1.

CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
Carbohydrates
In living organisms, carbohydrates are almost universally used as an immediate
energy source. However, for many organisms, such as plants and
fungi, they also have structural functions. Carbohydrates may exist either as
saccharide (sugar) monomers or as polymers of saccharides. Typically, the
sugar glucose is a common monomer of carbohydrate polymers. The term
carbohydrate may refer to a single sugar molecule (monosaccharide), two
bonded sugar molecules (disaccharide), or many sugar molecules bonded
together (polysaccharide).
Lipids
Although molecules classified as lipids are quite varied, they have one characteristic
in common: They are all hydrophobic and insoluble in water. You may
have noticed that oil and water do not mix. For example, salad dressings are
rich in vegetable oils. Even after shaking, the vegetable oil will separate out
from the water. This is due to the fact that lipids possess long, nonpolar hydrocarbon
chains and a relative lack of hydrophilic functional groups.
Lipids are very diverse, and they have varied structures and functions.
Fats (such as bacon fat, lard, and butter) and oils (such as corn oil, olive oil,
and coconut oil) are some well-known lipids. You may wonder about the differences
between these terms. In general, fats are solid at room temperature,
while oils are liquid at room temperature. In animals, fats are used for both
insulation and long-term energy storage. They are used to insulate marine
mammals from cold arctic waters and to protect our internal organs from damage.
Instead of fats, plants use oils for long-term energy storage. In animals, the
secretions of oil glands help waterproof skin, hair, and feathers.
Proteins
Proteins are of primary importance in the structure and function of cells. Here
are some of their many functions:
Support Some proteins are structural proteins. Examples include the protein
in spiderwebs; keratin, the protein that contributes to hair and fingernails;
and collagen, the protein that lends support to skin, ligaments, and
tendons (Fig. 3.16a).
Metabolism Many proteins are enzymes. They bring reactants together and thereby
act as catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions in cells. Enzymes are specific
for particular types of reactions and can function at body temperature.
Transport Channel and carrier proteins in the plasma membrane allow substances
to enter and exit cells. Other proteins transport molecules in the
blood of animals—for example, hemoglobin, found in red blood cells,
is a complex protein that transports oxygen (Fig. 3.16b).
Defense Some proteins, called antibodies, combine with disease-causing
agents to prevent those agents from destroying cells and causing diseases
and disorders.
Regulation Hormones are regulatory proteins. They serve as intercellular messengers
that influence the metabolism of cells. For example, the hormone
insulin regulates the concentration of glucose in the blood, while human
growth hormone (hGH) contributes to determining
the height of an individual.
 Motion The contractile proteins actin and
myosin allow parts of cells to move and
cause muscles to contract (Fig. 3.16c).
Muscle contraction enables animals to
move from place to place and substances
to move through the body. It also
regulates body temperature.
Nucleic Acids
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are the
nucleic acids found in cells. Early investigators called them nucleic acids
because they were first detected in the nucleus. DNA acts as the location
within the cell where the genetic information is stored. Each DNA molecule
contains many genes, which specify the sequence of the amino acids
in proteins. RNA is the molecule that aids in transcribing and translating
DNA into proteins.
2. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRO AND EU

3. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

4. FUNCTION

5. MECHANISM ON CELL