Unit 2 – What makes water such a unique chemical?

Physical properties: Writing Ionic Equations

- Change of state 1) Write balanced chemical equation
- No new substances are formed 2) Dissociate all soluble compounds into their free ions
Chemical properties: 3) Replace acids and bases that react with water with their product ions
- Disappearance/appearance of a substance 4) Cancel free ions that remain constant in the equation
- Gas/odour is released 5) Write net ionic equation
- Colour or temperature change
- A solid is precipitated Solubility
- Light is emitted Saturated – when solute stops dissolving at max amount
Unsaturated – when solute dissolves
IMPORTANT: Always balance chemical equations Supersaturated – more solute maximum amount of solute

Properties of Water Increase in temperature = increase in kinetic energy = increase in solubility

Latent Heat – Energy needed to change the physical state of a substance at Increase in temperature = increase in kinetic energy = liquid becomes gaseous
0°C and leaves solution = gases in water decrease
Latent heat of fusion – changing water from solid to liquid High air pressure above liquid creates difficulty in boiling – boiling point is
Latent heat of vaporisation – changing water from liquid to gas at 100°C increased
Specific Heat capacity – energy (KJ) needed to raise temperature by 1°C
Water does not heat as quickly as other liquids Concentration
Measure of the amount of a particular solute in a given amount
Q = mc(∆T)
Q = Energy (KJ) 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)
%m/m grams in every 100g 𝐶(𝑔𝐿−1 ) = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿)
m = mass of substance (g/kg as given)
c = specific heat capacity %m/v grams in every 100ml
∆T = change in temperature %v/v mL in every 100ml
Ppm mg per litre
Density – the amount of mass within a volume of space Ppb micrograms per litre
𝑚
d= 𝑉 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
Concentration = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝐿) 𝐶(𝑔𝐿−1 ) = 𝐶(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐿−1 ) × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Solid water (ice) is a covalent lattice – less dense than liquid water

Water’s strong hydrogen bonds: Dilutions

- Relatively high melting and boiling points
- High latent heat values C1 V1 = C2 V2
- Relatively high specific heat capacity of liquid water Types of reactions
Electrical conductivity: Precipitation
- Self-ionises and becomes hydroxide - Ions in solution combine to form a solid compound in water
- Covalently bonded with no charged particles - Water is unable to dissociate ionic lattices of non-polar precipitates

Dissociation – Water (catalyst) separates ions from ionic substances

Ionisation – Polar molecules react with water to produce ions
Hydrolysis – Water breaks a covalent H-O bond
Unit 2 – What makes water such a unique chemical?

Soluble Ions Soluble salts acid + base -> salt + water

Group 1 metals All acid + metal -> salt + hydrogen excludes Cu, Hg and Ag
Sodium (Na+) All acid + metal carbonate -> salt + water + carbon dioxide
Nitrate (NO3-) All acid + metal oxide -> salt + water
Ammonium (NH4+) All acid + metal hydroxide -> salt + water
Potassium (K+) All acid + metal sulphide -> salt + hydrogen sulphide
Ethanoate (CH3COO-) All
Carbonate (CO32-) Group 1 Conjugate pairs - Acid and bases which differ by the presence or absence of
Hydroxide (OH-) Group 1 a proton (H+)
Oxide (O2-) Group 1 Acids to conjugate base: REMOVE H+ and ADD electron
Bases to conjugate acid: ADD H+ and REMOVE electron
Phosphate (PO43-) Group 1
Sulphite (SO32-) Group 1
Water as a base:
Chloride (Cl-) Most
HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l) -> SO42-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Bromide (Br-) Most
Water as an acid:
Iodide (I-) Most HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l) -> H2SO4(aq) + OH-(aq)
Insoluble Ions: Polyprotic – donates/accepts more than one proton
- Silver Ag+ Diprotic – donates/accepts two protons
- Lead (II) Pb2+ Amphiprotic – can donate or accept a proton
- Mercury (I) Hg+ Homogenous – mixture that is evenly spread and dissolved (miscible)
- Calcium Ca2+ Heterogeneous – mixture that has uneven, undissolved clumps (immiscible)
- Barium Ba2+
Strength vs Concentration
Combustion Strength – % of protons available to donate/ionisation in water
Hydrocarbon + (plentiful) oxygen -> carbon dioxide (CO2) + water Concentration – ratio of water to solute in solution
Hydrocarbon + (limited) oxygen -> carbon monoxide (CO) + water
Strong acids - hydronium H3O+
Acid-base (Neutralisation) - hydrochloric acid HCl (monoprotic) Weak acids
Properties of Acid - sulfuric acid H2SO4 (diprotic) - ethanoic acid CH3COOH
- Donates a proton (loses H+) (bonds with H are highly polar) - nitric acid HNO3
- Produces H+ in H3O+ metal Strong bases Weak bases
- Ionises in water to produce electrolyte - hydroxides OH- - Ammonia NH3
- Tastes sour - oxides O 2
- NaCO3
- pH less than 7 pH
- Turns blue litmus to red measure of strength of acid or base Neutral – 7
Properties of Bases pH = -log[H3O+] [H3O+] = 10-pH Acidic - <7
- Accepts a proton (gains H+) 10−14
- Produces OH- ions in water pOH = -log( 𝑂𝐻− ) [OH-] = 10-pOH Basic - >7
- Dissolves in water to produce an electrolyte
- Taste bitter and chalky pH + pOH = 14.00
- Feels soapy and slippery
- pH greater than 7 IMPORTANT – Remember negative in log and multiply by no. of H
Unit 2 – What makes water such a unique chemical?

To find pH/pOH Analysing water for salts

1) Find moles Gravimetric Analysis
𝑛
2) Find molarity (M= 𝑉) The isolation of an ion in a solution by a precipitation reaction
3) Log molarity to find pH/pOH 1) Dissolve mixture and filter insoluble material
Water’s most neutral stage is 7pH at 25°C 2) Form and filter the precipitate
3) Wash the precipitate to remove soluble impurities
Redox Reactions 4) Dry the precipitate until all water ions are removed
The transfer of electrons in a reaction. Two reactions that occur 5) Weigh the precipitate until a constant mass is achieved
simultaneously. The precipitate should:
Oxidation Reduction - Have low solubility
- Reductant - Oxidant - Be stable when heated
- Gain oxygen - Loss oxygen - Should have a known formula
- Loss hydrogen - Gain hydrogen Errors:
- Loss electrons - Gain electrons - Filtered/washed/dried ineffectively – result mass is higher
- Not all chemicals have precipitated – result mass in lower
To balance redox half-equations - Other chemicals have precipitated – result mass is higher
K – potassium ions are balanced - Precipitate is slightly too soluble – result mass is lower
O – oxygen ions are balanced (add H2O) To find %m/m of analyte in precipitate
H – hydrogen ions are balanced (add H+) 1) Convert given mass of precipitate into moles
E – Electrons charges are balanced 2) Find mass of molecule to be analysed using molar mass
S – Write the states of each substance 3) Find % of this of whole substance
IMPORTANT – Beware of +/- signs and molecule coefficient when
adding charges To find concentration of analyte in original substance
Overall reaction: Multiply half-equations to cancel out added electrons then 1) Convert given mass of precipitate into moles
restate the reaction. 2) Use mole to mole ratio from balanced equation to find moles of
analyte
Oxidation Numbers 3) Find concentration of analyte using volume of original substance
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
- A count of the electrons transferred in the formation or breaking of %difference from manufacturer’s value = 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑟′ 𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 × 100
chemical bonds Higher:
Rules - Not all water was removed from precipitate
Hydrogen +1 -1 when with electropositive elements - Other ions may have precipitated
Oxygen -2 +1 or +2 with Fluorine - Not all impurities were removed from precipitate
Fluorine negative Lower:
Aluminium +3 - Not all of substance was dissolved
Copper +2 - Some ions were lost in filtration or transfers
Pure elements 0 REMEMBER - FONCl - Not all ions have precipitated
G1 elements +1 Chromatography
G2 elements +2 To separate and analyse small amounts of mixtures. Different compounds
G17 elements -1 travel at different but constant speeds. Most effective in identical conditions.
Compounds sum of oxidation numbers = 0 Adsorption – sticks and forms a bond with surface
Ions ion charge Desorption - breaks bonds
Multiply with number of atoms in compound
Unit 2 – What makes water such a unique chemical?

Paper: Displaying the data

- Soluble substances move upwards with solvent/mobile phase
- Substances stick to stationary phase – least adsorbed moves more
distance, most adsorbed moves less distance
- Compounds with similar polarity to stationary phase are most strongly
adsorbed
- Compare unknown substances with known substances to determine
chemicals within them
Column:
- Soluble substances move downwards with solvent and appear as
bands
- Substances move and adsorb similarly to paper
- Fast and gives better separation
Chromatogram
- Each compound is produced as a peak
- Retention times are used to identify compounds
- Area under peaks show the amount of compound present
Calibration curve
- A line a best fit drawn to scatterplot
- Used to interpolate data
- Dilute mixture to make extrapolation more accurate

Colorimetry
- To determine concentration of coloured compounds
To improve separation of bands: - Uses different parts of colour spectrum
- Increase length of column - Colour of light used is most effective when it is complementary to
- Pack column more densely colour of test cell
- Increase time allowed for separation Colourimeter – measures absorbance of a specific wavelength of light that
- Increase temperature passes the test cell
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 Conditions:
Retardation factor = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
- Substance being analysed should be coloured
Increases when compound is least strongly adsorbed (distance is further) - Substance should be free of other coloured species that could also
absorb the light
Retention time – time taken to travel through the column UV-visible spectroscopy
Increases when compound is most strongly adsorbed (distance is shorter) - Measures absorbance of light at a specific frequency
- Less likely to suffer interferences from similar coloured compounds
To increase retention time: - Uses monochromators to give better control of wavelength
- Reduce length of column - Has a wider range
- Increase amount of sample used - Intensity of light decreases as concentration increases
- Pack column less tightly
- Reducing pressure of mobile phase Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)
- Analyses specific wavelengths and adsorption of radiation
Under similar conditions, compounds will have unique Rt and Rf values
Unit 2 – What makes water such a unique chemical?

- Atoms and molecules absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation when Conical and volumetric flask:
moving from excited states to ground states - Rinse with distilled water to avoid increasing solution
- Only metals ions of interest get excited so very low levels (ppb) can - Any impurities or excess substances may react with chemical or take
be detected up volume and result in a lower titre
- Different parts of the spectrum affect different parts of atom
To find concentration of the original
To calculate concentration 1) Find moles of titre
1) Find moles in volumetric flask using 𝑛(𝑣. 𝑓) = 𝐶 × 𝑉(𝑣. 𝑓). 2) Use mole to mole ratio to find moles of the aliquot
Remember C(sample) = C(diluted v.flask) 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑣.𝑓.
3) Find undiluted moles in original by 𝑚(𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡) ×
𝑛(𝑣.𝑓.) 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡
2) Find concentration using 𝐶(𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙) = 𝑉(𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙) 𝑛
4) Find concentration of analyte in original using 𝐶 =
𝑉
To calculate mass of substance
𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑥 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒)
1) Find mass in sample using 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 Titration Curve
2) m(diluted aliquot) = m(aliquot) Strong base/strong acid = 7
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑣.𝑓. Weak base/strong acid = <7
3) Find mass in undiluted volumetric flask by 𝑚(𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡) × 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡 Strong base/weak acid = >7
4) m(original) = m(v.flask) Weak base/weak acid = around 7

IMPORTANT – Remember to check the units of mass/volume Substance starting in conical flask is
first half of graph
Titration Substance added to conical flask is
Volumetric analysis to find the concentration second half of graph
of another solution
Aliquot – the volume of sample delivered by
a pipette Limiting Reagents
Titrant – the reactant delivered by the - Mole ratio in chemical equation show exact number of moles needed
burette of each chemical
Titre – volume of solution delivered by - Some moles left unused = excess reagent
burette to reach the end point - All moles completely used up = limiting reagent
Analyte – substance being analysed
Concordant titre – three titres that differ by
a max of 0.10ml Galvanic Cell
Equivalence point – point where reactants
are mixed in stoichiometric ratio with the
balanced equation
End point – The point where indicator
changes colour

Pipette and Burette:

- Rinse with same chemical
- Water in pipette will dilute aliquot and result in a lower titre
- Water in burette will dilute titrant and result in higher titre
Unit 2 – What makes water such a unique chemical?

- converting chemical energy to electrical energy

- One half cell contains a conjugate pair

2 electrodes – anode and cathode (2 metals)

Electrolyte – aqueous conductors; neutral solutions of ionic substances
Internal circuit – electrolyte solution does not interfere/react with reaction;
allows movement of positive and negative ions
External circuit – allows of movement of electrons from anode to cathode

Salt bridge:
Anion -> Anode Cation -> Cathode
KNO3 is the typical salt bridge

Reduction -> Oxidant/Cathode Oxidation -> Reductant/Anode

Higher voltage – lower voltage = overall voltage

Electrochemical series
- Oxidants at top – Reductants at bottom
- Lowest = backward reactions
- Reductants must be lower than Oxidants for a strong reaction to occur

Significant Figures
- Count all non-zero numbers
- Count all zeros between ^
- Count zeros after a decimal point if significant numbers are present on
the left
- Do not count any zeros left of a non-zero number
- Do not count zeros right of a non-zero number without a decimal
point

Use scientific notations to make leading/trailing zeros significant

Adding/subtracting
- Add/subtract normally
- Round to lowest number of decimal places given
Multiplication/division
- Multiply/divide normally
- Round to lowest number of significant figures given

10𝑎 = 𝑏 decimal places of b = sig.fig. of a