Colorimetry
- To determine concentration of coloured compounds
To improve separation of bands: - Uses different parts of colour spectrum
- Increase length of column - Colour of light used is most effective when it is complementary to
- Pack column more densely colour of test cell
- Increase time allowed for separation Colourimeter – measures absorbance of a specific wavelength of light that
- Increase temperature passes the test cell
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 Conditions:
Retardation factor = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
- Substance being analysed should be coloured
Increases when compound is least strongly adsorbed (distance is further) - Substance should be free of other coloured species that could also
absorb the light
Retention time – time taken to travel through the column UV-visible spectroscopy
Increases when compound is most strongly adsorbed (distance is shorter) - Measures absorbance of light at a specific frequency
- Less likely to suffer interferences from similar coloured compounds
To increase retention time: - Uses monochromators to give better control of wavelength
- Reduce length of column - Has a wider range
- Increase amount of sample used - Intensity of light decreases as concentration increases
- Pack column less tightly
- Reducing pressure of mobile phase Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)
- Analyses specific wavelengths and adsorption of radiation
Under similar conditions, compounds will have unique Rt and Rf values
Unit 2 – What makes water such a unique chemical?
- Atoms and molecules absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation when Conical and volumetric flask:
moving from excited states to ground states - Rinse with distilled water to avoid increasing solution
- Only metals ions of interest get excited so very low levels (ppb) can - Any impurities or excess substances may react with chemical or take
be detected up volume and result in a lower titre
- Different parts of the spectrum affect different parts of atom
To find concentration of the original
To calculate concentration 1) Find moles of titre
1) Find moles in volumetric flask using 𝑛(𝑣. 𝑓) = 𝐶 × 𝑉(𝑣. 𝑓). 2) Use mole to mole ratio to find moles of the aliquot
Remember C(sample) = C(diluted v.flask) 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑣.𝑓.
3) Find undiluted moles in original by 𝑚(𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡) ×
𝑛(𝑣.𝑓.) 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡
2) Find concentration using 𝐶(𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙) = 𝑉(𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙) 𝑛
4) Find concentration of analyte in original using 𝐶 =
𝑉
To calculate mass of substance
𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑥 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒)
1) Find mass in sample using 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 Titration Curve
2) m(diluted aliquot) = m(aliquot) Strong base/strong acid = 7
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑣.𝑓. Weak base/strong acid = <7
3) Find mass in undiluted volumetric flask by 𝑚(𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡) × 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡 Strong base/weak acid = >7
4) m(original) = m(v.flask) Weak base/weak acid = around 7
IMPORTANT – Remember to check the units of mass/volume Substance starting in conical flask is
first half of graph
Titration Substance added to conical flask is
Volumetric analysis to find the concentration second half of graph
of another solution
Aliquot – the volume of sample delivered by
a pipette Limiting Reagents
Titrant – the reactant delivered by the - Mole ratio in chemical equation show exact number of moles needed
burette of each chemical
Titre – volume of solution delivered by - Some moles left unused = excess reagent
burette to reach the end point - All moles completely used up = limiting reagent
Analyte – substance being analysed
Concordant titre – three titres that differ by
a max of 0.10ml Galvanic Cell
Equivalence point – point where reactants
are mixed in stoichiometric ratio with the
balanced equation
End point – The point where indicator
changes colour
Salt bridge:
Anion -> Anode Cation -> Cathode
KNO3 is the typical salt bridge
Electrochemical series
- Oxidants at top – Reductants at bottom
- Lowest = backward reactions
- Reductants must be lower than Oxidants for a strong reaction to occur
Significant Figures
- Count all non-zero numbers
- Count all zeros between ^
- Count zeros after a decimal point if significant numbers are present on
the left
- Do not count any zeros left of a non-zero number
- Do not count zeros right of a non-zero number without a decimal
point
Adding/subtracting
- Add/subtract normally
- Round to lowest number of decimal places given
Multiplication/division
- Multiply/divide normally
- Round to lowest number of significant figures given