.
c) Force d) Rate of force
5. A man of mass 100 kg has a weight of
5) In which of the following sport the turning ___________ at the surface of the Earth
of effect of force used
a) swimming b) tennis III. State whether the following statements
are true or false. Correct the statement
c) cycling d) hockey
if it is false:
6) The unit of ‘g’ is m s-2. It can be also expressed as
1. The linear momentum of a system of
a) cm s-1 b) N kg-1 particles is always conserved.
c) N m2 kg-1 d) cm2 s-2 2. Apparent weight of a person is always equal
7) One kilogram force equals to to his actual weight
a) 9.8 dyne b) 9.8 × 104 N 3. Weight of a body is greater at the equator
c) 98 × 104 dyne d) 980 dyne and less at the polar region.
4. Turning a nut with a spanner having a
8) The mass of a body is measured on planet
short handle is so easy than one with a long
Earth as M kg. When it is taken to a planet
handle.
of radius half that of the Earth then its value
5. There is no gravity in the orbiting space
will be____kg
station around the Earth. So the astronauts
a) 4 M b) 2M c) M/4 d) M
feel weightlessness.
13 Laws of motion
Kinematics
Concept Map
Link
http://amrita.olabs.edu.in/?sub=1&brch=1&sim=44&cnt=4
15 Laws of motion
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
state the laws of refraction.
list the properties of light.
explain the scattering of light and its various kinds.
understand the images formed by concave and convex lens.
analyze the ray diagram of concave and convex lens.
understand the working of human eye and optical instruments
solve numerical problems
17 Optics
2.5 LENSES
19 Optics
Object placed at C
When an object is placed at the center of
curvature, a real and inverted image is formed
at the other center of curvature. The size of
Figure 2.5 Rays passing through or directed the image is the same as that of the object
towards the principal focus (Figure 2.8).
10th Std Science 20
Q
A A
2.8 A PPLICATIONS OF
CONVEX LENSES
N 2F1 F1 O
21 Optics
2. They are used in wide angle spy hole in Like spherical mirrors, we have
doors. magnification for spherical lenses. Spherical
3. They are are used to correct the defect of lenses produce magnification and it is defined
vision called ‘myopia’ as the ratio of the height of the image to the
23 Optics
Sclera
If the time interval between two
Ciliary body
Choroid consecutive light pulses is less than 0.1 second,
Retina human eye cannot distinguish them separately.
It is called persistence of vision.
Lens
Cornea
Fovea centralis
Iris
Optic disc
The far point and near point of
Pupil
the human eye
Aqueous body The minimum distance required to see the
Suspensory ligament objects distinctly without strain is called least
Vitreous body Optic nerve
distance of distinct vision. It is called as near
Figure 2.15 Human eye point of eye. It is 25 cm for normal human eye.
10th Std Science 24
In this defect, eye cannot see parallel and Simple microscopes are used
horizontal lines clearly. It may be inherited or a) by watch repairers and jewellers.
acquired. It is due to the imperfect structure of b) to read small letters clearly.
eye lens because of the development of cataract c) to observe parts of flower, insects etc.
on the lens, ulceration of cornea, injury to the
d) to observe finger prints in the field of
refracting surfaces, etc. Astigmatism can be
forensic science.
corrected by using cylindrical lenses (Torrid
lenses). Compound microscope
Compound microscope is also used to
2.18 MICROSCOPE
see the tiny objects. It has better magnification
This is an optical instrument, which helps power than simple microscope.
us to see tiny (very small) objects. It works Magnification power of microscopes
under the principle of angular magnification can be increased by decreasing the focal
of lenses. It is classified as length of the lens used. Due to constructional
1. Simple microscope limitations, the focal length of the lens cannot
2. Compound microscope be decreased beyond certain limit. This
problem can be solved by using two separate
Simple Microscope biconvex lenses.
Simple microscope has a convex lens of Construction
short focal length. It is held near the eye to get
A compound microscope consists of two
enlarged image of small objects.
convex lenses. The lens with the shorter focal
Let an object (AB) is placed at a point
length is placed near the object, and is called
within the principal focus (u < f) of the convex
as ‘objective lens’ or ‘objective piece’. The lens
lens and the observer’s eye is placed just behind
with larger focal length and larger aperture
B′
placed near the observer’s eye is called as ‘eye
lens’ or ‘eye piece’. Both the lenses are fixed in
Q
B′′ B a narrow tube with adjustable provision.
β
α
A′ F A u
O
Working
f
D The object (AB) is placed at a distance
slightly greater than the focal length of
Figure 2.18 Image formation in simple objective lens (u > Fo). A real, inverted and
microscope magnified image (A'B') is formed at the other
10th Std Science 26
27 Optics
I. Choose the correct answer: 9. Which of the following lens would you prefer
to use while reading small letters found in a
1. The refractive index of four substances A, B,
dictionary?
C and D are 1.31, 1.43, 1.33, 2.4 respectively.
The speed of light is maximum in a) A convex lens of focal length 5 cm
b) A concave lens of focal length 5 cm
a) A b) B c) C d) D
c) A convex lens of focal length 10 cm
2. Where should an object be placed so that
d) A concave lens of focal length 10 cm
a real and inverted image of same size is
obtained by a convex lens 10. If VB, VG, VR be the velocity of blue, green
and red light respectively in a glass prism,
a) f b) 2f
then which of the following statement gives
c) infinity d) between f and 2f
the correct relation?
3. A small bulb is placed at the principal focus
a) VB = VG = VR b) VB > VG >VR
of a convex lens. When the bulb is switched
c) VB < VG < VR d) VB < VG > VR
on, the lens will produce
a) a convergent beam of light II. Fill in the blanks:
b) a divergent beam of light
1. The path of the light is called as
c) a parallel beam of light
d) a coloured beam of light 2.
The refractive index of a transparent
medium is always greater than
4. Magnification of a convex lens is
a) Positive b) negative 3. If the energy of incident beam and the
c) either positive or negative d) zero scattered beam are same, then the scattering
of light is called as scattering.
5. A convex lens forms a real, diminished point
sized image at focus. Then the position of the 4. According to Rayleigh’s scattering law, the
object is at amount of scattering of light is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of its
a) focus b) infinity
c) at 2f d) between f and 2f
5. Amount of light entering into the eye is
6. Power of a lens is –4D, then its focal length is
controlled by
a) 4m b) –40m
c) –0.25 m d) –2.5 m
III. True or False. If false correct it.
7. In a myopic eye, the image of the object is 1. V
elocity of light is greater in denser medium
formed than in rarer medium
a) behind the retina b) on the retina 2. Th
e power of lens depends on the focal
c) in front of the retina d) on the blind spot length of the lens
8. The eye defect ‘presbyopia’ can be corrected 3. Increase in the converging power of eye
by lens cause ‘hypermetropia’
a) convex lens b) concave lens 4. The convex lens always gives small virtual
c) convex mirror d) Bi focal lenses image.
29 Optics
Law of
refraction
Human eye Microscope Telescope
Structure Defects
Simple Compound
Rayleigh Mie Tyndall Raman
Scattering Scattering Scattering Scattering
Terrestrial Astronomical
Steps
• Open the browser and type ‘phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/geometric-optics’ in the address
bar.
• Take the pencil and raise it so that the eraser is sitting on the principal axis. Click on the “principal
rays” button.
• Place the object at different positions (infinity, beyond 2F, at 2F, between F and 2F, at F, between F and
optic centre) from a convex lens and observe different types of images. Explain the result.
• Will the rays ever form an image? Click on “virtual image” to check your answer.
Cells alive
URL: https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/geometric-optics
31 Optics
Learning Objectives
3.3.1 Expansion of Substances
When heat energy is supplied to a body, Figure 3.2 Linear expansion
there can be an increase in the dimension of
The equation relating the change in length
the object. This change in
and the change in temperature of a body is
the dimension due to rise
given below:
in temperature is called ∆L
thermal expansion of the = αL ∆T
Lo
object. The expansion of ∆
L
-
Change in length (Final length-
liquids (e.g. mercury) can be
Original length)
seen when a thermometer
is placed in warm water. All forms of matter Lo - Original length
(solid, liquid and gas) undergo expansion on ∆T
-
Change in temperature (Final
heating. temperature - Initial temperature)
αL - Coefficient of linear expansion.
10th Std Science 34
2) Apparent expansion
Heating a liquid without using a container
is not possible. Thus, in practice, you can heat
any liquid by pouring it in a container. A part Figure 3.5 Real and apparent expansion
of thermal energy is used in expanding the of liquid
container and a part is used in expanding the Real expansion = L3 – L2
liquid. Thus, what you observe is not the actual Apparent expansion = L3 – L1
or real expansion of the liquid. The expansion
of a liquid apparently observed without
considering the expansion of the container is 3.4 F UNDAMENTAL LAWS
called the apparent expansion of the liquid. OF GASES
Coefficient of apparent expansion is The three fundamental laws which
defined as the ratio of the apparent rise in connect the relation between pressure, volume
the volume of the liquid per degree rise in and temperature are as follows:
temperature to its unit volume. The SI unit of
–1
coefficient of apparent expansion is K . 1) Boyle’s Law
2) Charles's law
3.3.2 Experiment to measure real 3) Avogadro's law
and apparent expansion
of liquid 3.4.1 Boyle’s law:
To start with, the liquid whose real and When the temperature of a gas is kept
apparent expansion is to be determined is constant, the volume of a fixed mass of gas is
poured in a container up to a level. Mark this inversely proportional to its pressure. This is
level as L1. Now, heat the container and the shown in Figure 3.6.
liquid using a burner as shown in the Figure 3.5. P α 1/V
10th Std Science 36
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
I. Choose the correct answer 5. In the Given diagram, the possible direction
1. The value of universal gas constant of heat energy transformation is
1 1 1 1
a) 3.81 mol– K– b) 8.03 mol– K–
1 1 1 1
c) 1.38 mol– K– d) 8.31 mol– K–
2.
If a substance is heated or cooled, the
change in mass of that substance is
a) positive b) negative II. Fill in the blanks:
c) zero d) none of the above 1. The value of Avogadro number ________
3. If a substance is heated or cooled, the 2. The temperature and heat are _________
linear expansion occurs along the axis quantities
of 3. One calorie is the amount of heat energy
a) X or –X b) Y or –Y required to raise the temperature of
_______ of water through______.
c) both (a) and (b) d) (a) or (b)
4. According to Boyle’s law, the shape of the
4. Temperature is the average ___________ graph between pressure and reciprocal of
of the molecules of a substance volume is ________________
a) difference in K.E and P.E
b) sum of P.E and K.E III. State whether the following statements
are true or false, if false explain why?
c) difference in T.E and P.E
1.
For a given heat in liquid, the apparent
d) difference in K.E and T.E
expansion is more than that of real expansion.
39 Thermal Physics
Steps
• Open the browser and type “physics-chemistry-interactive-flash-animation.com/matter_change_
state_measurement_mass_volume/pressure_volume_boyle_mariotte_law_ideal_gas_closed_system_
MCQ.htm” in the address bar. Click enter to start the experiment.
• Change the volume by adjusting the piston of the syringe ( between 20 ml to 80 ml) and observe how
the pressure changes.
• Tabulate observed values. You will observe when volume decreases pressure inside the syringe gets
increased and vice versa. Thus boyle’s law ( PV = constant) verified.
Cells alive
URL: http://www.physics-chemistry-interactive-flash-animation.com/matter_
change_state_measurement_mass_volume/pressure_volume_boyle_mariotte_law_
ideal_gas_closed_system_MCQ.htm
41 Thermal Physics
Learning Objectives
Solved Problem-1
A charge of 12 coulomb flows through a
bulb in 5 second. What is the current through
the bulb?
Solution:
Charge Q = 12 C, Time t = 5 s. Therefore, Figure 4.2 A simple electric circuit
current I = = = 2.4 A
43 Electricity
Potential Difference V = = .
Therefore, V = 10 volt
45 Electricity
R L, R , = (4.6)
= 4 × 10–8 Ω m
= +
49 Electricity
Have you ever touched the motor casing • directly proportional to the resistance of
of a fan, which has been used for a few hours the resistor.
continuously? What do you observe? The • directly proportional to the time for
motor casing is warm. This is due to the heating which the current is passing through the
effect of current. The same can be observed by resistor.
touching a bulb, which was used for a long
duration. Generally, a source of electrical 4.8.2 Applications of Heating Effect
energy can develop a potential difference across 1. Electric Heating Device:
a resistor, which is connected to that source. The heating effect of electric current is used
This potential difference constitutes a current in many home appliances such as electric iron,
through the resistor. For continuous drawing electric toaster, electric oven, electric heater,
of current, the source has to continuously geyser, etc. In these appliances Nichrome,
spend its energy. A part of the energy from which is an alloy of Nickel and Chromium is
the source can be converted into useful work used as the heating element. Why? Because:
and the rest will be converted into heat energy.
Thus, the passage of electric current through (i) it has high resistivity, (ii) it has a high
a wire, results in the production of heat. This melting point, (iii) it is not easily oxidized.
phenomenon is called heating effect of current. 2. Fuse Wire:
This heating effect of current is used in devices
The fuse wire is connected in series, in an
like electric heater, electric iron, etc.
electric circuit. When a large current passes
4.8.1 Joule’s Law of Heating through the circuit, the fuse wire melts due to
Joule’s heating effect and hence the circuit gets
Let ‘I’ be the current flowing through a disconnected. Therefore, the circuit and the
resistor of resistance ‘R’, and ‘V’ be the potential electric appliances are saved from any damage.
difference across the resistor. The charge The fuse wire is made up of a material whose
flowing through the circuit for a time interval melting point is relatively low.
‘t’ is ‘Q’.
3. Filament in bulbs:
The work done in moving the charge Q
In electric bulbs, a small wire is used,
across the ends of the resistor with a potential
known as filament. The filament is made up of
10th Std Science 50
51 Electricity
53 Electricity
= = = 0.25 A
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
I. Choose the best answer 3. In a simple circuit, why does the bulb glow
when you close the switch?
1. Which of the following is correct?
a) The switch produces electricity.
a) Rate of change of charge is electrical power.
b) Closing the switch completes the circuit.
b) Rate of change of charge is current.
c) Closing the switch breaks the circuit.
c) Rate of change of energy is current.
d) The bulb is getting charged.
d) Rate of change of current is charge.
4. Kilowatt hour is the unit of
2. SI unit of resistance is
a) resistivity b) conductivity
a) mho b) joule
c) electrical energy d) electrical power
c) ohm d) ohm meter
55 Electricity
3. The wiring in a house consists of _________ d) if the assertion is false, but the reason is
circuits. true.
4.
Explain about domestic electric circuits. 2.
How many electrons are passing per
(circuit diagram not required) second in a circuit in which there is a
current of 5 A?
5. a) What are the advantages of LED TV
over the normal TV? 3. A piece of wire of resistance 10 ohm is drawn
b) List the merits of LED bulb. out so that its length is increased to three
times its original length. Calculate the new
resistance.
IX. Numerical problems:
1.
An electric iron consumes energy at
the rate of 420 W when heating is at the
REFERENCE BOOKS
maximum rate and 180 W when heating is
at the minimum rate. The applied voltage is 1. Electrodynamics by Griffiths
220 V. What is the current in each case?
2.
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by
2. A 100 watt electric bulb is used for 5 hours Charles Alexander
daily and four 60 watt bulbs are used for
5 hours daily. Calculate the energy consumed
(in kWh) in the month of January. I NT ER NET R ES O U RCES
57 Electricity
Steps • Open the browser and type “olabs.edu.in” in the address bar. Click physics tab and then click
“Ohm’s law and resistance” under class 10 section. Go to “simulator” tab to do the experiment.
• Construct the electric circuit as per the connection diagram by clicking “show circuit diagram”
tab. You can connect wires between electric component by dragging the mouse between the
component.
• Switch on the key and note down the voltage (V) and curren (I). Find the value of resistance
using the formula R = V . Repeat the experiment for different values of voltage and current.
I
Check whether the resistance remains constant.
• Find the value of Resistance/(length (in Cm)). Enter the value of resistance and resistance per
unit length in the result. Verify the answer.
Note:
1. One time sign up is needed to do simulation. Then login using that username
and password.
2. Read theory, procedure and animation to get the theory by clicking the
corresponding tab.
Link
URL:http://amrita.olabs.edu.in/?sub=1&brch=4&sim=99&cnt=4
Learning Objectives
Sound plays a major role in our lives. When you think about sound, the questions
We communicate with each other mainly that arise in your minds are: How is sound
through sound. In our daily life, we hear produced? How does sound reach our ears from
a variety of sounds produced by different various sources? What is sound? Is it a force or
sources like humans, animals, vehicle energy? Let us answer all these questions.
horns, etc. Hence, it becomes inevitable to By touching a ringing bell or a musical
understand how sound is produced, how it instrument while it is producing music, you can
is propagated and how you hear the sound conclude that sound is produced by vibrations.
from various sources. It is sometimes The vibrating bodies produce energy in the
misinterpreted that acoustics only deals with form of waves, which are nothing but sound
musical instruments and design of auditoria waves (Figure 5.1).
and concert halls. But, acoustics is a branch
of physics that deals with production,
transmission, reception, control, and effects
of sound. You have studied about propagation
and properties of sound waves in IX standard.
In this lesson we will study about reflection
of sound waves, Echo and Doppler effect. Figure 5.1 Production of sound waves
59
=√ T = √ 273273
v2 T2 +T
v1 1
=2 reflection are applicable to
sound waves as well.
Here, it is given that, v2 / v1 = 2. The incident wave, the normal to the
273 + T reflecting surface and the reflected wave
So, =4
273 at the point of incidence lie in the same
T = (273 × 4) – 273 = 819o C plane.
The angle of incidence ∠i is equal to the
angle of reflection ∠r.
5.2 REFLECTION OF SOUND These laws can be observed from Figure 5.4.
An echo is the sound reproduced due Some animals communicate with each
to the reflection of the original sound from other over long distances and also locate
various rigid surfaces such as walls, ceilings, objects by sending the sound signals and
surfaces of mountains, etc. receiving the echo as reflected from the
targets.
If you shout or clap near a mountain or
near a reflecting surface, like a building you The principle of echo is used in obstetric
can hear the same sound again. The sound, ultrasonography, which is used to create
which you hear is called an echo. It is due real-time visual images of the developing
to the reflection of sound. One does not embryo or fetus in the mother’s uterus.
experience any echo sound in a small room.
This is a safe testing tool, as it does not use
This does not mean that sound is not reflected
in a small room. This is because smaller rooms any harmful radiations.
do not satisfy the basic conditions for hearing Echo is used to determine the velocity of
an echo. sound waves in any medium.
5.3.1 C
onditions necessary for
hearing echo 5.3.3 M
easuring velocity of
sound by echo method
1.
The persistence of hearing for human
ears is 0.1 second. This means that you Apparatus required:
can hear two sound waves clearly, if the A source of sound pulses, a measuring
time interval between the two sounds is at tape, a sound receiver, and a stop watch.
10th Std Science 64
DEFINITION
Figure 5.7 Source and listener moving
When ever there is a relative motion towards each other
between a source and a listener, the
frequency of the sound heard by the listener
Let n and n' be the frequency of the
is different from the original frequency of
sound produced by the source and the sound
sound emitted by the source. This is known observed by the listener respectively. Then,
as “Doppler effect”. the expression for the apparent frequency n' is
v + vL
For simplicity of calculation, it is assumed n' = n
v − vs
that the medium is at rest. That is the velocity
of the medium is zero.
Here, v is the velocity of sound waves
Let S and L be the source and the listener in the given medium. Let us consider
moving with velocities vS and vL respectively. different possibilities of motions of the
Consider the case of source and listener source and the listener. In all such cases,
moving towards each other (Figure 5.7). As the the expression for the apparent frequency
distance between them decreases, the apparent is given in table 5.2.
67 Acoustics
69 Acoustics
71 Acoustics
Laws of Doppler
Measuring Properties Audible
Reflection effect
velocity
Reflection of Longitudinal
sound wave
ACOUSTICS Sound waves
wave
Echo
At Denser
At Rarer medium
Applications Medium
In this activity you will be able to learn how the observed frequencies of a sound changes
with the velocities of the source and the observer (Doppler effect).
Steps
• Open the browser and type “vlab.amrita.edu” in the address bar. Click ‘Physical Sciences’ and then
click ‘Harmonic Motion and Waves Virtual Lab’. Click ‘Doppler Effect’ and Go to “simulator” tab to do
the experiment. sign up one time with your e-mail
• Select medium of travel, detector direction and source direction by clicking the drop down menu.
• Change relative motion between source and observer by adjusting the velocity of the source and
observer using the slider.
• Discuss how apparent frequency is changes with respect to actual frequency by changing position of
source and listener. Also try for different source frequencies.
Link
http://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=201&sim=368&cnt=4
73 Acoustics
Learning Objectives
Introduction
74
77 Nuclear physics
15
P32 16S32 + -1e0 (β - decay)
Fig. 6.2 Nuclear fission
In β - decay there is no change in the mass
number of the daughter nucleus but the atomic
number increases by one. 6.3.2 Fissionable materials
Note: In a nuclear reaction, the element A fissionable material is a radioactive
formed as the product nucleus is identified by element, which undergoes fission in a
the atomic number of the resulting nucleus sustained manner when it absorbs a neutron.
and not by its mass number. It is also termed as 'fissile material'.
In a γ - decay, only the energy level of All isotopes of uranium do not undergo
the nucleus changes. The atomic number nuclear fission when they absorb a neutron.
and mass number of the radioactive nucleus For example, natural uranium consists of
238 235
remain the same. 99.28 % of 92U and 0.72 % of 92U . Of
these two, U 238 does not undergo fission
79 Nuclear physics
6.4.1 Definition
The process in which two lighter nuclei
combine to form a heavier nucleus is termed
as 'nuclear fusion'.
E.g.: 1H2 + 1H2 2
He4 + Q (Energy)
Here, 1H2 represents an isotope of
hydrogen known as 'deuterium'. The average
Fig. 6.4 Atom bomb energy released in each fusion reaction is
about 3.84 × 10-12 J. Figure 6.5 represents this.
During this explosion tremendous
amount of energy in the form of heat, light
and radiation is released. A region of very
high temperature and pressure is formed in a
fraction of a second along with the emission
of hazardous radiation like γ rays, which
adversely affect the living creatures. This
type of atom bombs were exploded in 1945
at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during
the World War II. Fig. 6.5 Nuclear fusion
81 Nuclear physics
Control rod
6.7 NUCLEAR REACTOR
Station is India’s first nuclear power station. one β - decay. Find number of neutrons in
Now, there are a total of seven power stations, the final daughter nucleus that is formed.
one each in Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Solution:
Uttar Pradesh and two in Tamilnadu. In
Tamilnadu, we have nuclear power stations in Let X and Y be the resulting nucleus after
Kalpakkam and Kudankulam. Apsara was the the emission of the alpha and beta particles
first nuclear reactor built in India and Asia. respectively.
Now, there are 22 nuclear reactors which are U235 α decay 90X231 + 2 He4
92
operating in India. Some other operating
reactors are X231
90
β decay 91Y231 + -1 e 0
• Cirus Number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number
• Dhuruva = 231 – 91 = 140
• Purnima
Solved problem 6.4
Solved problem 6.1
Calculate the amount of energy released
Identify A, B, C, and D from the when a radioactive substance undergoes fusion
following nuclear reactions. and results in a mass defect of 2 kg.
(i) 13Al27 + A --------> 15
P30 + B
Solution:
24 24
(ii) 12Mg + B --------> 11
Na + C Mass defect in the reaction (m) = 2 kg
(iii) 92U238 + B --------> Np239 + D Velocity of light (c) = 3 × 108 m s-1
93
By Einstein’s equation,
Answer Energy released E = mc2
(i) 13Al27 + 2He4 --------> 15
P30 + 0n1 So E = 2 × (3 × 108)2
= 1.8 × 1017 J
(ii) 12Mg24 + 0n1 --------> 11
Na24 + 1H1
EVALUATION
Match: IV
a. Uncontrolled fission Hydrogen Bomb VIII. Assertion and reason type questions:
reaction Mark the correct choice as
b. Fertile material Nuclear Reactor (a) If both the assertion and the reason
c. Controlled fission Breeder reactor are true and the reason is the correct
reaction explanation of the assertion.
d. Fusion reaction Atom bomb
(b) If both the assertion and the reason are
Match: V true, but the reason is not the correct ex-
planation of the assertion.
a. Co - 60 Age of fossil
(c) If the assertion is true, but the reason is false.
b. I - 131 Function of Heart
c. Na -11 Leukemia (d) If the assertion is false, but the reason is true.
d. C - 14 Thyroid disease
1. Assertion: A neutron impinging on U235,
V. Arrange the following in the correct splits it to produce Barium and Krypton.
sequence: Reason: U - 235 is a fissile material.
1. Arrange in descending order, on the basis 2. Assertion: In a β - decay, the neutron num-
of their penetration power ber decreases by one.
Alpha rays, beta rays, gamma rays, cosmic Reason: In β - decay atomic number in-
rays creases by one.
2. Arrange the following in the chronological 3. Assertion: Extreme temperature is neces-
order of discovery sary to execute nuclear fusion.
Nuclear reactor, radioactivity, artificial Reason: In a nuclear fusion, the nuclei of the
radioactivity, discovery of radium. reactants combine releasing high energy.
IX. Answer in one or two word (VSA) XI. Answer the following questions in detail.
89 Nuclear physics
Cells alive
URL: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.CowboyBebop.
AtomPhys&hl=en or Scan the QR Code.
*Pictures are indicative only
Learning Objectives
91
Note:
STP-Standard Temperature and
Figure 7.3 Mole concept
Pressure(273.15 K,1.00 atm)
Mole of atoms:
7.5 PERCENT COMPOSITION
One mole of an element contains
6.023 × 1023 atoms and it is equal to its gram So for, we were dealing with the number of
atomic mass. entities present in a given substance. But many
i.e., one mole of oxygen contains 6.023 × 1023 times, the information regarding the percentage
atoms of oxygen and its gram atomic mass is of a particular element present in a compound is
16 g. required.
The percentage composition of a compound
Mole of molecules: represents the mass of each element present in
One mole of matter contains 6.023 × 1023 100 g of the compound.
molecules and it is equal to its gram molecular Let us understand the percentage
mass. composition of oxygen and hydrogen by taking
V.D.
7.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Mass of 1 molecule of a gas or vapour at S.T.P.
=
VAPOUR DENSITY AND 2 × Mass of 1 atom of hydrogen
RELATIVE MOLECULAR (Eqn 7.1)
MASS
Relative molecular mass (hydrogen scale) =
i. Relative molecular mass: Mass of 1 molecule of a gas or vapour at STP
(Hydrogen scale) Mass of 1 atom of hydrogen
The Relative Molecular Mass of a gas or (Eqn 7.2)
vapour is the ratio between the mass of one You can therefore substitute the above
molecule of the gas or vapour to mass of one equation to an Eqn 7.1 and arrive at the
atom of Hydrogen. following formula
ii. Vapour Density: Relative molecular mass
V.D. =
Vapour density is the ratio of the mass 2
of a certain volume of a gas or vapour, to the
mass of an equal volume of hydrogen, measured Now on cross multiplication, you have
under the same conditions of temperature and 2 × vapour density = Relative molecular mass
pressure. of a gas
Vapour Density (V.D.)
(Or)
Mass of a given volume of gas or vapour at S.T.P.
= Relative molecular mass = 2 × Vapour density
Mass of the same volume of hydrogen
Volume at S.T.P
Number of moles of CO2 = = 5 × 6.023 × 1023
Molar volume
= 11.2 / 22.4 = 3.011 × 1024 atoms of Carbon
= 0.5 mole V. Calculation based on molar volume
Number of molecules of CO2 = number of Calculate the volume occupied by:
moles of CO2 × Avogadro’s number
1) 2.5 mole of CO2 at S.T.P
= 0.5 × 6.023 × 1023
= 3.011 × 1023 molecules of CO2 Given volume at S.T.P
Number of moles of CO2 =
Molar volume at S.T.P
2) Calculate the number of atoms present in
1 gram of gold (Atomic mass of Au = 198) Volume of CO2 at S.T.P
2.5 mole of CO2 =
Mass of Au × Avogadro’s 22.4
Number of atoms
number Volume of CO2 at S.T.P = 22.4 × 2.5
of Au =
Atomic mass of Au = 56 litres.
23
1 2) 3.011 × 10 of ammonia gas molecules
Number of atoms of Au = × 6.023 × 1023
198 Number of molecules
21
Number of moles =
Number of atoms of Au = 3.042 × 10 g Avogadro’s number
= 3.011 × 1023 / 6.023 × 1023
3) Calculate the number of molecules in 54 gm
of H2O? = 2 moles
Volume occupied by NH3
(Avogadro number
× Given mass) = number of moles × molar volume
Number of molecules =
Gram molecular = 2 × 22.4
mass
= 44.8 litres at S.T.P
Number of molecules
3) 14 g nitrogen gas
23
of water = 6.023 × 10 × 54 / 18 Number of moles = 14 / 28
23
= 18.069 × 10 molecules = 0.5 mole
4) Calculate the number of atoms of oxygen and Volume occupied by N2 at S.T.P
carbon in 5 moles of CO2.
= no. of moles × molar volume
• 1 mole of CO2 contains 2 moles of oxygen
= 0.5 × 22.4
• 5 moles of CO2 contain 10 moles of oxygen
= 11.2 litres.
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
Modern Avogadro’s
Atomic Hypothesis
Theory
Atom Molecule
Isotopes
Isobars Relative
Isotones Relative
Molecular
Atomic Mass
Mass
Gay-Lussac’s law
Atomicity of molecule
Average Mole Determine molecular formula
Atomic Mass Concept Relation between M.M and V.D
+ PERIODIC
– CLASSIFICATION
8 H
Elctron
OF ELEMENTS
on Transferred
T f d
Cl
Learning Objectives
After a thorough perusal of this unit, the students will be able to:
recognize the basis of the modern periodic law and its development.
list the features of groups and periods of the modern periodic table.
explain the trend in periodic properties along the periods and groups.
distinguish between ores and minerals .
list out the types of separation of impurities from the ores.
recall the various places of occurrences of minerals in the state of Tamil Nadu.
put forth the properties of metals.
identify the stages involved in metallurgical processes.
think scientifically on alloys and their types.
develop an idea on amalgam.
understand the reason for corrosion and the methods of its prevention.
Water
(ii) Magnetic separation method containing
pine oil
Principle: The magnetic properties of
the ores form the basis of separation. When Gangue
either the ore or the gangue is magnetic, this Froth floatation process for the concentration
of sulphide ores.
method is employed. e.g., Tinstone SnO2, the
ore of tin. Figure 8.9 Froth floatation
Finely ground ore
Method: The crushed ore is taken in
a large tank containing oil and water and
agitated with a current of compressed air.The
ore is wetted by the oil and gets separated from
Magnetic roller
the gangue in the form of froth. Since the ore
is lighter, it comes on the surface with the froth
Magnetic
and the impurities are left behind. e.g., Zinc
particles blende (ZnS).
Non-Magnetic
particles (iv) Chemical method or Leaching
Figure 8.8 Magnetic separation This method is employed when the ore is
in a very pure form.
Method: The crushed ore is placed over
a conveyer belt which rotates around two
Extraction of metal from metal oxide can be categorized into three types.
More reactive metals Medium reactive metals Less reactive metals
Na,K,Ca,Mg,Al Zn,Fe,Pb,Cu Ag,Hg
Electrolytic reduction of Chemical reduction of metal Thermal decomposition of
metal oxide into metal oxide into metal using coke metal oxide into metal
The ore is treated with a suitable reagent boiling points and vaporize only at high
such that the ore is soluble in it but the temperatures (exceptions: gallium, mercury,
impurities are not. The impurities are removed sodium and potassium).
by filtration. The solution of the ore, ie., the 5. Density: Metals have a high density
filtrate is treated with a suitable reagent which (exceptions: sodium and potassium are less
precipitates the ore. E.g. Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O, dense than water).
the ore of aluminium. 6. Ductility: Metals are usually ductile. In other
words, they can be drawn into thin wires
8.5 OCCURRENCE OF ORES IN without breaking.
TAMIL NADU 7. Malleability: Metals are usually malleable,
i.e, they can be beaten into thin sheets
Lime stone: Coimbatore, Cuddalore, Dindugul
without cracking (except zinc and
Gypsum: Tiruchi and Coimbatore Distiricts
mercury).
Titanium minerals: Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli
8. Conduction of heat and electricity: Metals
and Tuticorin.
are good conductors of heat and electricity;
Chromite: Coimbatore and Salem district.
silver and copper excel in this property
Magnetite:.
Dharmapuri, Erode, Salem,
(exception: tungsten)
Thiruvannamalai.
9. Solubility: Usually, metals do not dissolve in
Tungsten: Madurai and Dindugal.
liquid solvents.
(Reference: mineral resources of Tamil
Nadu-ENVIS Centre, Tamil Nadu)
8.6.2 Chemical Properties
• Valence electrons: Atoms of metals usually
8.6 PROPERTIES OF METALS
have 1,2 or 3 electrons in their outermost
shell.
8.6.1 Physical properties
• Formation of ions: Metals form Positive
1. Physical state: All metals are solids at room ions by the loss of electrons and hence they
temperature except mercury and gallium. are electro positive.
2. Lustre: Metals possess a high lustre (called • Discharge of ions: Metals are discharged at
metallic lustre). the cathode during the electrolysis of their
3. Hardness: Most of the metals are hard and compounds.
strong (exceptions: sodium and potassium • Atomicity: Molecules of metals in their
can be cut with a knife) vapour state are usually monoatomic.
4. Melting point and Boiling point: • Nature of oxides: Oxides of metals are
Usually, metals possess high melting and usually basic.
10th Std Science 114
Bauxite is the chief ore of aluminium. The Figure 8.10 Hall's Process
extraction of aluminium from bauxite involves
two steps: Aluminium is deposited at the cathode and
oxygen gas is liberated at the anode. Oxygen
(i) Conversion of bauxite into alumina – combines with graphite to form CO2.
Baeyer’s Process
The conversion of Bauxite into Alumina Physical Properties of Aluminium
involves the following steps: • It is a silvery white metal
Bauxite ore is finely ground and heated • It has low density (2.7) and it is light
under pressure with a solution of concentrated
• It is malleable and ductile
caustic soda solution at 150° C to obtain sodium
meta aluminate. • It is a good conductor of heat and
electricity.
On diluting sodium meta aluminate with
water, a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide is • Its melting point is 660 °C.
formed. • It can be polished to produce a shiny attractive
The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and appearance.
ignited at 1000°C to get alumina.
C hemical Properties of Aluminium
1000°c
2Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3H2O i. Reaction with air: It is not affected by
dry air. On heating at 800 °C, aluminium
(ii) Electrolytic reduction of alumina –
burns very brightly forming it’s oxide and
Hall’s Process
nitride.
Aluminium is produced by the electrolytic
reduction of fused alumina (Al2O3) in the 4 Al + 3 O2 → 2 Al2O3(Aluminium oxide)
electrolytic cell. 2 Al + N2 → 2 AlN (Aluminium nitride)
Cathode: Iron tank linked with graphite
ii. Reaction with water: Water does not react
Anode: A bunch of graphite rods suspended in with aluminium due to the layer of oxide
molten electrolyte. on it. When steam is passed over red hot
Electrolyte:
Pure alumina+ molten cryolite aluminium, hydrogen is produced.
+ fluorspar (fluorspar lowers the 2 Al + 3 H2O → Al2O3 + 3 H2↑
fusion temperature of electrolyte) (steam) (aluminium oxide)
Physical properties:
Hot gases
Iron ore, i. It is a lustrous metal, greyish white in colour.
coke
Pipe for
hot air
and lime ii. It has high tensility, malleability and
blast ductility.
iii. It can be magnetized.
Slag outlet
Chemical properties:
Iron outlet
i. Reaction with air or oxygen: Only on
heating in air, iron forms magnetic oxide.
Figure 8.11 Blast Furnace 3 Fe + 2 O2 Fe3O4 (black)
ii. Reaction with moist air: When iron is
(a) The Lower Region (Combustion Zone)-
exposed to moist air, it forms a layer of
The temperature is at 1500°C. In this region,
brown hydrated ferric oxide on its surface.
coke burns with oxygen to form CO2 when
This compound is known as rust and the
the charge comes in contact with a hot blast
phenomenon of formation of rust is known
of air.
as rusting.
1500°C
C + O2 CO2 + Heat
Δ 4 Fe+ 3 O2 + x H2O 2 Fe2O3 . xH2O(rust)
It is an exothermic reaction since heat is iii. Reaction with steam: When steam is passed
liberated. over red hot iron, magnetic oxide is formed.
(b) The Middle Region (Fusion Zone) – The 3 Fe + 4 H2O (steam) Fe3O4 + 4 H2 ↑
temperature prevails at 1000°C. In this
iv. Reaction with chlorine: Iron combines with
region, CO2 is reduced to CO.
chlorine to form ferric chloride.
1000°C
CO2 + C 2 CO – Heat 2Fe + 3Cl2 2FeCl3 (ferric chloride)
Δ
imestone decomposes to calcium oxide
L v. Reaction with acids: With dilute HCl and
and CO2. dilute H2SO4 it liberates H2 gas.
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2 ↑
CaCO3 CO2 – Heat
Δ Fe + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2 ↑
ese two reactions are endothermic due to
Th With dilute HNO3 in cold condition it gives
absorption of heat. Calcium oxide combines ferrous nitrate.
with silica to form calcium silicate slag.
4 Fe + 10 HNO3 → 4 Fe(NO3)2 + NH4NO3
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3 + 3 H2O
10th Std Science 118
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
5. Among the given species A–,A+, and A, the 2. Assertion : Magnesium is used to protect
smallest one in size is ________. steel from rusting
Reason : Magnesium is more reactive than
6. The scientist who propounded the modern iron
periodic law is ________.
3. Assertion : An uncleaned copper vessel is
7. Across the period, ionic radii ________ covered with greenish layer.
(increases,decreases).
Reason : copper is not attacked by alkali
8. ________ and ________ are called inner
transition elements. VI. Short answer questions
9. The chief ore of Aluminium is ________. 1. A is a reddish brown metal, which combines
with O2 at < 1370 K gives B, a black coloured
10. The chemical name of rust is ________. compound. At a temperature > 1370 K, A
gives C which is red in colour. Find A,B and
III. Match the following C with reaction.
1. Galvanisation : Noble gas elements 2. A is a silvery white metal. A combines with
2. Calcination : Coating with Zn O2 to form B at 800oC, the alloy of A is used
3. Redox reaction : Silver-tin amalgam in making the aircraft. Find A and B
4. Dental filling : Alumino thermic 3. What is rust? Give the equation for
process formation of rust.
5. G
roup 18 : Heating in the absence 4. State two conditions necessary for rusting of
elements of air iron.
IV. True or False: (If false give the correct VII. Long answer questions
statement) 1. a) State the reason for addition of caustic
1. Moseley’s periodic table is based on atomic alkali to bauxite ore during purification
mass. of bauxite.
2. Ionic radius increases across the period from b) Along with cryolite and alumina, another
left to right. substance is added to the electrolyte
10th Std Science 122
CONCEPT MAP
Ore (Concentration of Ores)
Purification
SOLUTIONS
9 CuSO4
Learning Objectives
124
125 Solutions
129 Solutions
131 Solutions
133 Solutions
135 Solutions
Hydrated Factors
salt affecting
solubility solubility
Based on type
Based on type Physical state
of solute
of solvent Based on type of
solute and solvent
Steps
• Access the application “BEAKER – Mix Chemicals” with help of the URL or QR code, Install it in the
mobile. You can see that the screen will act like a beaker after opening the application.
• If you click the round button, you can see many elements and compounds.
• If you click any elements and compounds, it will be added to the beaker in the home screen.
• By clicking Menu at the left side, You can see lid, match stick, burner and chemist. Use those whenever
necessary.
URL: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=air.thix.sciencesense.beaker
or Scan the QR Code.
Learning Objectives
Figure 10.2 Displacement of copper Which of the metals displaces hydrogen gas
from hydrochloric acid? Silver or Zinc. Give
It is easy to propose so many reactions the chemical equation of the reaction and
of this kind with different combinations of Justify your answer.
A B + C D → A D + C B
Although pure water is often considered All the aqueous solutions may contain
as a non-conductor of electricity, precise hydrogen and hydroxyl ions due to self-
measurements show that it conducts electricity ionisation of water. In addition to this
to a little extent. This conductivity of water has ionisation, substances dissolved in water also
resulted from the self-ionisation of water. Self- may produce hydrogen ions or hydroxyl ions.
The concentration of these ions decides whether
ionisation or auto ionisation is a reaction in
the solution is acidic or basic. pH scale is a scale
which two like molecules react to give ions.
for measuring the hydrogen ion concentration
In the process of ionisation of water, a proton
in a solution. The 'p' in pH stands for ‘Potenz’
from one water molecule is transferred to
in German meaning 'power'. pH notation was
another water molecule leaving behind an devised by the Danish biochemist Sorensen in
OH— ion. The proton gets dissolved in water 1909. pH scale is a set of numbers from 0 to 14
forming the hydronium ion as shown in the which is used to indicate whether a solution is
following equation: acidic, basic or neutral.
Its unit is mol2 dm-6. At 25° C, its value is How can we measure the pH of a given
1.00 × 10-14. solution using pH Paper
IV. True or False: (If false give the correct 3. Define combination reaction. Give one
statement) example for an exothermic combination
1. Silver metal can replace hydrogen gas from reaction.
nitric acid. 4. Differentiate reversible and irreversible
2. The pH of rain water containing reactions
dissolved gases like SO 3, CO 2, NO 2 will
be less than 7. VI. Short answer questions
3. At the equilibrium of a reversible reaction, 1. What are called thermolysis reactions?
the concentration of the reactants and the 2. Explain the types of double displacement
products will be equal. reactions with examples.
4. Periodical removal of one of the products 3. Explain the factors influencing the rate of a
of a reversible reaction increases the reaction
yield. 4. How does pH play an important role in
5. On dipping a pH paper in a solution, it turns everyday life?
into yellow. Then the solution is basic. 5. What is a chemical equilibrium? What are
its characteristics?
V. Answer in detail:
1. When an aqueous solution of potassium VIII. HOT questions
chloride is added to an aqueous solution 1. A solid compound ‘A’ decomposes on
of silver nitrate, a white precipitate is heating into ‘B’ and a gas ‘C’. On passing
formed. Give thr chemical equation of this the gas ‘C’ through water, it becomes acidic.
reaction. Identify A, B and C.
2. Why does the reaction rate of a reaction 2. Can a nickel spatula be used to stir copper
increase on raising the temperature? sulphate solution? Justify your answer.
153 Types of Chemical Reactions
Concept Map
Learning Objectives
Saturated
Unsaturated Heterocyclic
(Compounds Carbocyclic
(double or triple Compounds (Ring
containing C-C Compounds
bond) containing carbon and
bonds) (Only cabon
Ethene CH2 = CH2 other element)
E.g.Ethane ring)
Ethyne CH = CH E.g Pyridine, Furan
C2H6
Alicyclic Aromatic
Compounds Compounds
E.g Cyclobutane E.g Benzene
11.3 C
LASSES OF ORGANIC (b) Alkenes: The hydrocarbons, which contain
COMPOUNDS (BASED ON one or more C=C bonds are called alkenes.
THE KIND OF ATOMS) These are unsaturated compounds. They are
represented by the general formula CnH2n. The
Other than carbon, organic compounds simplest alkene contains two carbon atoms
contain atoms like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, (n=2) and is called ethylene (C2H4).
etc., bonded to the carbon. Combination of these (c) A
lkynes: The hydrocarbons containing carbon
kinds of atoms with carbon gives different classes to carbon triple bond are called alkynes. They
of organic compounds. In the following section, let are also unsaturated as they contain triple
us discuss various classes of organic compounds. bond between carbon atoms. They have the
general formula CnH2n – 2. Acetylene (C2H2)
11.3.1 Hydrocarbons is the simplest alkyne, which contains two
The organic compounds that are composed carbon atoms. Table 11.1 lists the first five
of only carbon and hydrogen atoms are called hydrocarbons of each class:
hydrocarbons. The carbon atoms join together Table 11.1 Hydrocarbons containing 1to 5
to form the framework of the compounds. These carbon atoms
are regarded as the parent organic compounds No. of
and all other compounds are considered to be carbon Alkane Alkene Alkyne
(CnH2n + 2) (CnH2n) (CnH2n - 2)
derived from hydrocarbons by replacing one atoms
or more hydrogen atoms with other atoms or Methane - -
group of atoms. Hydrocarbons are, further, sub 1
(CH4)
divided into three classes such as: Ethane Ethene Ethyne
2
(C2H6) (C2H4) (C2H2)
(a) Alkanes: These are hydrocarbons, which Propane Propene Propyne
contain only single bonds. They are represented 3
(C3H8) (C3H6) (C3H4)
by the general formula CnH2n + 2 (where n = Butane Butene Butyne
1,2, 3, ……). The simplest alkane (for n=1) is 4
(C4H10) (C4H8) (C4H6)
methane (CH4). Since, all are single bonds in Pentane Pentene Pentyne
5
alkanes, they are saturated compounds. (C5H12) (C5H10) (C5H8)
ALKANE ALKENE
Does not react with Will react with bromine A series of compounds containing the
bromine water, and water, and as such also
does not decolourise decolourises same functional group is called a class of
bromine water bromine water organic compounds. Table 11.2 shows various
classes or families of organic compounds and
their functional groups:
ADDITION OF BROMINE WATER TO
ALKANES AND ALKENES
O
Aldehydes || R-CHO Acetaldehyde, CH3CHO
−C−H
O
Ketones || R–CO-R Acetone, CH3COCH3
−C−
O
Carboxylic acids || R-COOH Acetic acid, CH3COOH
−C−OH
O Methyl acetate,
Ester || R-COOR
−C−OR CH3COOCH3
R-O-R
Ether –O–R Dimethyl ether, CH3OCH3
CH2
Rule 5: When the primary and secondary
�
CH3− CH− CH2− CH2− CH2 − CH3
suffixes are joined, the terminal ‘e’ of the
primary suffix is removed. Step 1: The longest chain contains seven
Rule 6: Identify the substituent and use a
� carbon atoms and hence the root word is ‘Hept’.
number followed by a dash and a prefix to Step 2: There is a substituent. So, the
conc.H2SO4
i) E
thanol is a colourless liquid, having a C2H5OH + CH3COOH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
pleasant smell and a burning taste. Ethanol Ethanoic acid Ethyl ethanoate
H — C — C — OH
(iii) Reaction with base: Ethanoic acid reacts
—
Soap Detergent
It is a sodium salt of long chain fatty acids. It is sodium salts of sulphonic acids.
– + –
The ionic part of a soap is –COO Na . The ionic part in a detergent is –SO 3Na+.
It is prepared from animal fats or vegetable oils. It is prepared from hydrocarbons obtained from
crude oil.
Its effectiveness is reduced when used in hard It is effective even in hard water.
water.
It forms a scum in hard water. Does not form a scum in hard water.
Aldehydes Tyre
Steps
• Type the URL or use the QR code to access the application “Organic chemistry visualized / OCV” and
install in the mobile.
• Click ‘Content’ to view the list of Hydrocarbon. Explore about the hydrocarbons by clicking those.
• On clicking ‘anim’ button, you can view the formulae of hydrocarbon as well as in animated form.
• Click ‘Quiz’ to evaluate yourself in this topic.
URL: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.budgietainment.oc
or Scan the QR Code.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
Understand vascular tissue system- their types and functions.
Know the structure of dicot root, stem, leaf and monocot root, stem, leaf.
Differentiate the internal structure of dicot root, stem, leaf with that of monocot root,
stem, leaf.
Name the different pigments found in chloroplast.
Elaborate on the structure and functions of plastids.
Enumerate the steps involved in photosynthesis.
Understand the structure of mitochondria
List the basic events of aerobic and anerobic respiration.
Functions: a) Collateral
i) Epidermis protects the inner tissues. Xylem lies towards the centre and phloem
ii) Stomata helps in transpiration. lies towards the periphery.
iii) Root hairs help in absorption of water and When cambium is present in collateral
minerals. bundles, it is called open. e.g. dicot stem and
collateral bundle without cambium is called
12.2.2 Ground Tissue System closed. e.g. monocot stem.
It includes all the tissues of the plant b) Bicollateral
body except epidermal and vascular tissues
In this type of bundle, the phloem is
like (i) Cortex (ii) Endodermis (iii) Pericycle
present on both outer and inner side of xylem.
(iv) Pith
e.g. Cucurbita
12.2.3 Vascular Tissue System (iii) Concentric Bundles
It consists of xylem and phloem tissues. Vascular bundle in which xylem completely
They are present in the form of bundles called surrounds the phloem or viceversa is called
vascular bundles. Xylem conducts water and concentric vascular bundle. It is of two types:
minarals to different parts of the plant. Phloem Amphivasal: Xylem surrounds phloem.
1.
conducts food materials to different parts of e.g. Dracaena
the plant.
2. Amphicribral: Phloem surrounds xylem.
There are three different types of vascular e.g. Ferns
bundles namely (i) Radial (ii) Conjoint Endarch: Protoxylem lies towards the centre
(iii) Concentric and metaxylem lies towards the periphery. e.g.
(i) Radial Bundles stem.
Xylem and phloem are present in different Exarch : Protoxylem lies towards the periphery
radii alternating with each other. e.g. roots and metaxylem lies towards the centre. e.g. roots.
10th Std Science 174
Cambium
Xylem
Phloem Xylem
Outer Phloem
Outer Cambium
Xylem Xylem
Phloem
Inner Cambium
Inner Phloem
Ground plan
Ground plan
Root hair
Cortex
Cortex
Xylem
Casparian strip
Pith
A sector enlarged
A sector enlarged
Figure 12.2 Transverse section of Dicot root Figure 12.3 Transverse section of
Monocot root
from the soil. This layer also protects the inner
tissues. c) Pith: It is present at the center. It is made up
ii. Cortex: It is multilayered large zone, of parenchyma cells with intercellular spaces.
composed of parenchymatous cells with It contains abundant amount of starch grains.
intercellular spaces. It stores water and food It stores food.
material.
iii. Endodermis: It is the innermost layer 12.5 Internal Structure of Dicot
of cortex with characteristic casparian strips Stem (Sunflower)
and passage cells. Casparian strips are band
like thickening made of suberin. The transverse section of a dicot stem
reveals the following structures.
iv. Stele: All the tissues inner to
endodermis constitute stele. It includes 1. Epidermis: It is the outermost layer. It is
pericycle, vascular tissues and pith. made up of single layer of parenchyma
a) Pericycle: It is a single layer of thin walled cells, its outer wall is covered with cuticle.
cells. The lateral roots originate from this layer. It is protective in function.
b) Vascular tissues: It consists of many patches 2. Cortex:- It is divided into three regions:
of xylem and phloem arranged radially. The (i) Hypodermis: It consists of 3 - 6 layers
xylem is exarch and polyarch. The conjunctive of collenchyma cells. It gives mechanical
tissue is made up of sclerenchyma. support.
10th Std Science 176
(ii) Middle cortex: It is made up of few cells. It is covered with thick cuticle.
layers of chlorenchyma cells. It is involed Multicellular hairs are absent and stomata
in photosynthesis due to the presence of are also less in number.
chloroplast. 2. Hypodermis: It is made up of few layers
(iii) Inner cortex: It is made up of few of sclerenchyma cells interrupted by
layers of parenchyma cells. It helps in gaseous chlorenchyma. Sclerenchyma provides
exchange and stores food materials. mechanical support to plant.
Endodermis is the inner most layer of 3. Ground tissue: The entire mass of
cortex it consists of a single layer of barrel parenchyma cells next to hypodermis
shaped cells, these cells contain starch grains.
Epidermal hair
So it is also called starch sheath.
Epidermis
3. Stele: The central part of the stem inner to Hypodermis
endodermis is known as stele. It consists of Cortex
Endodermis
pericycle, vascular bundle and pith.
(i) Pericycle: It occurs between vascular Vascular bundle
bundle and endodermis. It is multilayered, Pith
parenchymatous with alternating patches of Ground plan
sclerenchyma.
Epidermal hair
(ii) Vascular bundle: Vascular bundles Cuticle
are conjoint, collateral, endarch and open. Epidermis
They are arranged in the form of a ring around Collenchyma
Chlorenchyma
the pith.
Parenchyma
(iii) Pith: The large central parenchymatous
zone with intercellular spaces is called pith. It Endodermis
Pith
A transverse section of monocot stem
reveals the following structures.
A sector enlarged
1. Epidermis: It is the outermost layer. It is
made up of single layer of parenchyma Figure 12.4 Transverse section of Dicot stem
177 Plant Anatomy and Plant Physiology
12.7 Internal Structure of (i) Upper epidermis: This is the outermost layer
Dicot or Dorsiventral Leaf made of single layered parenchymatous
(Mango) cells without intercellular spaces. The outer
wall of the cells are cuticularized. Stomata
The transverse section of leaf shows the are less in number.
following structures.
10th Std Science 178
Upper epidermis
Palisade parenchyma
Xylem
Spongy parenchyma
Phloem
Bundle sheath
Stoma
Epidermal hair
Lower epidermis
(ii) Lower epidermis: It is a single layer of bundle sheath. Each vascular bundle
parenchymatous cells with a thin cuticle. It consists of xylem lying towards the
contains numerous stomata. Chloroplasts upper epidermis and phloem towards
are present only in guard cells. The lower the lower epidermis.
epidermis helps in the exchange of gases.
The loss of water vapour is facilitated 12.8 Internal Structure of
through this chamber. Monocot or Isobilateral
(iii) Mesophyll: The tissue present between Leaf
the upper and lower epidermis is called
The transverse section of a monocot leaf
mesophyll. It is differentiated into Palisade
reveals the following structures.
parenchyma and Spongy parenchyma.
(i) Epidermis: Monocot leaf has upper and
a) Palisade parenchyma: It is found just
lower epidermis. Epidermis is made up
below the upper epidermis. The cells
of parenchyma cells. Cuticle is present on
are elongated. These cells have more
the outer wall stomata are present on both
number of chloroplasts. The cells do
upper and lower epidermis. Some cells of
not have intercellular spaces and they
upper epidermis are large and thin walled
take part in photosynthesis.
they are known as bulliform cells.
b) Spongy parenchyma: It is found
(ii) Mesophyll: It is the ground tissue that is
below the palisade parenchyma
present between both epidermal layers.
tissue. Cells are almost spherical or
Mesophyll is not differentiated into
oval and are irregularly arranged.
palisade and spongy parenchyma. The cells
Cells have intercellular spaces. It
are irregularly arranged with inter-cellular
helps in gaseous exchange.
spaces. These cells contain chloroplasts.
(iv) Vascular bundles: Vascular bundle of (iii) Vascular bundles: Large number of
mid-rib is larger. Vascular bundles are vascular bundles are present, some of
conjoint, collateral and closed. Each which are small and some are large.
vascular bundle is surrounded by a Each vascular bundle is surrounded by
sheath of parenchymatous cells called parenchymatous bundle sheath. Vascular
Mesophyll
Bundle sheath
Xylem
Phloem
Lower epidermis
Stoma
bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed. of 2-10 micrometer and a thickness of 1-2
Xylem is present towards upper epidermis micrometer.
and phloem towards lower epidermis. Thylakoid membrane
Thylakoid lumen
More to Know
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Water + Oxygen
ATP Adenosine Triphosphate
12.9.4 Where does ADP Adenosine Diphosphate
photosynthesis occur? Nicotinamide Adenine
NAD
Photosynthesis occurs in green parts of Dinucleotide
the plant such as leaves, stems and floral buds. Nicotinamide Adenine
NADP
Dinucleotide Phosphate
12.9.5 Photosynthetic Pigments
Pigments involved in photosynthesis A cell cannot get its energy
are called Photosynthetic pigments. directly from glucose. So
Photosynthetic pigments are of two classes in respiration the energy
namely, the primary pigments and accessory released from glucose is used to make ATP
pigments. Chlorophyll a is the primary (Adenosine Triphosphate)
pigment that traps solar energy and converts
it into electrical and chemical energy. Thus it 2. Light independent reactions
is called the reaction centre. Other pigments
(Biosynthetic phase)
such as chlorophyll b and carotenoids are
called accessory pigments as they pass on The second steps (dark reaction or
the absorbed energy to chlorophyll a (Chl.a) biosynthetic pathway) is carried out in the
molecule. Reaction centres (Chl. a) and stroma. During this reaction CO2 is reduced
the accessory pigments (harvesting centre) into carbohydrates with the help of light
together are called photosystems. generated ATP and NADPH2. This is also
called as Calvin cycle and is carried out in the
12.9.6 Role of Sunlight in absence of light.
Photosynthesis In Calvin cycle the inputs are CO2 from
The entire process of photosynthesis takes the atmosphere and the ATP and NADPH2
place inside the chloroplast. The structure of produced from light reaction.
Info bit
Artificial photosynthesis
is a method for producing
renewable energy by the use
of sunlight. Indian scientist
C.N.R. Rao who was
conferred the Bharat Ratna
(2013) is also working on similar technology
of artificial photosynthesis to produce -
Hydrogen fuel (renewable energy) Figure 12.10 Structure of Mitochondria
10th Std Science 182
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
III. State whether the statements are true or VII. Long answer questions
false. Correct the false statement. 1. Differentiate the following
1. Phloem tissue is involved in the transport a) Monocot root and Dicot root
of water in plant. b) Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration
2. The waxy protective covering of a plant is 2. Describe and name three stages of cellular
called as cuticle. respiration that aerobic organisms use to
3. In monocot stem cambium is present in obtain energy from glucose.
between xylem and phloem.
3. How does the light dependent reaction
4. Palisade parenchyma cells occur below differ from the light independent reaction?
upper epidermis in dicot root.
What are the end product and reactants
5. Mesophyll contains chlorophyll. in each? Where does each reaction occur
6. Anaerobic respiration produces more ATP within the chloroplast?
than aerobic respiration.
VIII. Higher Order Thinking Skills(HOTS)
IV. Match the following
1. The reactions of photosynthesis make up a
1. Amphicribal - Dracaena
biochemical pathway.
2. Cambium - Translocation of food
A) What are the reactants and products
3. Amphivasal - Fern
for both light and dark reactions.
4. Xylem - Secondary growth
B) Explain how the biochemical pathway
5. Phloem - Conduction of water
of photosynthesis recycles many of its
V. Answer in a sentence own reactions and identify the recycled
1. What is collateral vascular bundle? reactants.
2. Where do the light dependent reaction and
2. Where does the carbon that is used in
the Calvin cycle occur in the chloroplast.
photosynthesis come from?
3. What is the common step in aerobic and
anaerobic pathway? REFERENCE BOOKS
4. Name the phenomenon by which
carbohydrates are oxidized to release ethyl 1. Bajracharya D, Experiments in Plant
alcohol. Physiology, Narosa Publishing House,
New Delhi
VI. Short answer questions
2. Pandey B.P. Plant Anatomy, S. Chand and
1. Give an account on vascular bundle of
Company Ltd, New Delhi
dicot stem.
3. Verma P.S. and Agarwal V.K. Cytology,
2. Write a short note on mesophyll. S.Chand and Company Ltd, New Delhi
3. Draw and label the structure of oxysomes.
4. Name the three basic tissues system in
flowering plants. I NT ER NET R ES O URCES
5. What is photosynthesis and where in a
cell does it occur? www.science daily.com
6. What is respiratory quotient? www.britannica.com
Light
dependent
Krebs reaction
cycle
Light
Respiration Photo independent
synthesis reaction
Glycolysis Living
world of
plants
Affecting
factors
Mitochondria
structure
Plant
Anatomy
Monocot
root, Dicot root,
stem, Vascular stem, leaves
leaves system
Steps
• Access the application Photoshinythesis with the help of the provided URL or QR code. Install in
your device. After opening the app, Click LEVELS to begin the game.
• A palnt sapling will be in one side, and sun rays will be at the other side. You have to drag and adjust
the mirror so that the sunlight rays will fall on the plant.
• At the top left, there is a indicator to show the timings.
• Explore and complete the other levels gradually.
Cells alive
URL : https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.Rinekso.PhotoSHinythesis
Learning Objectives
187
,QWHVWLQH Respiration takes place through the skin in
leech. Dense network of tiny blood vessels called
5HFWXP
as capillaries containing the haemocoelic fluid
$QXV extend in between the cells of the epidermis.
The exchange of respiratory gases takes place
by diffusion. Oxygen dissolved in water diffuses
Figure 13.2 Digestive system of Leech through the skin into haemocoelic fluid, while
10th Std Science 190
*DQJOLRQ
It consists of ovaries, oviducts and vagina.
There is a single pair of ovary in the 11th
segment on the ventral side. Each ovary is a
coiled ribbon-shaped structure.
The ova are budded off from the ovary. From
each ovary runs a short oviduct. The oviducts of
the two sides joins together, to form a common
oviduct. The common oviduct opens into a
pear-shaped vagina which lies mid-ventrally in
Figure 13.3 Nervous system of Leech the posterior part of the 11th segment.
191 Structural Organisation of Animals
17th
nephridum
13.2 Rabbit
Anus
(Oryctolagus cuniculus)
Posterior sucker
Taxonomic Position
Figure 13.4 Reproductive system of Leech
Phylum Chordata
More to Know Sub-phylum Vertebrata
Class Mammalia
Medicinal value of Leech
Leeches are effective in increasing Order Lagomorpha
blood circulation and breaking up blood Genus Oryctolagus
clots. It is surprising that they can be used to Species cuniculus
treat cardiovascular diseases. Biochemical
substances derived from leech saliva are 13.2.1 Habit and Habitat
used for preparation of pharmaceutical Rabbits are gentle and timid animals. They
drugs that can treat hypertension. show leaping movement and live in burrows.
Trunk
to other rabbits in the event of danger.
Mouth
Integument (Skin): The integument forms
Upper arm
Thigh the outer covering of the body. The structures
Fore arm
Tail
which are derived from it are hairs, claws,
Digits nails and glands like sweat glands, sebaceous
Foot
glands and mammary glands.
Figure 13.5 Rabbit- External features
Mammary glands are modified glands
Shape, Size and Colouration: It has an of the skin. They secrete milk and help in
elongated and cylindrical body. Males and
nourishing young ones. The sweat glands
females are of the same size. They grow about and sebaceous glands embedded in the skin
45 cm in length and weigh about 2.25 kg as regulate the body temperature.
adult. The colour varies from white to black
and white. Body is covered with fur which
serves to keep it warm. 13.2.3 Coelom (Body cavity)
Bronchi /HIWSXOPRQDU\
Right anterior DUWHU\ 5LJKWDXULFOH
lobe
Left anterior lobe 3XOPRQDU\YHLQV
Lobules /HIWDXULFOH
5LJKWYHQWULFOH
/HIWYHQWULFOH
(SLGLG\PLV
Excretory system
Each kidney is made of several nephrons. Female reproductive system
It separates the nitrogenous wastes from blood The female reproductive system of rabbit
and excretes it in the form of urea. Kidneys consists of a pair of ovaries which are small
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
REFERENCE BOOKS
I NT ER NET R ES O U RCES
1. Kotpal R.L, 2014 Modern Text Book of
Zoology -Invertebrates,Rastogi Publications, http://leeches-medicinalis.com/
Meerut. http://www.biologydiscussion.com/zoology
2. Ekambaranatha Ayyar M and Anantha http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Hirudo_
krishnan T. N. 2003. Manual of Zoology, medicinalis/
Vol I, Part I & II (Invertebrates), http://w w w.notes onzo olog y.com/rabbit/
S.
Viswanathan Printers and Publishers external-morphology/external-morphology-of-
Pvt Ltd. rabbit-with-diagram-chordata-zoology/7642
Concept Map
LEECH RABBIT
External Morphology
Claws and Nails
Metameres
Head, Trunk, Tail
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson the students will be able to :
Learn how the water and minerals move from soil to the plant.
Learn how prepared food by the leaf is translocated to various parts of the plant.
Understand the role of osmosis and transpiration.
Understand the composition of blood.
Identify and explain the structure of heart and associated blood vessels.
Understand systemic, pulmonary and coronary circulation.
Differentiate the events of the cardiac cycle.
Know about blood pressure and heart beat.
Understand the use of stethoscope and sphygmomanometer.
Identify the different blood groups.
Understand the role of lymphatic system.
200
Protoplasm
The transport of materials in and out of Nucleus
Loss of
water
the cells is carried out by diffusion and active
Normal plant cell Plasmolysed plant cell
transport in plants.
Figure. 14.2 Plasmolysis
14.1.1 Diffusion
The movement of molecules in liquid and Activity 1
solids from a region of higher concentration to
a region of their lower concentration without Demonstration of Osmosis
the utilization of energy is called diffusion. This A thistle funnel whose mouth is covered with
is a passive process. a semipermeable membrane, is filled with
sucrose solution. It
is kept inverted in a
beaker containing
water. The water Sugar
soluon
Starng
will diffuse across lever
away from the cell wall. Figure. 14.3 Root Tip with Root Hairs
201 Transportation in Plants and Circulation in Animals
Absorbed by Roots
14.5 Transpiration
Aorta
Figure. 14.10 Structure of blood vessel Pulmonary
Superior vena trunk
cava
Left atrium
14.14 Types of Circulatory Right atrium
System Pulmonary
veins
Right ventricle
Animals possess two types of circulatory Left ventricle
system. They are
1. Open type Inferior vena
cava
2. Closed type
Figure. 14.11 External structure of human heart
Open type
The human heart is four chambered. The
In open type the blood is pumped by heart
two upper thin walled chambers of the heart
into blood vessels that open into blood spaces
are called auricle or atria (sing: atrium) and
called as sinuses. These sinuses are the body
two lower thick walled chambers are called
cavities which are called haemocoel. Capillary
ventricles. The chambers are separated by
system is absent. e.g. Arthropods, Molluscs
partition called septum. The septum between
and Ascidians.
auricles and ventricles prevents the mixing of
Closed type oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
In closed type the blood flows in a complete The two auricles are separated from each
circuit around the body through specific blood other by interatrial septum.The left atrium is
vessels. The blood flows from arteries to veins smaller than the right atrium. The right atrium
through small blood vessels called capillaries. receives deoxygenated blood from different parts
e.g Vertebrates. of the body through the main veins superior
vena cava, inferior vena cava and coronary
More to Know
sinus. Pulmonary veins bring oxygenated
Closed circulatory system was discovered by blood to the left atrium from the lungs. The right
William Harvey (1628) who is regarded the and left auricles pump blood into the right and
Father of Modern Physiology. left ventricles respectively.
The ventricles form the lower part of the
14.15 Structure of Human Heart heart. The two ventricles are separated from
each other by an interventricular septum. The
Heart is a muscular pumping organ that left and right ventricles have thick walls because
pumps out the blood into the blood vessels. the ventricles have to pump out blood with force
Human heart is situated between the lungs, away from the heart. From the right ventricle
(a) Atrial systole: Contraction of auricles In an healthy adult during normal resting
(0.1 sec) condition systolic and diastolic blood pressure
(b) Ventricular systole: Contraction of is expressed as 120mm / 80mm Hg. Blood
ventricles (0.3 sec) pressure varies during conditions of physical
(c) Ventricular diastole: Relaxation of exercise, anxiety, emotions, stress and sleep.
ventricles (0.4 sec) A prolonged or constant elevation of
blood pressure is a condition known as
hypertension (High blood pressure) can
Atrial
systole increase the risk of heart attack and stroke.
(0.1 sec)
Decrease in blood pressure is termed
Ventricular hypotension (Low blood pressure).
systole
Ventricular
(0.3 sec)
diastole (0.4 sec)
Stethoscope
A stethoscope is used to detect the sound
produced by the internal organs of human
body. The heart sound is heard by placing the
persons do not have Rh antigen on the surface but is colourless and contains less proteins.The
of RBC. Antibodies developed against this Rh lymph contains very small amount of nutrients,
antigen is called Rh antibodies. oxygen, CO2, water and WBC.
Functions of Lymph
14.18 Lymphatic System •• Supplies nutrition and oxygen to those
The lymphatic system comprises of parts where blood cannot reach
lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymph •• It drains away excess tissue fluid and
nodes and lymphatic ducts. Lymph is the fluid metabolites and returns proteins to the
that flows through the lymphatic system. blood from tissue spaces.
The lymphatic capillaries unite to form •• The lymph also carries absorbed fats from
large lymphatic vessels. Lymph nodes are small intestine to the blood. The lymphatic
small oval or pear shaped structures located capillaries of intestinal villi (lacteals)
along the length of lymphatic vessels. absorb digested fats.
•• Lymphocytes in the lymph defend the body
Lymph node
from infections.
Lymph
Lymphatic node Points to Remember
duct
Thoracic The movement of molecules from a region
duct
of higher concentration to a region of
their lower concentration without the
utilization of energy is called diffusion.
Osmosis is the movement of solvent or
water molecules from the region of higher
concentration to the region of lower
Figure. 14.16 Lymphatic System in Man concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane.
Lymph
Transpiration is the evaporation of
Lymph from the intercellular spaces water in plants through stomata in the
drains into lymphatic capillaries. Lymph is a leaves.
colourless fluid formed when plasma, proteins
and blood cells escape into intercellular spaces The circulatory system consists of the
in the tissues through the pores present in the circulating fluids, the blood and lymph
walls of capillaries. It is similar to blood plasma, and the heart and its blood vessels.
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
I. Choose the correct answer 5. Which of the following process requires
1. Active transport involves energy?
Concept Map
Diffusion
Active transport
Osmosis
Transport in plants
Plasmolysis
Imbibition
Root hair
Apoplast
Pathway of water
absorbed by plants
Symplast
Stomata
Transportation Transpiration
in plants
Importance of
transpiration
Root pressure
Mineral ions
Translocation
Sugar
Ascent of sap
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Learning Objectives
218
15.2.1 Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are the chemicals
which allow the transmission of nerve impulse
from the axon terminal of one neuron to the
dendron of another neuron or to an effector Fig. 15.4 Meninges of Brain
organ. The important neurotransmitter The brain is the controlling centre of
released by neurons is called Acetylcholine. all the body activities. It is covered by three
connective tissue membrane or meninges :
15.3 Human Nervous System (i) Duramater (dura: tough; mater:
membrane)is the outermost thick fibrous
The complexity of nervous system can be membrane
observed during the course of evolution. We (ii) Arachnoid membrane (arachnoid:
the human beings differ from other animals spider) is the middle, thin vascular
in our ability to think and take actions, which membrane providing web like cushion
is due to the well developed nervous system. (iii) Piamater (Pia: soft or tender) is the
Human nervous system is differentiated into innermost, thin delicate membrane richly
central nervous system (CNS), peripheral supplied with blood.
nervous system (PNS) and autonomic
Meningeal membranes protect the brain
nervous system (ANS).
from mechanical injury.
221 Nervous System
Thalamus Hypothalamus
Midbrain It lies at the base of the thalamus. It
controls involuntary functions like hunger,
Cerebellum
Hind thirst, sleep, sweating, sexual desire, anger,
brain
Hypothalamus fear, water balance, blood pressure etc. It acts
Pons
as a thermoregulatory (temperature control)
Medulla oblongata
center of the body. It controls the secretion of
Spinal cord
hormones from anterior pituitary gland and is
an important link between nervous system and
Fig. 15.5 Structure of Brain
endocrine system.
Forebrain: The forebrain is formed
Midbrain
of cerebrum and diencephalon. The latter
consists of dorsal thalamus and ventral It is located between thalamus and hind
hypothalamus. brain. The dorsal portion of the mid brain
consists of four rounded bodies called corpora
Cerebrum quadrigemina that control visual and auditory
It is the largest portion forming nearly two- (hearing) reflexes.
third of the brain. The cerebrum is longitudinally
Hindbrain
divided into two halves as right and left cerebral
It is formed of three parts cerebellum,
hemispheres by a deep cleft called median cleft.
pons and medulla oblongata.
Two cerebral hemispheres are interconnected
by thick band of nerve fibres called corpus
callosum. The outer portion of each cerebral The human brain
hemisphere is formed of grey matter and is constitutes nearly 60 percent of
called cerebral cortex. The inner or deeper part fat. The most crucial molecules
is formed of white matter and is called cerebral that determine our brain’s integrity and the
medulla. The cortex is extremely folded forming ability are Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs). EFAs
elevations called gyri with depressions between cannot be synthesised and must be obtained
them termed as sulci that increase its surface from food. Fish, green leafy vegetables,
area. almond, walnut are rich sources of EFAs.
Spinal Nerves
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Each
spinal nerve has a dorsal sensory root and the
ventral motor root. The direction of impulses
in dorsal spinal root is towards the spinal cord
and in ventral spinal root away from the spinal
cord. Fig. 15.8 Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
nervous system
Activity 3
Use the letter and number code to decode the given information
24 18 13 26 8 2 15 24 4 9 4 5 8 25 7
19 1 15 21 1 9 8 7 22 2 7 18 23
25 1 4 12 10 8 2 13 8 13 5 1 5
B Z 19 1 15 21 1 9 8 7 22 8 7 8 24 26
1 9 1 15 12 23 24 9 18 7 3 23 12 1 9
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
24 2 21 18 1 22 12 10 4 16 14 26 20
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
9 7 19 6 15 5 8 13 11 25 3 23 0
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
I. Choose the correct answer 7. The neurons which carries impulse from
1. Bipolar neurons are found in the central nervous system to the muscle
(a) retina of eye (b) cerebral cortex fibre.
(c) embryo (d) respiratory epithelium (a) afferent neurons (b) association neuron
(c) efferent neuron (d) unipolar neuron
2. Site for processing of vision, hearing,
memory, speech, intelligence and thought is 8. Which nervous band connects the two
(a) kidney (b) ear cerebral hemispheres of brain?
(c) brain (d) lungs (a) thalamus (b) hypothalamus
3. In reflex action, the reflex arc is formed by (c) corpus callosum (d) pons
(a) brain, spinal cord, muscle 9. Node of Ranvier is found in
(b) receptor, muscle, spinal cord (a) muscles (b) axons
(c) muscle, receptor, brain (c) dendrites (d) cyton
(d) receptor, spinal cord, muscle
10. Vomiting centre is located in
4. Dendrites transmit impulse cell
body and axon transmit impulse (a) medulla oblongata (b) stomach
cell body. (c) cerebrum (d) hypothalamus
(a) away from, away from 11. Nerve cells do not possess
(b) towards, away from
(a) neurilemma (b) sarcolemma
(c) towards,towards
(c) axon (d) dendrites
(d) away from, towards
5. The outer most of the three cranial 12. A person who met with an accident
meninges is lost control of body temperature, water
(a) arachnoid membrane (b) piamater balance, and hunger. Which of the
(c) duramater (d) myelin sheath following part of brain is supposed to be
damaged?
6. There are pairs of cranial nerves
and pairs of spinal nerves. (a) Medulla oblongata (b) cerebrum
(a) 12, 31 (b) 31, 12 (c) 12, 13 (d) 12, 21 (c) pons (d) hypothalamus
6. All the nerves in the body are covered and VII. Differentiate between
protected by meninges. 1. Voluntary and involuntary actions.
7. Cerebrospinal fluid provides nutrition to 2. Medullated and non-medullated nerve
brain. fibre.
8. Reflex arc allows the rapid response of the VIII. Long answer question
body to a stimulus. 1. With a neat labelled diagram explain the
9. Pons helps in regulating respiration. structure of a neuron.
227 Nervous System
CONCEPT MAP
Learning Objectives
229
16.1.1 Auxins
Figure 16.2 Went’s Experiment
Auxins (Gk. auxein = to grow) were the
first plant hormones discovered. The term Types of Auxins: Auxins are classified into
auxin was introduced by Kogl and Haagen- two types, namely natural auxins and synthetic
Smith (1931). Auxins are produced at the tip auxins.
of stems and roots from where they migrate to
Natural Auxins: Auxins produced by
1.
the zone of elongation. Charles Darwin (1880),
the plants are called natural auxins.
observed unilateral growth and curvature of
Example: IAA (Indole – 3 - Acetic Acid)
canary grass (Phalaris canariensis) coleoptiles.
He came to the conclusion that some ‘influence’ Synthetic Auxins: Artificially synthesized
2.
was transmitted from the tip of the coleoptile auxins that have properties like auxins
to the basal region. This ‘influence’ was later are called as synthetic auxins. Example: 2,
identified as Auxin by Went. 4 D (2,4 Dichlorophenoxy Acetic Acid).
16.1.3 Gibberellins
Figure 16.3 Cell Elongation Gibberellins are the most abundantly found
2. Auxins induce root formation at low plant hormones. Kurosawa (1926) observed
concentration and inhibit it at higher Bakanae disease or foolish seedling disease
concentration. in rice crops. This internodal elongation in rice
3. The auxins produced by the apical buds was caused by fungus Gibberella fujikuroi. The
suppress growth of lateral buds. This is active substance was identified as Gibberellic
called apical dominance. acid.
4. Seedless fruits without fertilization are Physiological effects of Gibberellins:
induced by the external application of 1.
Application of gibberellins on plants
auxins. (Parthenocarpy). Examples: stimulate extraordinary elongation of
Watermelon, Grapes, Lime etc. internode. e.g. Corn and Pea.
5. Auxins prevent the formation of abscission
layer.
16.1.2 Cytokinins
Hypothyroidism Parathyroid
gland
Thyroid gland
It is caused due to the decreased secretion of Parathyroid
gland
the thyroid hormones. The abnormal conditions Trachea
are simple goitre, cretinism and myxoedema.
Figure 16.9 Parathyroid Gland
235 Plant and Animal Hormones
Pancreatic
•• Increased thirst (Polydipsia).
Acinar cells
duct
•• Increase in appetite (Polyphagia).
Duodenum
More to Know
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
I Choose the correct answer 8. Which organ acts as both exocrine gland
1. Gibberellins cause: as well as endocrine gland
a) Shortening of genetically tall plants a) Pancreas b) Kidney c) Liver d) Lungs
b) Elongation of dwarf plants
9. Which one is referred as “Master Gland”?
c) Promotion of rooting
d) Yellowing of young leaves a) Pineal gland b) Pituitary gland
2. The hormone which has positive effect on c) Thyroid gland d) Adrenal gland
apical dominance is:
II Fill in the blanks
a) Cytokinin b) Auxin
c) Gibberellin d) Ethylene 1. _________ causes cell elongation, apical
dominance and prevents abscission.
3. Which one of the following hormones is
naturally not found in plants: 2. _________ is a gaseous hormone involved
in abscission of organs and acceleration of
a) 2, 4-D b) GA3
fruit ripening.
c) Gibberellin d) IAA
4. Avena coleoptile test was conducted by 3. _________ causes stomatal closure.
Plant Hormones
Auxins
Abscisic Acid
Cytokinins
Gibberellins Ethylene
THYROID T3, T4
PITUITARY GLAND GLAND
INSULIN, PANCREAS (ISLETS
GLUCAGON OF LANGERHANS) PARATHORMONE
PARATHYROID
ENDOCRINE GLAND
GLANDS
THYMUS GLAND
GONADS TESTIS
THYMOSIN
ADRENAL
GLAND OVARY TESTOSTERONE
ADRENAL CORTEX ADRENAL
MEDULLA ESTROGEN,
CORTISOL, PROGESTERONE
ALDOSTERONE EPINEPHRINE
NOREPINEPHRINE
Learning Objectives
243
Leaf notches
Fission: In this type the parent cell divides into
two daughter cells and each cell develops into a
new adult organism e.g. Amoeba.
Activity 2
Advantages of self-pollination
1. Self-pollination is possible in certain
bisexual flowers.
2. Flowers do not depend on agents for
pollination.
Figure 17.10 Structure of the Ovule 3. There is no wastage of pollen grains.
10th Std Science 246
Male
f lower Female
f lower
Significance of Fertilization
(i) It stimulates the ovary to develop into
fruit.
(ii) It helps in development of new characters
from two different individuals.
Secondary Egg
Post fertilization changes:
Male gamete 1. The ovule develops into a seed.
2. The integuments of the ovule develop into
Figure 17.12 Process of Fertilization the seed coat.
3. The ovary enlarges and develops into a fruit.
Pollen grains reach the right stigma and
The seed contains the future plant or
begin to germinate.
embryo which develops into a seedling under
Pollen grain forms a small tube-like appropriate conditions.
structure called pollen tube which emerges
through the germ pore. The contents of
the pollen grain move into the tube. 17.7 Sexual Reproduction in
Pollen tube grows through the tissues of Human
the stigma and style and finally reaches You have studied the structural details of
the ovule through the micropyle. the male and female reproductive system in
Vegetative cell degenerates and the 9th standard. In human beings the male and
generative cell divides to form two sperms female reproductive organs differ anatomically
(or male gametes). and physiologically. New individuals develop
by the fusion of gametes. Sexual reproduction
Tip of pollen tube bursts and the two
involves the fusion of two haploid gametes
sperms enter the embryo sac.
(male and the female gametes) to form a
One sperm fuses with the egg (syngamy) diploid individual (zygote).
and forms a diploid zygote. The other sperm Organs of the reproductive system are
fuses with the secondary nucleus (Triple divided into primary and secondary (accessory)
fusion) to form the primary endosperm sex organs.
Vitelline membrane
Head
Zona pellucida
Acrosome
Head Nucleus
Implantation
The blastocyst (fertilized egg) reaches
the uterus and gets implanted in the uterus.
The process of attachment of the blastocyst
to the uterine wall (endometrium) is called Figure 17.18 Developmental stages of zygote
implantation. The fertilized egg becomes from cleavage to blastocyst formation
implanted in about 6 to 7 days after fertilization.
Organogenesis
Gastrulation The establishment of the germ layers
The transformation of blastula into namely ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm
gastrula and the formation of primary germ initiates the final phase of embryonic
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
CONCEPT MAP
Reproduction in plants
MALE FEMALE
POPULATION EXPLOSION FAMILY PLANNING PERSONAL HYGIENE
TESTIS OVARY
TOILET MENSTRUAL
SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS HYGIENE HYGIENE
MENSTRUAL
CYCLE
FERTILIZATION
BARRIER HORMONAL SURGICAL
IUDs METHODS
IMPLANTATION FOLICULAR PHASE METHODS METHODS
PARTURITION
LUTEAL PHASE
LACTATION
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Learning Objectives
Genotype TT : Tt : � = 1 : 2 : 1
Phenotype Tall : Dwarf 3 : 1
Dihybrid cross involves the inheritance
TT Tt Tt �
(Tall) (Tall) (Tall) (Dwarf) of two pairs of contrasting characteristics
Fig.18.1 Monohybrid cross (or contrasting traits) at the same time. The
two pairs of contrasting characteristics chosen
for dwarfness (represented as t- recessive by Mendel were shape and color of seeds:
character). These factors occur in pairs and round-yellow seeds and wrinkled-green
may be alike as in pure breeding tall plants seeds.
(TT) and dwarf plants (tt). This is referred to Mendel crossed pea plants having round-
as homozygous. If they are unlike (Tt) they are yellow seeds with pea plants having wrinkled-
referred to as heterozygous. green seeds. Mendel made the following
1. Two factors making up a pair of observations:
contrasting characters are called alleles or
1. Mendel first crossed pure breeding pea
allelomorphs. One member of each pair is
plants having round-yellow seeds with
contributed by one parent.
pure breeding pea plants having wrinkled-
2. When two factors for alternative expression
green seeds and found that only round-
of a trait are brought together by fertilization
yellow seeds were produced in the first
only one expresses itself, (tallness) masking
the expression of the other (dwarfness). The generation (F1). No wrinkled-green seeds
character which expresses itself is called were obtained in the F1 generation. From
dominant condition and that which is this it was concluded that round shape and
masked is called recessive condition. yellow color of the seeds were dominant
3. The factors are always pure and when gametes traits over the wrinkled shape and green
are formed, the unit factors segregate so that color of the seeds.
each gamete gets one of the two alternative 2. When the hybrids of F1 generation pea
factors. It means that factors for tallness(T) plants having round-yellow seeds were
and dwarfness(t) are separate entities and cross-bred by self pollination, then four
in a gamete either T or t is present. When types of seeds having different combinations
F1 hybrids are self crossed the two entities
of shape and color were obtained in second
separate and then unite independently,
generation or F2 generation. They were
forming tall and dwarf plants.
263 Heredity
Pure breeding
round, yellow
seeds RY
RRYY RrYY RRYy RrYy
RY
Pure breeding
wrinkled, green RrYy Ry
seeds RRYy RrYy RRyy Rryy
ry
rryy ry
RrYy rrYy Rryy rryy
Parents (P) Parental gametes Frist genera�on (F1) 9 Yellow, round 3 Yellow, wrinkled
3 Green, round 1 Green, wrinkled
Fig.18.2 Dihybrid Cross Second genera�on (F2)
More to Know
18.5 C
hromosomes, DNA
and Genes
Fig.18.3 Structure of chromosome
The human body is made up of million
A chromosome consists of the following
cells. The nucleus of each cell contains thin
regions
thread like structures called chromosomes.
The term ‘chromosomes’ was first named by Primary constriction: The two arms of a
Waldeyer in 1888. The chromosomes are the chromosome meet at a point called primary
carrier of genetic material which contain the constriction or centromere. The centromere
heredity information. is the region where spindle fibres attach to the
The chromosomes are highly condensed chromosomes during cell division.
coiled chromatin fibres packed with the Secondary constriction: Some chromosomes
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) that forms the possess secondary constriction at any point
genetic material. Genes are segments of DNA, of the chromosome. They are known as
which are responsible for the inheritance the nuclear zone or nucleolar organizer
of a particular phenotypic character. Each (formation of nucleolus in the nucleus).
gene is present at a specific position on a
Telomere: The end of the chromosome is called
chromosome called its locus. During cell
telomere. Each extremity of the chromosome
division, the genetic information present in
has a polarity and prevents it from joining
the genes are passed from one generation to
the adjacent chromosome. It maintains and
another.
provides stability to the chromosomes.
18.5.1 Structure of a Chromosome Satellite: Some of the chromosomes have an
elongated knob-like appendage at one end
The chromosomes are thin, long and
of the chromosome known as satellite. The
thread like structures consisting of two identical
chromosomes with satellites are called as the
strands called sister chromatids. They are held
sat-chromosomes.
together by the centromere. Each chromatid is
made up of spirally coiled thin structure called
Telomeres act as aging clock
chromonema. The chromonema has number of
in every cell.
bead-like structures along its length which are
Telomeres are protective
called chromomeres. The chromosomes are
sequences of nucleotides found in
made up of DNA,RNA, chromosomal proteins
chromosomes. As a cell divides every time,
(histones and non-histones) and certain metallic
they become shorter. Telomeres get too
ions. These proteins provide structural support
short to do their job, causing our cells to age.
to the chromosome .
265 Heredity
18.5.3 Types of Chromosomes
based on function
The eukaryotic chromosomes are classified
into autosomes and allosomes. Fig.18.5 Normal human karyotype
Autosomes contain genes that determine
the somatic (body) characters. Male and 18.6 Structure of DNA
female have equal number of autosomes. DNA is the hereditary material as it contains
Allosomes are chromosomes which the genetic information. It is the most important
are responsible for determining the sex of constituent of a chromosome. The most widely
an individual. They are also called as sex accepted model of DNA is the double helical
chromosomes or hetero-chromosomes. There structure of James Watson and Francis Crick.
are two types of sex chromosomes, X and They proposed the three-dimensional model
Y- chromosomes. Human male have one X of DNA on the basis of X-ray diffraction studies
Original DNA
Topoisomerase
Okazaki RNA
fragment primer Primase
Helicase
Parent DNA
Points to Remember
271 Heredity
1.
Veer Bala Rastogi, Introductory Cytology, https://www.genome.gov
Rastogi Publications, Meerut https://www. genetics.edu.au
2. P. S. Verma and V.K. Agarwal, Genetics, S. https://www.bioexplorer.net/chromosomal-
Chand and Company, New Delhi mutation.html/
3. Gerald Karp, Janet Iwasa and Wallace Marshall, https://www.ndss.org/about-down-syndrome/
Cell and Molecular Biology - Concepts and down-syndrome/
Experiment, 8th Edition, Wiley and Sons
Publishers
Concept Map
Heredity
Mendel’s Laws
Chromosomes DNA Mutation
of Heredity
Kinds of chromosomes
•Autosomes
•Allosomes
Sex determination
inhuman
•Male (44+XY)
•Female (44+XX
273 Heredity
prevailing on earth, life arose by a series of Figure 19.1 Forelimbs of vertebrates showing
sequential chemical reactions. The first form homologous structure
of life could have come from pre-existing non-
ii. Analogous organs: The analogous
living inorganic molecules which gave rise
organs look similar and perform similar
to formation of diverse organic molecules
functions but they have different origin
which are transformed into colloid system to
produce life. The modern concept on chemical Bat wing
Gill-slits
Gill
slits Figure 19.4 Archaeopteryx - Fossil bird
Tail Tail
Gills Fore-limb bub
Environmental change
Overproduction
Variations
Inheritance of acquired
characters
Gradual accumulation of
favourable characters
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
I Choose the correct answer 2. The ‘use and disuse theory’ was proposed
1. Biogenetic law states that ______________ by ______________.
d.
There is no relationship between d. Gregor Mendel
phylogeny and ontogeny
10th Std Science 282
http://www.nhs.uk
REFERENCE BOOKS
http://www.eniscuola.net/en/2012/11/29/
1.
B. S.Tomar and S. P. Singh, An Introduction exobiology/
to General Biology, 9th Edition, Rastogi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrobiology
Publications, Meerut.
Concept Map
Evolution
Paleontology
•Fossils
Ethnobotany
Importance of ethnobotany
Petrifaction
Evolution
Mold and cast
Fossilization Preservation
Compression
Paleobotany Replacement
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Learning Objectives
Table 20.2 Insects /pests resistant varieties Figure 20.2 Protina–lysine rich Maize
Achievements of polyploidy
The role of polyploidy in crop improvement
are production of
a. Seedless watermelons (3n) and bananas (3n).
b. TV-29 (triploid variety of tea) with larger
shoots and drought tolerance
Figure 20.5 Mass Selection c. Triticale (6n) is a hybrid of wheat and rye. To
make this plant fertile polyploidy is induced.
2. Pureline selection It has higher dietary fibre and protein.
Pureline is “the progeny of a single d. Raphanobrassica is an allotetraploid by
individual obtained by self breeding”. This colchicine treatment.
289 Breeding and Biotechnology
20.4.1 Inbreeding
Inbreeding refers to the mating of closely
Figure 20.6 Cross breeding to produce Mule
related animals within the same breed for
with superior characters
about 4-6 generations. Superior males and
superior females of the same breed are identified Info bits
and mated in pairs. It helps in the accumulation
of superior genes and elimination of genes Cross breed of fowls:
which are undesirable. White Leghorn X Plymouth Rock
Hissardale is a new breed of sheep
developed in Punjab by crossing Bikaneri Hybrid fowl - yield more eggs
(Magra) ewes and Australian Marino rams.
Cross breed of cows:
Inbreeding depression: Continued inbreeding Developed by mating the bulls of exotic
reduces fertility and productivity. Inbreeding breeds and cows of indigenous breeds.
exposes harmful recessive genes that are
Brown Swiss X Sahiwal
eliminated by selection.
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy refers to the replacement
of defective gene by the direct transfer of
functional genes into humans to treat genetic
disease or disorder. The genetic makeup of
the ‘patient’ cell is altered using recombinant
DNA technology. It was first successfully
implemented in 1990.
Somatic gene therapy is the replacement
Surrogate of defective gene in somatic cells.
mother (with
implanted
embryo)
Germ line gene therapy replacement of
defective gene in germ cell (egg and sperm).
Gene therapy conducted till date has
targeted only somatic (non-reproductive)
cells. Correction of genetic defects in somatic
cells may be beneficial to the patient but the
20.6 Biotechnology in Medicine corrected gene may not be carried to the next
generation.
Using genetic engineering techniques
medicinally important valuable proteins 20.7 Stem Cells
or polypeptides that form the potential
pharmaceutical products for treatment of Our body is composed of over 200
various diseases have been developed on a specialised cell types, that can carry out specific
commercial scale. functions. e.g. neurons or nerve cell that can
Pharmaceutical products developed by transmit signals, or heart cells which contract
rDNA technique to pump blood or pancreatic cells to secrete
insulin. These specialised cells are called as
a. Insulin used in the treatment of diabetes.
differentiated cells.
b. Human growth hormone used for treating
In contrast to differentiated cells, stem
children with growth deficiencies.
cells are undifferentiated or unspecialised
c. Blood clotting factors are developed to mass of cells. The stem cells are the cells of
treat haemophilia.
293 Breeding and Biotechnology
Stem-cell therapy
Sometimes cells, tissues and organs in the
body may be permanently damaged or lost due
to genetic condition or disease or injury. In such VNTRs illustration of three persons
situations stem cells are used for the treatment
As shown in the illustration, the sequence
of diseases which is called stem-cell therapy.
AGCT is repeated six times in first person, five
In treating neurodegenerative disorders like
times in second person and seven times in third
Improved wool quality Genes for synthesis of amino acid, Transgenic sheep
and production cysteine (gene expressed)
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
Improved
High yield Green Revolution nutritional quality
Methods
Natural Selection Hybridization
Recombinant Genetically
DNA (rDNA) modified plants
and animals
(Transgenics)
Learning Objectives
According to WHO
recommendation, if the fasting
blood glucose is greater than
21.8.2 Type-2 Non-Insulin 140 mg/dl or the random blood glucose
Dependent Diabetes is greater than 200 mg /ml on more than
Mellitus (NIDDM) two occasions, diagnosis for confirming
This is also called as adult onset diabetes diabetes is essential.
and accounting for 80 to 90% of the diabetic
population. It develops slowly, usually milder 21.8.3 Prevention and Control of
and more stable. Insulin production by the Diabetes
pancreas is normal but its action is impaired.
Diet, hypoglycemic drugs, insulin injection
The target cells do not respond to insulin. It does
and exercise are the management options
not allow the movement of glucose into cells.
based on the type and severity of the condition.
Causes: The causes are multifactorial The overall goal of diabetes management is to
which include increasing age (affecting middle maintain normal blood glucose level.
10th Std Science 306
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
I. Choose the correct answer 4. Which type of cancer affects lymph nodes and
spleen?
1. Tobacco consumption is known to stimulate
a) Carcinoma b) Sarcoma
secretion of adrenaline. The component
c) Leukemia d) Lymphoma
causing this could be
a) Nicotine b) Tannic acid 5. Excessive consumption of alcohol leads to
c) Curcumin d) heptin a) Loss of memory
b) Cirrhosis of liver
2. World 'No Tobacco Day' is observed on c) State of hallucination
a) May 31 b) June 6 d) Supression of brain
c) April 22 d) October 2 6. Coronary heart disease is due to
3. Cancer cells are more easily damaged by a) Streptococci bacteria
radiations than normal cells because they b) Inflammation of pericardium
are c) Weakening of heart valves
a) Different in structure
d) Insufficient blood supply to heart muscles
b) Non dividing
7. Cancer of the epithelial cells is called
c) Starved mutation
a) Leukemia b) Sarcoma
d) Undergoing rapid division c) Carcinoma d) Lipoma
311 Health and Diseases
Learning Objectives
The main aim of wildlife conservation (iv) International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural resources (IUCN)
are:
(v) Convention of International Trade in
• To control and limit exploitation of
Endangered Species (CITES)
species.
(vi) Bombay Natural History Society
• To preserve the plants and animals from
extinction. (vii) Wild life Preservation Society of India,
Dehradun
• Maintenance of threatened species and
protect species which are on the verge of Rathika Ramasamy, a native
extinction. of Venkatachalapuram village,
• Preserve the endangered species. Theni District
in Tamil Nadu was the first
• To study the ecological relationship of
Indian woman to strike an
the plants and animals in natural habitat. International reputation
• Hunting and poaching should be as wildlife photographer.
prohibited. Her passion is towards bird photography.
A photobook on wildlife titled "The best
• Establishment of National parks, Wildlife
of wildlife moments" was published in
sanctuaries, protected areas and Biosphere November 2014.
reserves.
317 Environmental Management
Uses of biogas
(i) It is used as fuel for cooking .
(ii) It is used to run motors and pump sets.
(iii) It is used to generate electricity.
Advantages of biogas
(i) It burns without smoke and therefore
Figure 22.1 Solar Panel causes less pollution.
(ii) An excellent way to get rid of organic
Solar Cooker
wastes like bio-waste and sewage material.
It consist of an insulated (iii) Left over slurry is a good manure rich in
metal box or wooden box nitrogen and phosphorus
which is painted from inside (iv) It is safe and convenient to use
so as to absorb maximum
(v) It can reduce the amount of greenhouse
solar radiations. A thick glass gases emitted.
sheet forms the cover over the Solar Cooker
10th Std Science 320
Figure 22.7 Collection of various types of solid � Biogas is produced by the anaerobic
wastes in separate bins decomposition of cow dung.
� The technique of collecting and storing
Recycling of wastes rain water for future purpose is known as
•• P
apers from old books, magazines and rainwater harvesting.
newspapers are recycled to produce papers � Unwanted, non-working and outdated
in papermills. electronic products become e-waste.
Concept Map
Environmental management
Learning Objectives
� After Learning the Lessons students will be able to
� Differentiate a File from a Folder
� Know how to create a File and a Folder
� Use the software application to create Animation
23.1 FILE
329
TEXTBOOK EVALUATION
7 Test the given sample for the presence of acid or base 40 minutes
Photosynthesis-Test tube and Funnel Experiment
8 40 minutes
(Demonstration)
BIO-BOTANY
. 334
1. D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F W E I G H T O F A N O B J E C T U S I N G
THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
Aim:
To determine the weight of an object using the principle of moments
Apparatus required:
A metre scale, a knife edge, slotted weights, thread
Procedure:
i. A metre scale is supported at its centre of gravity by a knife edge or suspended by
using a thread tied to its centre so that the scale is in the horizontal position. Ensure that
the scale is in equilibrium position.
ii. A known weight W2 and an unknown weight W1 are suspended from to either side of the
the scale using the weight hangers.
iii. Fix the position of one weight hanger and adjust the position of the second weight hanger
such that the scale is in equilibrium.
iv. Measure the distance d1 and d2 of the two weight hangers from the centre of the scale
accurately.
v. The experiment is repeated for different positions of the unknown weight. Measure the
distances. The reading are tabulated as follows:
Observation:
Result:
Using the principle of moments, the weight of the unknown body W1 = ……. Kg Wt.
335 .
Aim:
To determine the focal length of a convex lens by using
1. Distant object method
2. uv method
Apparatus required: A convex lens, stand, wire gauze object, screen and measuring scale.
Formula:
uv cm
f=
(u + v)
Here,
u is the distance between the object (light source) and the convex lens
v is the distance of the image (screen) from the convex lens
f is the focal length of the convex lens
Result:
The focal length of the given convex lens
1. By the distance object method f = ………cm
2. By the ‘uv’ method f = … .…..cm
3. D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F R E S I S T I V I T Y
Objective:
To determine the resistivity of the material of the given coil of wire.
Equipment required:
A coil of wire, screw gauge, a metre scale, battery, key, ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat and
connecting Wires.
Formula:
The resistivity of the material of the coil of wire is
Where A is the area of cross section of the wire (m2)
L is the length of the coil of wire (m)
` R is the resistance of the coil of wire (ohm)
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
• C
onnect the battery, ammeter, given wire, rheostat and key
in series, as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the unknown resistor.
337 .
Observations:
(mm) HSR=HSC×LC
(mm)
1
2
3
Mean Diameter
Calculations:
Radius of the wire, r = diameter/2 = _____________ m
Area of cross section of the wire, A = π r2 = ____________ m2
Length of the wire L = __________ m.
Resistivity of the material of the wire = = __________ Ω m
Result:
The resistivity of the material of the wire = __________ Ω m
. 338
4. I D E N T I F Y T H E D I S S O L U T I O N O F T H E G I V E N S A L T
W H E T H E R I T I S E X O T H E R M I C O R E N D O T H E R M I C.
Aim:
To test the dissolution of given salt is exothermic or endothermic
Principle:
If the reaction or process liberates the heat, then it is called exothermic.
If the reaction or process absorbs the heat, then it is called endothermic
Apparatus required:
Two beakers, Thermometer, stirrer ,weighed amount of two samples.
Procedure:
Take 50ml of water in two beakers and label them as A and B. Note the temperature of
the water from beaker A and B. Then, add 5g of sample A into the beaker A and stir well until
it dissolve completely. Record final temperature of the solution. Now, repeat the same for the
sample B. Record the observation.
Observation:
S. No Sample Tempature before Tempature after Inference (temperature
addition of addition of increases or decreases)
sample (oC) sample (oC)
1 A
2 B
Result:
From the inferences made
Note:
Sodium hydroxide, ammonium nitrate, glucose, calcium oxide etc. may be given as the
sample.
339 .
Aim:
To test the solubility of the given salt based on the saturation and un saturation
of the solution at a given temperature.
Principle:
A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved in the solvent at a given temperature is
called saturated solution. If the solvent can dissolve more solute than what is present, the solution is
called unsaturated solution.
Materials Required:
A 250 ml beaker, a Stirrer, sufficient quantity of distilled water, 100 ml measuring jar, table salt
in three packets weighing as 25g, 11g, and 1g.
Procedure:
In a 250ml beaker ,pour 100 ml water using measuring jar. To this water add table salt (25 g)
from first packet. stir the content very well. Add the next packet containing 11 g salt followed by
constant stirring . Now add the third packet containing 1 g salt . Record your observations.
Observation:
S. No Amount of salt added Observation [Salt Inference [unsaturated/
dissolved/undissolved] saturated/super saturated]
1
2
3
Result: From the above observation, it is inferred that the amount of salt required for saturation is
_______ g
6. T E S T I N G T H E W A T E R O F H Y D R A T I O N O F S A L T
Aim:
To check whether the given sample of salt possesses 'Water of Hydration' or
not. To verify the presence of water molecules in the given hydrated salt .
Principle:
Water of crystallization or water of hydration is the phenomenon shown by certain salts in
which water molecules are present inside the crystals are responsible for their colour and geometry.
e.g. Crystalline copper sulphate CuSO4.5H2O
Materials Required: A pinch of crystalline copper sulphate in a test tube, tongs, spirit lamp.
. 340
Result:
In the given sample of salt, Water of crystallization / hydration is
A) Present
B) Absent
7. T E S T T H E G I V E N S A M P L E F O R T H E P R E S E N C E O F
ACID OR BASE
Aim:
To identify the presence of an acid or a base in a given sample.
Materials Required:
Test tubes, test tube stand, glass rod, phenolphthalein, methyl orange, sodium
carbonate salt and the given sample.
Principle:
In acid medium, In Base medium,
(a) Phenolphthalein is colourless (a) Phenolphthalein is pink in colour
(b) Methyl orange is pink in colour (b) Methyl orange is yellow in colour
(c) Sodium carbonate gives brisk effervescence. (c) Sodium carbonate does not give brisk
effervescence.
Procedure:
Observation Inference
S. No Experiment
(Colour change) (Acid / Base)
1 Take 5ml of the test solution in a a) No change in colour. a) Presence of acid
test tube and add a few drops of b) Solution Turns pink in colour b) Presence of base
Phenolphthalein in it.
2 Take 5ml of the test solution in a test a) SolutionTurns pink in colour a) Presence of acid
tube and add a few drops of Methyl b) SolutionTurns yellow in colour b) Presence of base
orange in it.
3 Take 5ml of the test solution in a a) Brisk effervescence occurs. a) Presence of acid
test tube and add a pinch of sodium b) No brisk effervescence. b) Presence of base
carbonate salt.
341 .
8. P H O T O S Y N T H E S I S-T E S T T U B E
A N D F U N N E L E X P E R I M E N T(D E M O N S T R A T I O N)
Aim:
To prove that oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis.
Materials required:
Test tube, funnel, beaker, pond water and Hydrilla plant.
Procedure:
1. Take a few twigs of Hydrilla plant in a beaker containing pond water.
2. Place an inverted funnel over the plant.
3. Invert a test tube filled with water over the stem of the funnel.
4. Keep the apparatus in the sunlight for few hours.
Test tube
Beaker
Funnel
Hydrilla
Plant
Observation:
After one hour, it is noted that water gets displaced down from the test tube.
Inference
During photosynthesis, oxygen is evolved as a by-product. Gas bubbles liberated from the
Hydrilla plant reach the top of the test tube and it displaces the water downwards. Take the test
tube and keep the burning stick near the mouth of the test tube. Increased flame will appear.
Hence, it is proved that oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis.
. 342
Aim:
To dissect and display the parts of the given flower and observe the Calyx, Corolla,
Androecium and Gynoecium. Draw labelled sketches.
Materials Required:
Flower, needle and paper
Procedure:
With the help of the needle dissect the different whorls of the flower
Floral Parts:
Calyx
Corolla } Accessory organ
Androecium
Gynoecium
-
-
Male part of the flower
Female part of the flower } Reproductive organ
Stigma
Style
Corolla
Ovary
Calyx
Androecium Gynoecium
Observation:
Draw and label the parts of the flower.
343 .
Aim:
To study the law of dominance by using model / picture / photograph. To find out the
genotypic ratio and phenotypic ratio in pea plant using checker board
Procedure:
Depict parental generation and the gametes using colour chalk pieces
Gametes: T t
F1 generation:
Tt Heterozygous tall
selfing
T t
F2 generation:
T TT Tt
tall tall
t Tt tt
tall dwarf
Result:
Phenotypic ratio 3:1
Genotypic ratio 1:2:1
Inheritance of only one pair of contrasting character is called monohybrid cross.
A cross between two forms of a single trait like a cross between tall and dwarf pea
plant.
. 344
Aim:
To observe transverse section (T.S) of Dicot Stem and Dicot Root from permanent slides.
Observation:
A. The given slide is identified as T.S of Dicot Stem
Epidermal hair
Cuticle
T.S of Dicot Stem
Epidermis
(i) Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring. Collenchyma
Chlorenchyma
Parenchyma
(ii) Conjoint, collateral, endarch and open
vascular bundle. Endodermis
(iii)
Ground tissued differentiated into Phloem
Cambium
cortex, endodermis, pericycle and pith.
Xylem
(iv)
3 to 6 layer of collenchymas tissues
present in hypodermis. Pith
Casparian strip
345 .
12. O B S E R V A T I O N O F M O D E L S-H U M A N
HEART AND HUMAN BRAIN
Aim:
To observe and draw a labelled sketch of L.S of human heart and write the structure.
Materials Required:
Model showing the L.S of human heart
Observation:
The given model is identified as L.S. of human heart
1. Th
e human heart has four chambers. It is
Superior
made up of two auricles and two ventricles vena cava
Aorta
Pulmonary artery
2. T
he chambers are separated by Pulmonary vein
3. T
ricuspid valve - It is located between the Right ventricle
right auricle and the right ventricle
4. Bicuspid valve - It is located between the left auricle and the left ventricle
5. The heart is covered by a protective double walled membrane called pericardium
6. The heart pumps blood to all parts of the body.
Aim:
To observe and draw a labelled sketch of L.S of human brain and indicate the different
regions of the brain
Materials Required
Model showing the L.S of human brain
. 346
activities. Hypothalamus
4. The human brain is divided into three parts namely forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain
13. I D E N T I F I C A T I O N O F B L O O D C E L L S
Aim:
Identification of blood cells (Red blood cells and white blood cells). To draw a neat labelled
diagram and write a note on the blood cells identified.
Materials Required
Permanent prepared slides of blood cells.
Identification:
347 .
Aim:
To identify the endocrine gland, its location, hormone secreted and functions - Thyroid gland
and Pancreas
Materials Required:
Identification:
Identify the flagged endocrine gland, write
Hypothalamus
its location, the hormones secreted and its
Pituitary gland
functions.
Pineal gland
Thyroid
gland
Thymus
Pancreas
Ovary Adrenal
(in female) glands
Testis
(in male)
Location: Thyroid gland is a bilobed gland located in the neck region on either side of the
trachea.
Functions of Hormones:
1. Thyroid hormones increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR).
2. It increases the body temperature.
3. It regulates metabolism
. 348
Identification:
The flag labelled endocrine gland is identified as Islets of Langerhans in the Pancreas.
Location:
Islets of Langerhans are seen embedded in the pancreas which is located in the abdominal
region.
Hormones secreted:
1. α cells secrete glucagon
2. β cells secrete insulin
Functions of Hormones:
1. Insulin converts glucose into glycogen and stores it in liver and muscles.
2. Glucagon converts glycogen into glucose.
3. I nsulin and glucagon maintain the blood sugar level (80 – 120 mg/dl) by their antagonistic
function.
4. Decrease in insulin secretion causes diabetes mellitus.
349 .
Aqueous - நீர்க்கரைசல்
Average Atomic mass - சராசரி அணுநிறை
Artificial transmutation - செயற்கை மாற்றுத் தனிமமாக்கல் முறை
Anemia - இரத்தச�ோகை
Addiction - அடிமையாதல்
Apical dominance - நுனி ஆதிக்கம்
Abscission - உதிர்தல்
Analogous organs - செயல் ஒத்த உறுப்புகள்
Atom Bomb - அணுகுண்டு
Alternating current - மாறுதிசை மின்னோட்டம்
Audible sound - செவியுணர் ஒலி
Apparent change - த�ோற்ற மாறுதல்
Carcinogens - புற்று ந�ோயக் காரணி
Cerebrospinal fluid - மூளை கண்டு வட திரவம்
Crop - தீனிப்பை
Controlled chain reaction - கட்டுப்படுத்தப்பட் த�ொடர்வினை
Ductility - கம்பியாக நீட்டுதல்
Deliquescent substance - நீர் ஈர்த்து கரையும் ப�ொருள்
Dwarfism - குள்ளத் தன்மை
Dormancy - தூங்கு நிலை அல்லது ஓய்வு நிலை
Dihybrid cross - இரு பண்பு கலப்பு
Diastema - பல் இடைவெளி
Diaphragm - உதரவிதானம்
Dispersion - நிறப்பிரிகை
Ethnobotany - தாவர த�ொடர்பியல்
Earthing - புவியிணைப்பு
Electric potential - மின்னழுத்தம்
Equilibrant - சமன விசை
Functional group - வினைச் செயல் த�ொகுதி
Froth floatation - நுரை மிதப்பு முறை
Fossils - புதை உயிர் படிமம்
Goitre - முன்கழுத்துக் கழலை
Gigantism - அசுரத்தன்மை
Green Revolution - பசுமை புரட்சி
Genetic Engineering - மரபுப் ப�ொறியியல்
Genotype - மரபு வகை
Geotropism - புவிஈர்ப்பு சார்பு
Hard soap - வன் ச�ோப்பு
Hygroscopic substance - நீர் ஈர்க்கும் ப�ொருள்
Homozygous - ஒத்த கருநிலை
Homologous organs - அமைப்பு ஒத்த உறுப்புகள்
Hermaphrodite - இருபால் உயிரி
Heterodont - மாறுபட்ட பல்லமைப்பு
Hydogen bomb - ஹைட்ரஜன் குண்டு
Hyper meteropia - தூரப்பார்வை
Impulsive - உந்து விசை
Infrasonic sound - குற்றொலி
Mass percentage - நிறை சதவீதம்
Medulla oblongata - முகுளம்
Mutation - சடுதி மாற்றம்
Molds - பூசணங்கள்
Menarche - பருவமடைதல்
351 Glossary