EconomicGeology

Vol. 80, 1985, pp. 1515-1522

EnergyReleasein SubvolcanicEnvironments'
Implicationsfor BrecciaFormation
C. W. BURNHAM

Departmentof Geosciences,
ThePennsylvania
StateUniversity,UniversityPark,Pennsylvania,
16802

Abstract

Mechanical(PAV) energyis releasedfrom hydrousmagmasin subvolcanic environments

by the two generallysequentialprocesses of secondboilingandsubsequent decompression.
The secondboilingprocess, H20-saturatedmelt -• crystals+ H20 vapor,releasessufficient
PAV energyin the modelsystempreviouslyestablished by Burnham(1979) and Burnham
andOhmoto(1980) to causefracturefailureof eventhe strongest wall rocks(tensilestrength
•3.77 X 10lø ergs.kg-1) to depthsof 4 or 5 km. Followingfracturefailure,moreover,ex-
pansionof alreadyexsolvedH20 andexsolutionof additionalH20 upondecompression into
the modelfracturesystemreleases additionalPAV energy(9.7 X 10lø ergs.kg-1 of magma)
sufficientto lift an equivalentmassof rocknearly 1 km, in the absenceof frictionalresistance.
Thislatter energy,althougha conservative value,is modeldependentto the extentthat it is
affectedby changingany one of the followingsixindependentmodelparameters:(1) bulk
compositionof the magma(hornblende-biotite granodioritein the model), (2) depth of em-
placementof the magmabody(•2.3 km;Pt -- 0.6 kb), (3) massfractionof H•O in the initial
melt (F• = 0.027; 2.7 wt % H20), (4) massfractionof melt in the magmaat the time of
emplacement (Føm = 1.0; 100% liquid),(5) tensilestrengthof the wall rocks(3.77 X 101ø
ergs-kg-•), and (6) depthto the top of the fracture,onceformed(•2.3 km; Pt < 0.3 kb).
Althoughall of theseparameters,exceptthe first, are of major importancein the formation
of hydrothermal breccias,generallythe massfractionofH20 in the initialmelt (F•) isregarded
as the singlemostimportantfactorin the formationof brecciabodiesin typical porphyry-
type systems; F• not onlydeterminesprimarilywhetheror not the secondboilingreaction
releasesenoughPAV energyto producefractures,it alsodeterminesthe magnitudeof the
decompressional energyreleasedinto the fractures,if formed.Magmasin whichF• -- 0.02
to 0.04 at liquidustemperatures generallyreleasesufficientPAV energynot onlyto produce
extensive porphyry-typefracturesystems but alsoto producethe brecciabodiesthesesystems
commonlycontain.Magmasin whichFø•< 0.02, onthe otherhand,generallydo notrelease
sufficientenergyfor extensivebrecciaformation,exceptin structurallyweak wall rocksat
depthsshallowerthan approximately2 km. Magmasin which Fø•>>0.04 at near-liquidus
temperaturesare incapableof emplacementin the subvolcanic environment.

Introduction mafic magmas, which generally contain smaller

amountsof hydrousminerals(hornblendeandbiotite),
THE intenselyfracturedmarginalparts of stocklike require evenlower initial H=O contentsto exsolvean
bodiesof felsicporphyries andtheir superjacent wall aqueousphase.For reasonsdiscussedby Burnham
rocksthat are perhapsthe mostcharacteristic feature (1981), the initial HgO contentof porphyrymagmas,
of porphyry-typedeposits,aswell as the numerous with which brecciabodiesare commonlyassociated,
brecciabodiesthat thesefracturedrocksvery com- is generallyconstrainedto be betweenapproximately
monlyhost,are regardedasmanifestations of the me- 2 and 4 wt percent;hence, followingBurnhamand
chanicalenergyreleasedduringemplacement andof Ohmoto(1980), a conservativevalue of 2.7 wt per-
the solidification
of hydrousfelsicmagmas in subvol- cent H=O will be usedin the followingmodelfor en-
canic environments(Burnham, 1979). This mechan- ergy releasein subvolcanic environments.
ical(PAV)energyisreleased asa naturalconsequence Exsolutionof an aqueousfluid phaseby the second
of crystallization
or decompression of hydrousmag- (retrograde,resurgent)boiling reaction, H=O-satu-
mas,or both,and,in a structurallyweakenededifice, rated melt ---, crystals+ aqueousfluid, resultsin an
is alsoregardedas the principalcauseof explosive increasein volumeof a magmabody, the magnitude
volcanism (Burnham,1972, 1983). of whichis directly dependentuponthe initial H20
Crystallization
of typicalgranodioritemagmas that contentof the magmaand the deformabilityof the
initiallycontainmorethanapproximately0.6 wt per- wall rocks, and inversely dependent upon depth
cent H20 eventuallyleadsto hypersolidus H20 sat- (pressure).The reactionalsoreleasesmechanicalen-
urationandexsolutionof anaqueousfluidphase.Less ergy (Burnham, 1979, 1981, 1983; Burnham and

0361-0128/85/440/1515-8$2.50 1515
1516 c. w. BURNHAM

Ohmoto, 1980), whichis expendedin deformingthe 'PtAVt,e/'gs

.kg-•x
•-•0 ,
wall rocksto failure, commonlyby brittle fractureat
depths
shallower
than8 to10km.
Uponfailureofthesuperjacent
wallrocks,
theHeO-
saturated residual melt and previously exsolved
aqueousfluid undergodecompression, the extentof 0.5

which is at leastasgreat asthe internal overpressure

required
tocause
failure.
This
decompression,
which
locallymaybe veryrapid,resultsin furtherexsolution
of aqueousfluid, expansionof previouslyexsolved
fluid,andconcomitant
expenditure
ofadditional
PAV
energy
thatmaygreatlyexceed
theenergyexpended,
per unit massof magma,in producinginitial failure.
Thus,
twointerrelated
processes
areinvolved
inthe
releaseofPAVenergyfrombodiesofhydrous
magma
in subvolcanicenvironments, both of which have im- 2.0
portantimplicationsfor brecciaformation.
The SecondBoiling Process o I 2
Distance, km
The secondboilingprocessin a subvolcanic
magma
body has been treated at length elsewhere(e.g., FIG. 2. The l•tAVtenergyreleasedin the secondboiling re-
action,the solubilityof H•O in the melt phase(F•), andthe max-
Burnham, 1979) in the framework of a conceptual imumtensilestrengthof wall rocks(MTS) superimposed on figure
modelfbr the developmentof a typicalporphyry-type 3.5b of Burnham(1979). The PtAVtrelationsare for the model
fracture systemwith an associatedbreccia pipe. In granodioritemagmathatisemplacedat near-liquidus temperatures
this model, which is illustratedschematicallyin Fig- (Fig. 1) andin whichF• = 0.027 (2.7 wt % H•O). The significance
of point A, asin Figure 1, is discussed
in the text.
ures 1 and2 (cf. Burnham,1979, fig. 3.5a, b), a stock-
like protrusionfrom a larger underlyingbody of
granodioritemagmahasbeen emplacedand hasso-
lidifiedto a minimumdepthof approximately1.7 km have contained2.7 wt percent HeO initially and to
(boundaryS1in Fig. 1). The magmais assumed to havebeen nearly all liquid in its interior; henceits
initial temperature,asindicatedin Figure 1, wasap-
proximately1,000øC.It is furtherassumed that,prior
to the stage depicted, internal overpressurespro-

0, •e•
700t8Tern. _0
ducedby secondboilingnear the HeO-saturatedsol-
idus boundaryS1have been relieved by magmain-
trusionand,perhaps,extrusion.Thus,at the stagede-
picted, the magmabody insideS1hasbecomeclosed
0.5 to the escapeof matter, exceptfor Ha and a small
amount of HeO from within a few meters of S1; fur-
thermore, a separateaqueousfluid phaseexistsev-
erywhereinsideS1that the temperatureisbelowthe
HeO saturation(S + L + V) curve for the residual
melt in Figure 1. Someof this fluid in the HeO-sat-
urated carapacemay accumulatenear the top of the
carapaceand form a "vapor bubble," as appearsto
have happenedat Panasqueira, Portugal(Kelly and
7 Rye, 1979), and perhaps elsewhere (Norton and
2.0 Cathies, 1973).
8 As cooling and crystallizationproceed from the
2 I 0 1 2
walls and roof inward and the solidusS• approaches
Sein Figure 2, the entire volumeof magmabetween
Distance, km
S1and Semustundergosecondboiling and exsolve
•G. 1. The liquidus, solidus,and three-phase(S + L + V) all of its initialHeO content,exceptfor a smallamount
relationships in the systemgranodiorite-H•Osuperimposed on a (<0.6%) that maybe structurally boundin hornblende
slightmodificationof figure 3.5a in Burnham(1979). The S + L
+ V curve is for a magmathat contains2.7 wt percent H•O. The and biotite at depthsgreater than approximately2.3
significanceof pointA, whichis locatedat a depthof approximately km and temperaturesbelow approximately800øC.
2.3 km in the conceptualmodel, is discussedin the text. The maximumPAV energyreleasedin thisprocessis
 ENERGY RELEASE IMPLICATIONS 1517

given,to a closeapproximation for a pressureof 2.0 2, where the maximumtensilestrength(MTS) of ig-

kb or less,by the relation(cf. Burnham,1983, eq. 4): neous wall rocks is also indicated. This maximum ten-
sile strengthis equivalentto 100 bars (Shaw, 1980;
Schockand Louis, 1982) and is for a homogeneous,
PtAVt
=FSmF•,I4.61
X1091-2.3
X10-•øPt)T unfracturedrock with an average density of 2.65
gm. cm-a. Thus,beforethe solidusS1retreatsdown-
+33Pt(1-
•1•)]
ergs-kg
-• (1)the secondboilingreactionwill causefracturefailure,
ward to S=in Figure 2, the PAV energy releasedin

of magma,where Pt is total pressureon the magma mainlyin the roof rocksof the magmachamber.
in ergs-cm-a (bars.106), AVt is the total volume The point in this retreat of the solidusat which
changeof the magma(in cma. kg-•) accompanyingsecondboilingreleasesenoughenergyto causefailure
the secondboiling reaction,FSmis the massfraction of the wall rocksdependsuponthe temperaturegra-
of melt (m) in the magmaat H20 saturation(s),F•vis dient in the near-roof portionsof the magmabody
the massfractionof exsolvedH20 (w) vapor (v), T is andthe actualbulk tensilestrengthof the wall rocks.
is the massfraction To illustrate these relationshipsand to provide a
the temperaturein kelvins,andFSw
of H•O in the melt at saturation. framework for future discussion,let it be assumed
The massfractionof melt, FSm, is dependentupon that the wall rockshave maximumtensile strength
F•w,the solubilityof H•O in the melt phaseat the (MTS in Fig. 2) and the temperaturegradientin the
pressureand temperatureof interest,throughthe re- magmaat thisinitialstageissuchthatthetemperature
lation: at pointA in the conceptualmodel(cartoon)of Figure
1 is 900øC. At this point in the model system,then,
FSm= F . w-Fw
___

Fs
w , T = 1,173K, Pt = 0.6 kb (6 • l0 s ergs-cm-a),Føw
(2) = 0.027, FSw = 0.031, FSm= 0.87, andthe melt phase
whereFøm is the massfractionof melt in the magma is just saturated with H•O (on the S + L + V curve
at the time of emplacement, Føw is the massfraction in Fig. 1).
of HaO in this initial melt (0), andFhw mis the mass As coolingand crystallizationproceedat point A,
fractionof HaO boundin hydrousminerals(hm), if the secondboilingprocess releases mechanical energy
formedandnot alreadypresent.The massfractionof that resultsin an increase in internal pressureover
exsolvedH20 (F•,), in turn, is dependentupon F•m the initial lithostaticloadpressure.The stagein this
throughthe relation: processat which this internal overpressureequals
the assumedtensilestrengthof the wall rocks(MTS
= 100 bars= 3.77 X 10•øergs-kg-•) maybe deter-
F•,
=(Føw
- Fhw
m)
(1--Fro]' (3)mined fromequations(1) to (3) for the new conditions:
Pt = 7 X l0 sergs-cm-a, FSw = 0.035, FSm = 0.77, and
where Fmis the massfractionof melt remainingat T is preliminarily estimatedto be 1,080K (807øC).
the P andT of interest,within the field boundedby Thus,usingtheseparameters andsettingPtAVt= 3.77
the S + L + V and HsO-saturated soliduscurves in X 1010ergs.kg-•, equation(1) maybe solvedtoyield
Figure 1. Incidentally,the S + L + V curvein Figure F•, = 0.014. Substitution of this value for F•, into
i--located with the aid of equation(2), the FSw re- equation(3) yieldsa value for Fmof 0.37 or less,de-
lationsin Figure2, andthe thermodynamic modelof pendinguponthemassfractionof H20 (Fhw
TM)
bound
Nekvasil-Coraor and Burnham (1983)--shifts to in hornblendeand, perhaps,biotite. The value of
shallower < 0.027 andto greaterdepths Fhw
depthsifFøw mnotwithstanding,
a fraction
ofmeltremaining
(Fro)
ifFøw> 0.027. Its intersection
with theHsO-saturated of only 0.37 impliesthat the temperatureis within
liquidusalso shiftsto lower temperaturesin bulk 10 ø or 20øC of the H•O-saturated solidusat Pt = 0.7
compositions more graniticthan the model granodi- kb in Figure 1' hence,the preliminaryestimateof T
orite. = 1,080K is approximatelycorrect. From the onset
Applicationof equation(1) to the modelin Figure of secondboiling to fracture failure, therefore,the
1, in whichFøw = 0.027, Føm= 1, andFhw m= 0.003 at magmaat point A hascooled80ø to 90øC, the pres-
P > 0.5 kb andnear-solidus temperatures, yieldsthe surehas increased100 bars, essentiallyhalf of the
PtAVtrelationspresentedin Figure2. Theseenergies initial H•O contentof the magmahasexsolved,and
representthe total work done on the surroundings the H•O-saturated solidushas retreated downward,
uponcompletecrystallization of the magmaat a given approaching pointA. Uponreturnto lithostaticpres-
depth,on the assumption that the tensilestrengthof sure(0.6 kb), moreover,the H•O-saturatedcarapace
the wall rocksis high enoughto absorbthis work andits immediatelysuperjacent roofrocksmayhave
without deformingto fracture failure. That this as- stretchedlaterallyby asmuchas 10 to 20 percent,
sumptionis not valid for depthsshallowerthan 4 to dependingupon the stressregime in the country
5 km in the presentmodelisclearlyevidentin Figure rocks.
1518 c. w. BURNHAM

Initial failure is visualizedto take the form of myr- carrythe residualmelt (Fro= 0.37) belowthe H20-
iad, steeply dipping fracturesthat are more or less saturatedsolidus(Fig. 1), resultingin a complete
uniformlydistributedin theroofrocksabovetheH20- "pressurequench" (Jahnsand Tuttle, 1963) and
saturatedcarapace(cf. Burnham, 1979, p. 107ff). exsolutionof the remainingH20 from the magma.
Thesefractures,whichare uniformlydistributedbe- The energyreleasedin thisprocess,fromequation
causeof the assumed homogeneity of tensilestrengths (1)withFmsubstitutedforF•, is5.7X 10•øergs-kg-•
and uniform stressdistribution,also may extend ofmagma, bringingthetotalenergyreleasedintothe
downwardinto the marginalpartsof the H20-satu- fractureto 9.7 X 10•ø ergs.kg-• of magma.Alto-
rated carapace(Shaw,1980), where they tap fluids gether,then,morethan1.3X 10• ergsofPAVenergy
exsolvingfrom interstitialmelt in responseto de- wouldbe releasedby just 1 kg of magmaat A from
compression. the onsetof secondboiling.Moreover,morethan70
percentof thisenergywouldbe carriedintothefrae-
The DecompressionProcess ture by only 27 g of H20.
Decompression followingfracturefailureresultsin As an aidin placingtheseenergiesintobetter per-
the releaseof additionalPAV energythroughexpan- speetive, the9.7 X 10•øergs.kg-• of magma, which
sionof alreadyexsolvedH20 in the magmaandexso- maybe released intothe fracturein a matterof see-
lution of additional H20 from interstitial melt. The onds(Burnham, 1983),istwicethe estimated average
energyreleasedby fluid expansionis givenapproxi- kineticenergyexpended, per kilogram-ofmaterial
matelyby (cf. Burnham,1983, eq. 6): erupted,in explosivevolcaniceruptions(Burnham,
1972).It isalsotwoor threetimestheenergyreleased
in the Mount St. Helens blast of May 18, 1980, per
- •i] I ergs.kg
-• (4) kilogramofmagmaerupted(EiehelbergerandHayes,
1982; Burnham,1983, fig. 3). More aproposof the
of magma,wherePt andPi arethe final(f) andinitial
(i) pressures,
respectively,
in ergs-cm presenttheme,however,is thatthisenergyis suffi-
-a, AV,,is the cientto lift an equivalentmassof rock990 m, in the
volumeexpansion of H20 (steam)upondecompres- absenceof frictional resistance.Thus it is not difficult
sionfrom Pi to Pt, FSiis now the massfractionof H•.O
initiallypresentasbubbles(wi), andT, asbefore,is
toenvisage
theemplaeement
of80-tonblocksofrock
in kelvins.The coefficient, 4.61 X 109ergs-kg-1 (cf. nearly500 m abovetheiroriginalpositions, asin the
breeeiasof the Warren (Bisbee) district, Arizona
eq. 1), is the gasconstant(R) for H20; impuritiesat
levelsfoundin fluid inclusions may lower this coef- (Bryant,1968).
ficient,hencethe amountof energyreleased,by as Effects of Assumed Model Parameters
much as 15 percent. Beforeproceedingto discuss the implications of
Applicationof equation(4) to the magmaat A, theseenergyrelationsfor brecciaformation,it is ap-
where FVwi = 0.014, Pi = 0.7 kb, and T = 1,080K,
propriateto examinethe extentto whichthe partic-
requiresknowledgeof Pf, which in this case,is the ularparameters assumed in thepresentmodelaffect
fluid pressurein the fracturethat tapsthe magmaat the results.Theseparameters, in orderof introduc-
A. An upper limit to this pressurecanbe estimated tion,are:(1)bulkcomposition ofthemagma, (2) depth
becausea fluid pressureapproximatelyequalto one- of emplacement of themagma body,(3) massfraction
thirdof thelithostaticpressure(Poisson's ratio-- 0.25) of H20 in the initial melt (Fø•),(4) massfractionof
isrequiredto maintainan opennear-verticalfracture melt in the magmaat the time of emplacement
(Turcotteand Schubert,1982, p. 108) and an addi- (Føm), (5) tensilestrengthof the wall rocks,and(6)
tionalfluidpressureroughlyequivalentto the tensile depthto thetopof thefractureonceit isformed.The
strengthof the wall rock is requiredto extendthe effectsof eachof theseindependent parameters will
fractureupward(P. Halleck,pers.commun.,1984). nowbe examined,holdingthe otherfive constantat
Thus the initial fluid pressurein a fractureof small their model values.
verticalextentthat tapsmagmaat A (Figs. 1 and 2)
couldbe ashighas300 bars.• Bulk composition of the magma
On the assumption that Pf = 0.3 kb, expansion of Prophyrymagmas substantially moregraniticthan
alreadyexsolvedH20 bubbles(F•w• = 0.014) into the the modelaveragehornblende-biotite granodiorite
fracturewouldrelease4.0 X 10•øergs-kg-• ofmagma (Nockolds,1954) arecommonplace, especially in as-
(eq. 4). In addition,decompression to 0.3 kb would sociation withporphyrymolybdenum deposits.These
magmas not onlyhavesubstantially
lowerliquidus,
• That this fluid pressureis not unreasonableis indicatedby hence emplacementtemperatures,as mentioned
fluid inclusionsin hydrothermalquartz of severalbrecciapipes
that recordentrapmentpressures of 300 barsandhigher (Sillitoe previously,
theyalsohavea narrowercrystallization
and Sawkins,1971; Reynoldsand Beane, 1984; R. Bodnar,pers. rangeandreachH20 saturation
attemperatures
closer
commun., 1984). to the solidus.For the samerate of cooling,therefore,
 ENERGY RELEASE IMPLICATIONS 1519

thesegranitemagmaswill releasemorePAV energy especiallyfrom dikelikebodies,suchasD1 andD• in

in a givenperiodof time than will the modelgrano- Figures1 and 2, that presumablywere intrudedinto
dioritemagmas. Conversely,magmas moremaficthan preexistingfracturesor zonesof weakness.
the model granodiorite,althoughlesscommonlyas- In the event that the model magmais emplacedat
sociated with ore-related breccias, would release a depth suchthat the equivalentof point A is under
somewhatlessPAV energyin the sameperiodof time a lithostaticload pressureof 1.0 kb ('--3.75 km), for
andfor the samecoolingrate. example,initial fracturefailure will not occuruntil
approximately97 percentof the melt hascrystallized.
Depth of magmaemplacement Furthermore, decompressionand expansion of
Eraplacementof the modelmagmaat depthsshal- exsolvedH•O into the fracture system,in which Pf
lower than the intersection of the H20-saturated li- < 433 bars, will releasea total PAV energy of ap-
quidusand the S q- L q- V curve in Figure i would proximately 7 X 10lø ergs.kg-1 of magma,substan-
result in exsolutionof H20 (vesiculation)and con- tially lessthan the energyreleasedinto the fracture
comitantcrystallization,the extentof whichdepends at A. At slightlygreaterdepths,asindicatedin Figure
upon the ambient lithostaticload pressure.During 2, insufficient energyis releasedin the secondboiling
eraplacementto a depth of 1.1 to 1.2 km (P -- 0.3 reactionto overcomethe maximumtensile strength
kb), for example,0.7 wt percent H•O (F•, -- 0.007) of the wall rocks;hence fracture failure will not occur.
will have exsolvedand, perhaps,accumulatedat the From these examples,then, it is apparent that the
top of the pluton, leavinga melt phase(Pm= 0.74) greatestamountof PAV energyis releasedinto the
in whichF•w= 0.02 (Fig. 2) andreleasing2.6 X 101ø fracture systemat a depth correspondingto a lith-
ergs.kg-1 of magma(eq. 1). Thisenergypresumably ostaticloadpressurewherethe magmais initially sat-
hasbeen expendedin the work of expansionduring urated with H•O on its liquidus;in the model, this
intrusion and is not available, therefore, to contribute pressureis 0.5 kb (Fig. 1).
to subsequent wall-rockfailure.
Followingemplacement, coolingandcrystallization Massfractionof H20 in theinitial melt (Føw)
ofthe three-phase mixturewill resultin secondboiling The effectof loweringFøw belowthe modelvalue
andthe releaseof PAV energyasbefore,but part of (0.027), asmentionedpreviously,isto shiftthe PtAVt
this energywill be expendedin compressing the al- curvein Figure2 to lowerpressures, henceshallower
ready exsolvedH• O, which initially occupiedap- depths.Also,the maximumPAV energyreleasedinto
proximately18 vol percentof the magma.As a con- the fracturesystem,if formed,islower,primarilybe-
sequence,the 100-bar overpressure requiredto ex- causethe F• valuesin the equations(1) and (4) are
ceedthe maximumtensilestrengthof the wall rocks lower.If Føw -- 0.017, for example,the magmawould
(MTS in Fig. 2) will not be generateduntil morethan be on its H20-saturated liquidus at 0.24 kb and
77 percentof the magmahas crystallized--within 1,090øC (Figs. 1 and 2), secondboiling would not
onlya few degreesof the H•O-saturatedsolidus.Just generatean internaloverpressure of 100 barsuntil
how muchmorethanthisamountof magmawill have Fm= 0.26, and the total PAV energy releasedinto
crystallized cannotbe easilydetermined,asit depends the fracture systemwould be only 5.4X 10•ø
uponthe ratio of the massof magmafromwhichH•O ergs.kg-1 of magma.Moreover,at depthsgreater
exsolvedduringeraplacementto the massof magma thanapproximately1.8 km, secondboilingwouldnot
undergoingsecondboiling throughoutthe H20-sat- generateinternal overpressures sufficientto cause
uratedcarapace. 2 fracture failure in wall rocks of maximum tensile
Owingto the proximityofthismagmato the solidus, strength.
decompressionupon fracture failure will result in Conversely, magmas in whichFøw > 0.027become
completecrystallization(pressurequench)and re- saturatedwith H•O on their liquidi at greaterdepths
leaseof all PAV energydirectlyintothe fracturesys- and lower temperatures, and they release corre-
tem, where the fluid pressureis 0.2 kb or less.The spondingly morePAV energyintothe fracturesystem
totalenergythusreleased('--7.4 X 101øergs.kg-•), that may be formed at correspondinglygreater
althoughsomewhatlessthanthat releasedat A (Fig. depths.An increasein Føwto 0.043, for example,
2), is nevertheless sufficientto lift an equivalentmass would placethe magmaon its H•O-saturatedliquidus
of rock 750 m, againin the absenceof frictionalre- at 1.0 kb ('--3.75 kin) and 950øC, and would release
sisrance. The potentialfor surfaceventingfrom such approximately 1.6 X 1011;ergs.kg-1 of magmainto
shallowlyemplaeedmagmasis thereforesubstantial, a fracturein whichPf = 0.43 kb. Uponcompletecrys-
tallization,thismagmaalsowouldreleaseenoughen-
ergythroughsecondboilingto producefracturefail-
2 In all of thesecalculationsit is assumedthat the two-phase
mixture, S + L, is incompressibleover the small pressurerange ure to a depth of nearly 8.0 km, providedthe wall
involved (100 bars). It is also assumedthat overpressuresare rocksdeformquasi-elastically at thisdepth.Wall rocks
transmittedthroughoutthe magmabody. at depthsof 10 km or moreprobablyyield to internal
1520 c. w. BURNHAM

overpressures
in the magmaby plasticdeformation, structuralweaknessin the near-roofportionsof the
hencetheinitiationoftypicalporphyry-typefracture
wallrocks,whicharepresumedto controlthe location
systemsat thesedepthsis unlikely,regardless
of the
of brecciapipesand dikes(BP• in Fig. 2), are the
H20 contentof the magma.Instead,pegmatites and, naturalloci of the greatestPAV energyreleaseby
perhaps,miaroliticcavitiesshouldbe prevalent. decompression followingfracturefailure.
Magmas of model granodiorite compositionin
whichFøw asthere Depth to the top of thefracture
> 0.043 are difficultto envisage,
appearsto be no petrologicallyviable processby The depth to the top of the fracture at A in the
whichtheycanbe generated.Thislimitationdoesnot modelconstrains the maximumfluidpressurein the
applyto substantiallymoregraniticmagmas, however, fractureto one-thirdof the lithostaticpressureat that
but the liquidustemperatures of thesemagmasfor depth,assuming Poisson's ratio = 0.25, plusthe ten-
valuesof Føw > 0.5 are solowthattheylackthe ca- silestrengthof thewallrocks(MTS= 100bars).This
pacity to reachthe subvolcanicenvironmentwithout fluidpressure, in turn, affectsthe totalPAV energy
crystallizingcompletely (cf.Burnham,1979,p. 91if). releasedinto the fractureupondecompression, asis
evidentmainlyfrom the ratio Pf/Piin equation(4).
Massfractionof melt (Føm) Asthe depthto the top of the fractureat A becomes
The massfractionof melt in the magmaat the time shallower,therefore,the PAV energyreleasedbe-
of emplacement, if substantially lessthan unity, can comes greater than the model value (9.7 X 10•ø
havea markedeffectonthePAVenergyreleased and, ergs.kg-• of magma).By the sametoken,however,
hence,on the developmentof a porphyryfracture thedepthbelowA towhichthefracturecanpropagate
system.If, for example,Føm = 0.60 (T •1,085K) in or remain open, as the H•O-saturatedcarapacere-
the intruding model magma,the melt phasewill treats downward,becomescorrespondinglyshal-
exsolveH20 (F,• = 0.0054) and crystallizeto Fm lower.
-- 0:52 asit decompresses from 0.9 kb (•3.3 km) to
0.6 kb (pointA in Fig. 1) andreleases a corresponding Implicationsfor BrecciaFormation
amountof PAV energy(•1.2 X 10•ø ergs.kg-•). As the H•O-saturatedcarapace,in which tensile
Coolingthismagmaonlyapproximately10øC will re- strengthsare assumedto be negligible, retreats
suit in secondboiling, compression of the already downwardandthe solidusapproaches S2in Figure2,
exsolvedH•O, and completecrystallization,but the the fractureat A, in whichPf = 0.3 kb, maybe ex-
net energyreleasedwill be slightlylessthanthat re- pectedto propagatedownwardwith the solidusto a
quiredto causefracturefailureofthewallrocks(• 3.5 depthasgreatas3.3 km (P •0.9 kb) beforetermi-
X 10•øergs.kg-•). Smallwonder,then,thatsubvol- natingfor lackof sufficient fluidpressureto keepit
canicstocksof porphyry,consisting of only modest open.Thereafter, this fracture,which now hasa ver-
percentages of phenocrysts setin aphaniticor aplitic tical extent of as much as 1 km, could be extended
groundmasses, are characteristically associated with fartherdownwardin response to increasinginternal
the moreextensiveporphyry-typefracturesystems overpressure producedby secondboilingin the im-
and breccia bodies. mediatelyunderlyingH•O-saturatedcarapace(Fig.
2), providedonlythat the upperpart of the fracture
Tensilestrengthof the wall rocks is sealedoff by depositionof mineralmatter(miner-
Althoughgeologicallyunrealisticfor very large alization).If theupperpartof the fractureisnotsealed
volumes of rock in a subvolcanicenvironment, the off,the increased fluidpressure(Pf> 0.3 kb)required
wall rocksof the modelsystemhavebeenassumed to to extendit downwardwould,instead,extendit up-
be of uniformlymaximumtensilestrength,because ward, therebyreducingfluid pressures throughout
thisassumption yieldsthe mostconservative estimates and causingclosureof the fracturenear its bottom.
of the PAV energyreleasedinto the fracturesystem Closurealsomight occuras the rate of fluid input
onceit is formed.Lower tensilestrengthswouldre- near the bottom of the fracture in the H•O-saturated
quiretheexpenditure oflessPAVenergyin deforming carapacediminishes belowthat requiredto balance
the wall rocksto fracturefailure,therebyreleasinga leakageto the wallsand densification on coolingin
higherproportionof the total energyby decompres- the upper part of the fracture.By either one or the
sioninto the fracture systemthat is under a corre- other of these mechanisms,or both, the oldest "A"
spondingly lowerfluidpressure. If the effectivetensile veins at E1 Salvador, Chile (Gustafsonand Hunt,
strengthof the rocksin the vicinityof pointA (Figs. 1975, p. 881), and similar irregular, discontinuous
1 and 2) were half the maximum(50 bars),as they veins in many other porphyry systemsmight have
well mightbe locally,the totalPAV energyreleased been formed.
intothe fracturewouldbe approximately 17 percent Further coolingand retreat of the H•O-saturated
greaterthanthe 9.7 X 10•øergs.kg-1 of magmare- carapaceleadsagainto secondboilingandconcomi-
leasedin the modelexample(MTS). Thus,zonesof tantexpansion of the carapacebeneathalreadyweak-
 ENERGY RELEASE IMPLICATIONS 1521

ened roof rocks. In this expansion,which could of wall-rock fragmentshundredsof meters upward
amountto as much as 12 percent at a depth of 3.3 (Bryant,1968; Sillitoeet al., 1984). Moreover,a drop
km, new fracturesmaybe formedlocallyand preex- in fluid pressurebelow that required to sustainopen-
isting onesreopened. Becausethe energy required ingsnearthe bottomof the system(0.3 kb in the pres-
to reopen preexistingfracturesis lessthan that re- ent model)would result in spallingand collapseof
quiredto producenew fracturesin the immediately the wall rocksinto the vohlme previouslyoccupied
superjacentroof rocks,however,muchof this expan- by the rafted and expelledmaterial (cf. Norton and
sionpresumablywouldbe takenup in wideningthe Cathies, 1973). Spallingand widening of sheetfrac-
aperturesof preexistingfractures.Asa consequence, tures higher in the wall rocksalsoshouldoccur, as
someof thesefractures,suchas the one extending fluidpressurein the mainextendingfracturesuddenly
upwardto A (Fig. 2), maybe widenedsufficientlyto fallsbelow that in subsidiaryfractures.
allow intrusionof magmafrom the H20-saturated This scenariofor breccia formation,althoughad-
carapaceand even deeper levelswithin the pluton, mittedly oversimplifiedand obviouslylackingin de-
thereby forming characteristicintramineral dikes, tails, hasbeen constructedto be consistentnot only
suchasat Bingham,Utah (Wilson, 1978), and, more with the observedmajor featuresof hydrothermal
locally,brecciapipesanddikes. brecciapipesanddikesin porphyry-typesystems but
In contrastwith the relativelyslowrate of PAV en- also with the known phaseand energy relationsin
ergy releaseinto the now familiarfractureasit prop- coolinganddecompressing hydrousmagmas.It is by
agatesdownward in consortwith the retreat of the no meansthe onlyscenariothat canbe soconstructed,
H20-saturatedcarapace,the relativelyrapidintrusion but anymodel,to be generallyapplicableto thisclass
of largevolumesof magmawouldbe accompanied by of breccias,mustsimultaneously providea sourceof
a correspondingly rapid releaseof largequantitiesof energy sufficientto displacelarge rock fragments
PAV energy into the fracture. The actualamountof hundredsof metersabovetheir originalpositionsand
energyreleasedper kilogramof magmawill depend, a mechanismfor producingthe large void volumes
however, upon the temperature of the intruding that are socharacteristicof thesebodies.The present
magmarelative to the H=O-saturatedsolidusat the model, which, in essence,is an extensionof the model
assumed Ptin the fracture.Thus,for magmaintruding for explosivevolcanism(Burnham, 1972, 1983) to
the fractureat 3.3 km (Pt = 0.9 kb), where Pt = 0.3 subvolcanicenvironments, accountsfor these critical
kb as before, the greatestamountof energy (•9 features and others as well.
X 10•ø ergs.kg-1) will be releasedat temperatures The modelof Norton and Cathies(1973), in which
nearbut below850øC (Fig. 1); lessenergyisreleased the energy for brecciationis entirely gravitational,
at temperaturesabove 850øC becausenot all of the accountsfor void volumesby callingupon spalling
magmawill crystallizeandexsolveall of its initial H=O and collapseinto a preexistingvoid that wasformed
(2.7 wt %) upondecompression to 0.3 kb. The lower initially by accumulationof magmaticvapor at the
temperaturemagmas,of course,comefrom the outer top of the pluton.Thismodelaccountsfor the collapse
partsof the pluton and, hence,shouldbe the earliest featurescommonlyobservedin manybrecciabodies
to be intruded,releasetheirgreaterPAVenergy,and (Sillitoe and Sawkins, 1971; Norton and Cathies,
becomecomminutedin the process.They then may 1973); it doesnot, however, accountfor the occur-
be followedby the highertemperaturemagmas from renceof rock fragments,weighingasmuchas80 tons
deeperwithin the pluton,which, at 1,000øC, would (Bryant,1968) anddisplacedseveralhundredmeters
releaselessthan3 X 101øergs.kg-1 of magmaupon abovetheir originalpositions.Nor is it consistent
with
decompressionto 0.3 kb. the common occurrence of breccia bodies on the
The PAV energy releasedsuddenly,perhapsvio- margins,insteadof the apexes,of plutons,apparently
lently, from the early, lower temperatureintrusionis localizedby zonesof weaknessin the country rocks
expendednot only in comminutingthe solidifying (Sillitoe and Sawkins,1971).
magmabut alsoin producinga fluid pressuresurge These caveatsnotwithstanding,the tbrmation of
which may widen the fracture apertures,fragment large vapor-filledcavitiesnear the apexesof some
the wall rocksasit travelsupward--therebyenlarging plutons,into whichthe wallsandroof eventuallycol-
the fracture volume and, perhaps,producingsheet lapse, is not inconsistentwith the present model. In-
fractures(Sillitoeand Sawkins,1971)--and extend deed, it is regardedas a variant of this model, asde-
the fractureupwardintoa lowerfluidpressureregime scribedin the earlier sectionon "Depth of Magma
(cf. Godwin, 1973). The drop in fluid pressurefol- Emplacement."In this variant,however,brecciafor-
lowing upward extensionof the fracture, in turn, re- mationis initiated by fluid overpressures sufficientto
suits in increasedeffervescenceof the magma at causefracturefailure of the roof rocksand only later
depth, increasedenergy release, and increasedrate does gravitationalcollapseoccur. This cavity, inci-
of gasstreaming,all of whichmayleadto fiuidization dentally,may be flooredby magmainitially, but it
of materialin the lowerpart of the systemandrafting mustbe walled androofedby rocksthat deformelas-
1522 c. w. BURNHAM

tically, asenvisagedby Kelly andRye (1979) for the ed., Geochemistryof hydrothermalore deposits:New York,
Wiley, p. 71-136.
domicalcap on the cupola at Panasqueira,Portugal -- 1981, Physicochemicalconstraintson porphyry mineraliza-
(cf. NortonandCathies,1973, fig. 6a). tion, in Dickinson,W. R., and Payne,W. D., eds., Relationsof
tectonicsto ore depositsin the southerncordillera:Geol. Soc.
Summary Statement Arizona Digest, v. 14, p. 71-77.
-- 1983, Deep submarinepyroclasticeruptions:ECON.GEOL.
The formationof hydrothermalbrecciabodiesin MON. 5, p. 142-148.
subvolcanic environments is attributed here to the Burnham, C. W., and Ohmoto, H., 1980, Late stageprocessesof
sequentialreleaseofPAV energyfromepizonalbodies felsicmagmatism,in Ishihara,S., andTakenouchi,S., eds.,Gra-
of moderatelyhydrousmagmas("•2-4 wt % H20) nitic magmatismand related mineralization:Soc.Mining Geol-
ogistsJapan, Spec. Issue 8, p. 1-11.
throughthe processes of secondboilingand subse- Eichelberger,J. C., andHayes,D. B., 1982, Magmaticmodelfor
quentdecompression. Althoughdecompression is re- the Mount St. Helens blast of May 18, 1980: Jour. Geophys.
gardedas the main sourceof energy for brecciafor- Research, v. 87, p. 7727-7738.
mation,secondboilingplaysan importantprecursory Gilmour, P., 1977, Mineralized intrusive brecciasas guides to
role, especially in porphyry-type environments. concealed
290-297.
porphyry copper systems:ECON. GEOL., v. 72, p.

Where wall rocks initially have relatively uniform Godwin, C. I., 1973, Shockbrecciation,an unrecognizedmech-
tensilestrengths,asseemsto be required for the de- anismfor brecciaformationin the porphyryenvironment?:Geol.
velopmentof typicalporphyry-typefracturesystems, Assoc.CanadaProc., v. 25, p. 9-12.
the energy releasedin secondboiling may be ex- Gustarson, L. B., and Hunt, J.P. 1975, The porphyry copper
depositat El Salvador,Chile: ECON.GEOL.,v. 70, p. 857-912.
pended,in part, in producinglocalzonesof weakness Jahns,R. H., and Tuttle, O. F., 1963, Layered pegmatite-aplite
in which subsequentdecompressional releaseof en- intrusives:Mineralog. Soc. America Spec. Paper 1, p. 78-92.
ergy is concentratedto producebrecciabodiesin al- Kelly, W. C., andRye, R. O., 1979, Geologic,fluid inclusion,and
ready mineralizedrock. Where wall rocks initially stableisotopestudiesof the tin-tungstendepositsof Panasqueira,
Portugal: ECON. GEOL., v. 74, p. 1721-1822.
possess major zonesof weakness(nonuniformtensile Nekvasil-Coraor,H., and Burnham,C. W., 1983, Thermodynamic
strengths),on the otherhand,secondboilingleadsto modelingof crystallizationpathsof felsic silicatemelts labs.I:
early failure and concentrationof decompressional Geol. Soc. America Abstractswith Programs,v. 15, p. 651.
energyreleasein these zones,thereby abortingde- Nockolds,S. R, 1954, Average chemicalcompositionsof some
velopment of extensiveporphyry-type fracture sys- igneousrocks:Geol. Soc.America Bull., v. 65, p. 1007-1032.
Norton, D. L., and Cathies,L. M., 1973, Brecciapipes--products
tems. Thus, the occurrence of mineralized breccia of exsolvedvapor from magmas:ECON.GEOL.,v. 68, p. 540-
pipesand dikesin unmineralizedand unalteredhost 546.
rocksmay not be indicativeof an underlyingminer- Reynolds,T. J., andBeane,R. E., 1985, Evolutionof hydrothermal
alized porphyrysystem,unlessthe brecciacontains fluid characteristicsat the Santa Rita, New Mexico, porphyry
copper deposit:ECON.GEOL.,v. 80, p. 1328-1347.
fragments of previouslymineralizedrock(cf.Gilmour, Schock,R. N., and Louis, H., 1982, Strain behavior of a granite
1977). anda graywackesandstone in tension:Jour.Geophys.Research,
v. 87, p. 7817-7823.
Acknowledgments Shaw,H. R., 1980, The fracture mechanismof magmatransport
from the mantleto the surface,in Hargraves,R. B., ed., Physics
This presentationhas benefited from the critical ofmagmaticprocesses: Princeton,New Jersey,PrincetonUniv.
commentsof P.M. Halleck and R. J. Bodnar.The Press, p. 201-264.
manuscriptwas prepared under grant supportfrom Sillitoe, R. H., Jaramillo,L., and Castro,H., 1984, Geologicex-
the National Science Foundation, grant EAR-82- ploration of a molybdenum-richporphyry copper deposit at
12492. Mocoa, Colombia:ECON.GEOL.,v. 79, p. 106-123.
Sillitoe,R. H., and Sawkins,F. J., 1971, Geologic,mineralogic
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