GLS680

CHAPTER 2: THEMATIC
CARTOGRAPHY
1 Sr Abdul Rauf Abdul Rasam
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Malaysia

Advanced
Cartography Source:
GLS680
 THEMATIC MAP?

GLS680
http://keywordsuggest.org

A qualitative and /or quantitative map with

specific concepts in relation to the necessary 2
topographic details
THEMATIC MAPS
 A map showing qualitative and /or
quantitative information on specific
features or concepts in relation to the

GLS680
necessary topographic details
 The main objectives is to portray
geographical relationships regarding
particular distributions
 Emphasize spatial pattern of one or more
geographic attributes
 Aimed at a specific group of users to whom
spatial information must be efficiently
communicated

3
CLASSIFICATION
 Degree of generalization
 Function

GLS680
 Subject

4
DEGREE OF GENERALIZATION

 An analytic map-showing distribution of one or

more elements of the phenomenon using nominal
data

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 A complex map- superimposition of several more
or less mutually related spatial distribution each
with its own respective nominal or ordinal data
 A synthesis map-integrated spatial structure,
maps that answers questions at all levels

5
FUNCTION

 Inventory
 Educational

GLS680
 Analytical

6
SUBJECT

 Decimal indexing
 0-base maps
 1-Natural phenomena
2-Population &culture

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
 3-Economic
 4-Communication
 5-Political-administrative
 6-Historical
 7-Planning &environmental management
 8-Cosmological
 9-Composite &miscellaneous content-ecological,
tourists

7
BASE MAPS
 A map containing topographic information and
on which the thematic information can be plotted
 Base map has to be made functional to the

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thematic map
 Application of detailed or generalized base map
depends on the scale, purpose and subject of the
thematic map
 Better to use as a source document for base map -
a map on a larger scale than the final thematic
map than on a smaller scale

8
ELEMENTS OF BASE MAPS
 Graticule/grid
 Drainage pattern

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 Relief

 Settlements

 Communication system

 Administrative units

 Geographical names

 Projection-scale, purpose, place, size of area to be

presented

9
OBJECTIVES OF MAP DESIGN
 Geographical variables are so diverse and
complex, we must understand their essential
nature.

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 Geographical ordering - locational relationships.
 Discrete phenomena.
 Continuous phenomena.

10
DISCRETE PHENOMENA
 A distribution that does not occur everywhere in
the mapped area

GLS680
 Can only occupy a given point in space at any
time
 Can be measured in integers, categories

 Discontinuous phenomena that can only be

ascertained at particular location and not
elsewhere e.g. Vegetation types, population

11
CONTINUOUS PHENOMENA
 Data that are distributed continuously without
interruption across the surface

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 Describes data that can be measured everywhere
e.g. temperature, air pressure, elevation

12
DATA MEASUREMENT
 Scales of measurement
 Nominal

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 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio
 Use of the scales of measurement in thematic
mapping

13
NOMINAL SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

Point Line Area

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Town River Swamp

Mine Road Desert

Church Graticule Forest

Bench Census
Boundary
mark regions

Examples of differentiation of point, line and area

features on a nominal scale of measurement.
After Robinson, et al., 1995

14
ORDINAL SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

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Point Line (roads) Area
Large National Industrial regions
Provincial Major Minor
Medium
County
Small Township
Smoke pollution

Examples of differentiation of point, line and area

features on an ordinal scale of measurement.
After Robinson, et al., 1995

15
INTERVAL-RATIO SCALES OF
MEASUREMENT
Point Line (roads) Area

GLS680
Examples of differentiation of point, line and area
features on an interval or ratio scale of measurement.
After Robinson, et al., 1995

16
BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS AND
PROCESSES
 It is often necessary to manipulate raw data prior
to mapping.

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 Pre-map data manipulation stage:

 Making data to be mapped comparable.

17
ABSOLUTE AND DERIVED DATA
 Absolute qualities or quantities: observed,
measured or counted quantities

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“raw data” maps showing land use categories,
production of goods, elevations above sea level,
etc.
 Derived/relative values.
 Calculated, Summarisation or relationship between
features.
 Four classes of relationships: averages, ratios, densities
and potentials.

18
AVERAGES
 Measures of central tendency
 Three commonly used averages in cartography:

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 Arithmetic mean
 Median
 Mode

19
ARITHMETIC MEAN

Arithmetic mean Geographical mean

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n n

x i a x i i
x i 1
x i 1
N A

20
MEDIAN AND MODE
 Median - the attribute value in the middle of all
ordered attribute values
Geographic median - the attribute value below which

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
and above which half the total area occurs
 Mode - the value that occurs most frequently in a
distribution
 Area modal class - the class which occupies the
greatest proportion of an area

21
RATIOS
 Something per unit of something else

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Ratio or rate Proportion Percentage
na na na
x x x  100
nb N N

 Quantities that are not comparable should never

be made the basis for a ratio

22
DENSITIES
 Relative geographical crowding or sparseness of
discrete phenomena

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n
D
A

23
 POTENTIALS
 Individuals comprising a distribution (e.g.
people or prices) interact or influence one
another.
 The gravity concept: the degree of interaction is
directly proportional to the magnitudes of the

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phenomena and inversely proportional to the
distance between their locations
 Pi-potential of place i, X j-value of X at each place, D I
j-distance between place I and j
 Repeat calculation at each place

n
xj
Pi  xi   i  j 
j 1 Di , j
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THEMATIC MAP REPRESENTATIONS

 Indices of variation
 Mode - variation ratio

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 Median - quantile range (quartiles, percentiles)
 Arithmetic mean - standard deviation

 x  x 
n
2
i
 i 1
N
25
SOME BASIC STATISTICAL RELATIONS

 Regression analysis
 Correlation analysis

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 Spatial autocorrelation

 x  x y 
n

i i y
r i 1

 x  x    y 
n n
2 2
i i y
i 1 i 1

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REGRESSION ANALYSIS
 The description of the nature of the relationship between
two or more variables; it is concerned with the problem of
describing or estimating the value of the dependent

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variable on the basis of one or more independent variables.
 Statistical technique used to establish the relationship of a
dependent variable, such as the sales of a company, and
one or more independent variables, such as family
formations, Gross Domestic Product per capita income, and
other Economic Indicators. By measuring exactly how large
and significant each independent variable has historically
been in its relation to the dependent variable, the future
value of the dependent variable can be predicted.
Essentially, regression analysis attempts to measure the
degree of correlation between the dependent and
independent variables, thereby establishing the latter's
predictive value. 27
CORRELATION ANALYSIS
 A causal, complementary, parallel, or
reciprocal relationship, especially a
structural, functional, or qualitative
correspondence between two comparable

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entities: a correlation between drug abuse
and crime.
 Statistics. The simultaneous change in
value of two numerically valued random
variables: the positive correlation between
cigarette smoking and the incidence of lung
cancer; the negative correlation between age
and normal vision.
 An act of correlating or the condition of
being correlated.
28
EXAMPLE
Area Per Capita Personal Per Capita Educational Number of First-
Income ($) Expenditure ($) degree Graduates ($)
A 3882 273 330
B 4395 266 910

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C 3870 240 500
D 5695 333 40
E 4282 273 870
F 4082 276 70
G 3952 210 240
H 5770 357 2920
J 5938 340 530
K 5550 390 1760
L 5304 314 460
M 4840 280 1670
N 4830 360 580
P 5745 376 0
29
Q 4570 287 2500
(Source: Robinson, et al., 1995)
REGRESSION ANALYSIS

3000
400
Yˆ  335.67  0.2533 X
Per Capita Educational Expenditure ($)

Number of First-degree Graduates ($)

380
r  0.21

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2500
360
340 2000

320
1500
300
280
1000
260
Yˆ  19.85  0.5883 X
240
r  0.85 500
220
0
200
3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500
3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500
Per Capita Personal Income ($)
Per Capita Personal Income ($)

Scattergrams with fitted linear regression line.

30
 Data Classification
 classification is a key method of abstracting
reality into simplified map
 method of classification is important as

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effects „look‟ of the map
 classification scheme can easily be
experimented with (manipulated?) to give the
pattern you want
 classification should „match‟ data distribution

 distribution of zones into classes

31
 DATA CLASSIFICATION
 Systematically grouping data based on one or
more characteristics
 Arrange data before displaying them

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 3 reasons why we classify data:
 Technical constraints: manual vs digital
 Data accuracy: classification smooth out data
inaccuracy
 Perceptional demands -Classification result in
clearer map image, Classification enables
selective perception of seeing groups and
patterns, Classifications is helpful to enhance
insight in the data
 Classification is a generalization process- 32
improve understanding and readability
Same data plus
different
classification

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equal different
looking
choropleth map!

33
DATA CLASSIFICATION
 Tobler(1973)-unnecessary to classify data-
(unclassed data)

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 Resulting image not generalized

 Those oppose to Tobler: reason –virtually

impossible to perceive differences between
neighbourhoods that are further apart
geographically

34
TO CLASSIFY OR NOT TO CLASSIFY?
 What is the map purpose?
 Interested in: to be able to determine values of

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each area? or is it just an overview?
 If decides to classify:
 nature of data
 What types of data are available?

35
CONDITIONS FOR CLEAR OVERVIEW
 The final map should approach the statistical
surface as closely as possible

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 A statistical surface exists for any distribution
that is mathematically continuous over an area
and is measured on an ordinal, interval or ratio
scale. (Robinson)
 A statistical surface is a 3-D representation of the
data in which the height is made proportional to
the values of data
 2 types:
i.stepped-derived from choropleth
ii.smooth- derived from isoline maps
36
GLS680
37
 The final map should display those
patterns or structures that are
characteristics for the mapped
phenomenon. Extreme high or low values
should not disappear.

GLS680
 Each class should contain its share of the
observed values

38
 Encompass the full range of data- Class interval
must cover from the lowest to the highest value
 Classes may not overlap
 The accuracy of the classification may not exceed
the accuracy of the original data
 If possible have a logical mathematical

GLS680
relationship between class interval
 Rounded off class limits are better understood
and memorized

39
 PRIMARY TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION
 There is no one best way to classify data – depends on
the purpose of the map
 Simplicity is the top goal, no matter if the end result is
visual or mathematical

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Exogenous
 Values not related to the actual data set are used to
subdivide into groups
 Example: A specific income level used to define 'poverty
level'
Arbitrary
 Constant, rounded values having no relation to the
distribution of data values are used to divide the data
 Usually used as a matter of convenience - easy to
implement
 Example: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, etc.
40
Idiographic
 A long-used technique, most preferred by
cartographers
 Classes are determined by the "natural breaks"
in the data set

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 Example: Given the data set, 1 2 3 6 7 8 11 12
14, the breaks could occur between 3 and 6, 8
and 11
Serial
 Uses standard deviation, equal intervals, and
arithmetic and geometric progressions to divide
up the data sets
 Example: data showing a bell curve
distribution
41
JENKS AND COULSON (1963)
 Choose a map type
 Limit the number of classes. Research
revealed that humans can handle up to max 7

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classes to get an overview. The exact no. of
classes is influenced by: the type of
symbolization, the theme‟s geog. distribution
and the data range
 Define the class limits

42
 ROBINSON
Need to determine the no. of classes, the
sizes of the class intervals, the class limits
 Put data into array

GLS680
 Construct a dispersal graph/scatter
diagram
 Produce graphic array (curve)

 Compare graphic array curve with

theoretical (mathematical) curve
 Determine the classification methods,
select most appropriate classification
 Decide no. of class, calculate class limits,
adjust class limits 43
Dispersal Graph/Scatter
duagram

GLS680
44
HOW MANY CLASSES/CATEGORY?
 Factors
 User requirements

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 Visual variables used
 No. of data values
 Size of areal units/symbols
 Distribution of data
 Grouping of data around the middle value

45
NO. OF CLASSES-ITC
Point Line Area
Size 4 4 5

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Value 3 4 5

Texture 2 4 5
 Suggestion for CHECKING:
C=Log N/Log 2 (Wang Zhe Shen)
where C= no. of classes, N = no. of observations
N : 4-7 8-15 16-31 32- 36 64-127 128-255
C: 2 3 4 5 6 7

46
 7(+-)2 = 5 to 9
CLASSIFICATION-CLASS LIMITS
2approaches
 Graphic

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 Mathematic methods

47
CLASSIFICATION-GRAPHIC APPROACH
 Natural breaks/break points
 Sort observed values

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 Observe discontinuities/break points- function as
class boundaries

 Frequency diagram
 Cumulative frequency diagram

48
CLASSIFICATION-MATHEMATIC APPROACH
(ROBINSON)
 Constant series or Equal steps/Equal interval
 Based on range
 Parameters of normal distribution

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 Quantiles
 Systematically Unequal Stepped Class limits
 Arithmetic series
 Geometric series
 Irregular Stepped Class limits
 Frequency graph
 Clinographic curve
 Cumulative frequency curve

49
GLS680
50
NATURAL BREAKS
A method preferred by many
cartographers because it captures the

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character of the data set
 Natural groupings in the data are sought
and their obvious breaks are used as the
class boundaries

51
GLS680
52
QUANTILES
 This method divides the data set into equal
number of values in each class
 This minimizes the importance of class
boundaries, but it can be misleading because

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one class could have widely differing values
 Common methods: quartiles (4 classes),
quintiles (5 classes), deciles (10 classes)
 Choose the number of classes, then compute
limits using difference of domain ranking
 rank the attribute data values in
ascending order
 # of data observations / # of classes = # of
observations in each class
53
GLS680
54
EQUAL INTERVAL/EQUAL STEPS
 Imagine passing planes of an equal distance
through a data set (like elevation)
 This method encloses equal amounts of the

GLS680
total data range into each class interval
 Choose the number of classes, then compute
limits using difference of range
 max data value – min data value =
range
 range / # of classes = class interval
 the # of classes establishes how many “equal
intervals” will be used

55
EQUAL INTERVAL
 Ex: Data set range from 0-36 and no. of class is 4
 Class 1 0-9

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 Class 2 10-18
 Class 3 19-27
 Class 4 28-36

56
GLS680
57
STANDARD DEVIATIONS
 If a data set displays a normal frequency
distribution, then this method can be used

GLS680
 Measure for the spread of data around the mean

 The mean is calculated and then the standard

deviation using statistical mathematics
 Usually no more than 6 classes are necessary to
convey the information

58
CONT..
Working from the mean outwards in units of
S, which gives an even no. of classes. Eg.

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Class 1: <(mean-S)
Class 2: (mean-S) to mean
Class 3: mean to (mean+S)
Class 4: >(mean+S)
Where S = Standard deviation

59
GLS680
60
ARITHMETIC/GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS
 Both of systematic/mathematical classification
methods
 Arithmetic is used only when the shape of the

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data set approximates the shape of a typical
arithmetic progression
 Geometric is used when the frequency of the data
declines with increasing magnitude - something
typical in geographic data

61
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS
The width of class increases with
constant value .

GLS680
Example:
Class 1 0-2 width=2 or I
Class 2 2-6 width=4 or 2I
Class 3 6-12 width=6 or 3I

62
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
If no. of class is known,
Xmin+I+2I+3I+4I+…..=Xmax

GLS680
 If Xmin & Xmax , n are known
 Calculate I= Xmax-
Xmin/(n(n+1)/2)
Where Xmax=max value
Xmin=min value
I=class interval
n=no. of class 63
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
 Upper class limit increase in size by multiplying
with a constant factor

GLS680
Example
 Class 1 1-10 10¹
 Class 2 11-100 10²
 Class 3 101-1000 10³
 etc
In the eg. the factor is 10. The upper limit is always 10 times
bigger than the previous upper limit

64
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
 Determine the number of class, n
 Then calculate the interval, I

GLS680
 I=sqrt(xmax/xmin)*n

Where Xmax=Max value

Xmin= Min value
n = no. of class

65
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
Classes then:
Class 1 (Xmin) – (Xmin*I)

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Class 2 (Xmin*I ) –(Xmin*I²)
Class 3 (Xmin*I²) –(Xmin*I³)
etc

66
RECIPROCAL PROGRESSION
 For very skewed distributions
Class 1 (Xmin) to (1/Xmin-I)‫־‬¹

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Class 2 (1/Xmin-I)‫־‬¹ to (1/Xmin-2I)‫־‬¹
Etc
 I =((1/xmin) – (1/Xmax))/n

Where
Xmin = min value of data range
Xmax = max value of data range
n = no. of class
67
JENKS‟ OPTIMIZATION METHOD
 Cartographer George Jenks developed this
optimization system
 The goal: forming groups that are internally
homogeneous while assuring heterogeneity
among classes

GLS680
 This has proven to be a very useful method,
next to natural breaks - but requires
computing power to perform
 A statistical approach based on “Min &
Max” of data variance
 data variance – how much data values vary in
magnitude among each other
 start with a single class: range (a single class)
= max data value – min data value
 introduce another group whereby:
 minimize within group variance (member
data values closer in value)
 maximize between group variance (difference
in group averages as great as possible) 68
 Procedure
The Jenks optimization method is also known as the
goodness of variance fit (GVF). It is used to minimize
the squared deviations of the class means.
Optimization is achieved when the quantity GVF is
maximized:
1. Calculate the sum of squared deviations between
classes (SDBC).
GVF = -------------------

GLS680
2. Calculate the sum of squared deviations from the
array mean (SDAM).
3. Subtract the SDBC from the SDAM (SDAM-SDBC).
This equals the sum of the squared deviations from the
class means (SDCM).
The method first specifies an arbitrary grouping of the
numeric data. SDAM is a constant and does not change
unless the data changes. The mean of each class is
computed and the SDCM is calculated. Observations
are then moved from one class to another in an effort
to reduce the sum of SDCM and therefore increase the
GVF statistic. This process continues until the GVF
value can no longer be increased.

69
GLS680
70
STANDARD CURVES

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71
GLS680
72
Distri Missing
cts
Girls Boys
1 80 28
2 112 31

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3 155 30
4 21 3
5 15 2
6 44 19
7 21 4
8 55 13
9 32 10
73
SOLUTION
 A. Could use the combination method of
proportional circle for the total no. of missing
 children and the pie graphs for the % of
missing girls and boys.
Or

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
 B. Use proportional circle/square with adjacent
symbol design.
 Put data into array-total up the no. of girls
and boys for each district.
 Construct dispersal graph/scatter diagram,
graphic array curve
 Find the break/gap. Use the natural break
method to determine the no.of class and
class limit.
 Calculation for the proportional circles –
using mean value of each group
 Calculation on the sectors for the pie graphs.
 Plot on the given map. Include the map title
and the map legend. 74
EXAMPLE
 Table 1.0 shows the total population of
migrants (non-Malaysian citizens) to
Malaysia by country of origin and sex in

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2000.
 You are required to show the steps taken
in classifying the data. Justify your
decision for the classification method you
think best suited for the showing the
data. Sketch a map showing the selected
countries and use suitable quantitative
mapping technique to show the classified
data onto the map.
75
 Singapore Indonesia Philippin Thailand China India Bangladesh
es

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Total 11,286 233,362 12,519 9,207 2,805 6,905 23,979

Male 6,450 125,873 5,991 4,645 1,534 5,070 23,407

Female 4,836 107,489 6,528 4,562 1,271 1,835 572

76
EXAMPLE: WORLD 30000

POPULATION 25000
Maximum = 30127
Minimum = 0

Population Density (persons/sqkm)

DENSITY
20000

Mean = 291.3
15000

Std = 1947.1
10000

5000

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0

77
NATURAL BREAKS
1000
Class 1 Class 2

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800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)

600

400

200

0 78
 35

30

25

NATURAL BREAKS 20

Frequency
(CONT.)
15

10

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0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000

79
EQUAL INTERVAL
1000
Class 1

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800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)

600

400

200

0 80
 35

30

25

EQUAL INTERVAL 20

Frequency
(CONT.) 15

10

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0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000

81
EXAMPLE
 Table 1.0 shows the statistics on children
reported missing in nine selected districts
of a particular state from January to July
2007. You are required to:

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 Show the steps taken in classifying the
data. Justify your decision for the
classification method you think best
suited for the distribution.
 Use suitable quantitative mapping
technique and symbols to show the
classified data onto the map given map in
Appendix 1. The given numbers on the
map correspond to the number for the
districts listed in Table1.0.
 Include a legend and a title in your map.
82
EQUAL AREA
1000 Class 1

Class 2
Class 3 Class 4 Class 5

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800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)

600

400

200

0 83
 35

30

25

20

Frequency
EQUAL AREA (CONT.) 15

10

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0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000

84
QUARTILE
1000

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5

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800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)

600

400

200

0 85
 35

30

25

20

Frequency
QUARTILE (CONT.) 15

10

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0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000

86
STANDARD DEVIATION
0 - 1 Std
1000

-1 Std - 0

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800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)

Mean
600

400

Mean = 291.3
SD = 1947.1
200

0 87
 35
Mean +1 Std +2
30

25

STANDARD DEVIATION
20

Frequency
15

10

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0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000

Mean = 291.3
SD = 1947.1

88
SYMBOLISING GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
 Point symbolisation
 Qualitative
Quantitative

GLS680

 Line symbolisation
 Qualitative
 Quantitative
 Area symbolisation
 Qualitative
 Quantitative

89
QUALITATIVE POINT
SYMBOLISATION

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Nominally scaled pictorial
symbols on a map
promoting winter activities
in a portion of the state of
Wisconsin. The map
legend lists 14 symbols.
Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

90
QUALITATIVE POINT
SYMBOLISATION (CONT.)

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Nominally scaled symbols are used to indicate four classes
of climatic stations. Left: the use of orientation of symbols.
Right: the use of the visual variable, shape. 91
From Robinson, et al., 1995
 QUANTITATIVE POINT
SYMBOLISATION
 Various techniques are available to the
cartographer

GLS680
 What technique to use depend on:

 Character of the feature to be mapped

 Type and complexity of the quantitative

information
 The purpose of the map and the map user

 Scale of the map

 Place/space available on the map

92
QUANTITATIVE POINT SYMBOLISATION
 Symbols with value indication
 Repeating principle

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 The dot principle- each dot represent a unit value,
gives visual impression of distribution differences,
factors: unit value of dot, size of dot, location of dot
 Proportional symbols - sizes proportional to the
quantity they represent, 3 methods to calculate: sqrt
method, J.J. Flannery, range-graded (see notes
Dotmap . pdf)
 Graphs and diagrams - Line graphs, Bar graphs,
Population pyramid, Pie graphs,Triangular graphs,
Circular/clock graphs
 Adjacent symbols
93
QUANTITATIVE POINT
SYMBOLISATION: DOT MAP

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94
QUANTITATIVE POINT
SYMBOLISATION

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Symbols are
proportionally
scaled so that
areas of the
symbols are in the
same ratio as the
population
numbers they
represent.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

95
QUANTITATIVE POINT
SYMBOLISATION (CONT.)

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Left: symbols are range-graded to denote the population of
the cities. Right: symbols are ordinally scaled. The legends
are different due to the different levels or measurement. 96
From Robinson, et al., 1995
QUANTITATIVE POINT SYMBOLISATION
(CONT.)

GLS680
Three legends whose symbols are identical. The added
information in the form of text puts one legend on an
ordinal scale, one on a range-graded scale, and one on a
ratio scale.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

97
USE OF
VISUAL
VARIABLE

GLS680
Symbols use the
visual variable
value (colour) to
order the data.
From Robinson, et al., 1995
98
 USE OF VISUAL VARIABLE (CONT.)

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Left: total population is symbolised by size, while percentage of
black inhabitants is symbolised by the value (colour). Right:
Percentage of black inhabitants is symbolised by the size, while
total population is symbolised by the value (colour). 99
From Robinson, et al., 1995
 QUALITATIVE LINE
SYMBOLISATION

GLS680
Examples of lines of
differing character (the
visual variable shape)
which are useful for the
symbolisation of
nominal linear data.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

100
ORDINAL PORTRAYAL

GLS680
The use of line
width (visual
variable size)
enhanced by the
use of line
character (visual
variable shape)
to denote the
ordinal portrayal
of civil
administrative
boundaries.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

101
 QUANTITATIVE LINE
SYMBOLISATION
 Arrow Symbol map
 Short arrow represents direction, thickness or tone

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represents the quantity.
 Flow Line map
 Quantitative information is given by lines of varying
sizes/widths. The width is proportional to the value.
 3 types of flow lines: smooth curved „origin-destination‟
lines, straight „origin-destination‟ lines, irregular lines
more or less following the routes.
 Flow lines with indication of direction of movement

102
ARROW SYMBOL

GLS680
103
ARROW SYMBOL MAP

Using Arrows to
identify the strength

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(width), orientation
and temperature
values (blue=cold,
red=warm) of ocean
currents around New
Zealand

104
FLOW LINES- LEGEND

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105
FLOW LINES

GLS680
106
FLOW LINES

GLS680
107
FLOW LINES-WITH SPECIFIC DIRECTION

GLS680
108
FLOW LINES MAPS

GLS680
109
QUANTITATIVE LINE
SYMBOLISATION

Range-graded

GLS680
line symbols. On
this map of
immigrants from
Europe in 1900,
lines of
standardised
width are used to
represent a
specified range
of numbers of
immigrants.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

110
DIRECTIONAL FLOWS
Using Arrows to
identify the strength
(width), orientation
and temperature

GLS680
values (blue=cold,
red=warm) of ocean
currents around New
Zealand

111
NAPOLEON'S MARCH, 1861.

GLS680
112
Edward Tufte, in his praise of Minard's map,
identified six separate variables that were captured
within it. First, the line width continuously marked
the size of the army. Second and third, the line itself
showed the latitude and longitude of the army as it

GLS680
moved. Fourth, the lines themselves showed the
direction that the army was traveling, both in
advance and retreat. Fifth, the location of the army
with respect to certain dates was marked. Finally,
the temperature along the path of retreat was
displayed. Few, if any, maps before or since have
been able to coherently and so compellingly weave
so many variables into a captivating whole. (See
Edward Tufte's 1983 work, The Visual Display of
Quantitative Information.) 113
 QUALITATIVE AREA SYMBOLISATION

GLS680
Some standardised
symbols for
indicating lithologic
data as suggested by
the International
Geographical Union
Commission on
Applied
Geomorphology.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

114
QUALITATIVE AREA
SYMBOLISATION (CONT.)
Portrayal of North
American air masses
and their source
regions. Although data

GLS680
have quantitative
characteristics, the
intent of this
illustration is simply
to portray location of
air masses. This can
be accomplished by
using nominal area
symbolisation.
Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

115
GLS680
116
STATISTICAL SURFACE
 Many geographic phenomena can be thought of
as volume.

GLS680
 If phenomenon occurs over an area and have
magnitude, then it can be considered as having
height and the phenomenon is 3 -dimensional.
 This imaginary 3-dimensional is called a
Statistical Surface.

117
STATISTICAL SURFACE
 If a phenomenon is found everywhere within the
mapping area, such as temperature, the surface
is said to be continuous- has smooth undulating

GLS680
form.
 If there are sharp breaks or areas with absence of
phenomenon, such as population, the surface is
discontinuous- steplike

118
GLS680
119
STATISTICAL SURFACE
 The surface may be symbolized
with either area or line symbols

GLS680
depending on: nature of
phenomenon/surface, method of
obtaining data and purpose of
map
 2 types:
symbolizing with area symbols
symbolizing with linear symbols120
 GLS680
121
Eg. Isoline mapping Eg. Choropleth
mapping
CHOROPLETH DASYMETRIC
ISOMETRIC

GLS680
122
SYMBOLIZING WITH AREA
SYMBOLS - CHOROPLETH
Objective: to show the quantities within
administrative unit areas

GLS680
123
CHOROPLETH

GLS680
124
QUANTITATIVE AREA SYMBOLISATION

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Map illustrating
the range-graded
classification of
Florida counties.
The use of the
visual variable
value (colour)
creates a
stepped surface.
Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

125
AREA SYMBOLS -
CHOROPLETH
 Choros = area, space
 Quantitatve information is shown within

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administrative units (eg. districts, states,
census tracts)
 Quantity mapped is normally of relative
values such as ratios or percentages.
 3 kinds:

Simple Choropleth
Dasymetric
Unclassed Choropleth
126
STEPS IN CHOROPLETH MAPPING
 Step 1: Plotting of boundaries
 Step 2: Calculation of ratios or percentages from

GLS680
statistics
 Step 3: Choosing proper class interval

 Step 4:Plot quantities using graded series of

shadings

127
LIMITATIONS OF CHOROPLETH
 Assumption that distribution of the phenomena
over unit area is uniform

GLS680
 Inaccuracy caused by difference in sizes of units

 The choice of class interval affects the visual

impression of the map

128
GLS680
129
 10 sq. mi
Suppose 5000 people
100 sq. mi in each area

GLS680
If use absolute values, both
areas are in same class

500
people
/sq. mi
50 people/
sq. mi If use derived values (eg.pop.
density), the two areas in different 130
class
DASYMETRIC MAPPING
 Technique as an improvement of the
choropleth mapping technique for
phenomena that have an uneven

GLS680
distribution
 Using other geographical factors to
determine the cause of uneven distribution.
Local knowledge of the area is necessary.
 Objective: to show uniform quantities
regardless of unit area boundaries

131
J.K.WRIGHT METHOD OF
CALCULATING DENSITIES
Dn = (D/1-Am) – ((Dm * Am)/1-Am)
Where

GLS680
Dn = Density in area n
Dm = estimated density in area m
D = density over the whole area (m+n)
Am = the fraction of m of the total area

m
132
DASYMETRIC MAPPING
 If simple Choropleth, D=40 people/km

 Suppose n is land and m is area with

water.

GLS680
 Area has 80% land, 20% water
 If D (from choropleth) = 40 people/km sq.
 Assume water has no inhabitant, Dm = 0
 Hence population should only be on n only
 Am = 0.2, Dn = to be calculated
 So Dn = (40/1-0.2) – ((0*0.2/1-0.2))
n =0.8
= 40/0.8
= 50
Land

m =0.2
Water 133
Example 2

GLS680
134
SYMBOLIZING WITH LINEAR SYMBOLS
ISOLINES/ ISARITHM/ ISOGRAM
 If data are collected at sampling points for
a continuous distribution (eg. weather
stations) the statistical surface will be

GLS680
smooth and undulating.
 Objective: to show the gradients , their size
and distribution
 There are 2 major categories of isarithmic
lines, depending on the nature of the z
value and the way the data are obtained.

135
 If data are collected at actual points (eg.
weather stations) for which the values
actually exists, the type of line is called
Isometric Lines. The z value may be
absolute values or derived values at that
point.

GLS680
 If the points for which data are obtained are
assumed arbitrary ( center of a distribution,
the values refer to an area and not point)
and the z values are derived values such
ratios, averages, density, the type of lines is
called Isopleths or Isoplethic
lines
136
TERMS REFERRING TO LINE SYMBOLS

ISOLINES/ ISARITHM/ ISOGRAM

ISOMETRIC LINES
 Metron = measurement
 Lines that portray absolute values. The

GLS680
values they represent can exist at any point
of the line.
 Generic term for a line that joins all points
that have the same value above or below
some datum or starting point.
 Eg. Lines of equal elevation above sea level
(isohypse/contour)
temperature (isotherm)
rainfall (isohyet) 137
pressure (isobar)
Isopleths
 Plethos = magnitude
 Lines the represent relative values. They
represent concepts that are function of

GLS680
element and space.
 Eg. Density. The values on which the lines
are based cannot actually exist at points.

138
ISOMETRIC LINES

GLS680
ISOPLETHS

139
ISOLINE MAPPING
 Step 1: exact location of control points
 Step 2: determination of class interval

GLS680
 Step 3: interpolation of Isolines

 Step 4: shading or coloring of the zones

140
ISOLINE MAPPING

GLS680
141
CONTROL POINTS-FOR ISOPLETHS

 assume to represent area.

 Could use centroid of the area, center of

GLS680
distribution or other factors such as state
capital.
 Each choice would result in visually
different maps

142
CONTROL POINTS-FOR ISOPLETHS

GLS680
143
 CARTOGRAM – WHAT IS
IT?
 A diagram highly abstracted on which locations or
outlines are distorted
 A small diagram on the face of a map showing
quantitative information.

GLS680
 An abstracted and simplified map the base of which is
not true to scale.
 Unique representations of geographical space
 Are map transformations that distort area or distance
in the interest of some objective
 Have strong visual impact, attract reader attention
 Often concerned with magnitude and want to make
stronger impression than conventional choropleth or
isarithmic mapping 144
A cartogram is a type of graphic that
depicts attributes of geographic objects as
the object's area.
 Because a cartogram does not depict
geographic space, but rather changes
the size of objects depending on a

GLS680
certain attribute, a cartogram is not a
true map.
Cartograms vary on their degree in which
geographic space is changed; some appear
very similar to a map, however some look
nothing like a map at all.


145
 Mapping requirements include the
preservation of shape, orientation
contiguity, and data that have suitable
variation.
 Successful communication depends on how

GLS680
well the map reader recognizes the shapes
of the internal enumeration units, the
accuracy of estimating these areas, and
effective legend design.
 Cartogram construction may be by manual
or computer means.

146
TYPES OF CARTOGRAM
Main types of cartograms, each have a very
different way of showing attributes of geographic
objects-

GLS680
Value-by-Area Cartogram:
Non-contiguous
Contiguous
Dorling cartogram
Distance cartogram
Linear Cartograms

147
VALUE BY AREA CARTOGRAM
 Alter area sizes of countries to reflect
their pop. Sizes.

GLS680
148
NON-CONTIGUOUS
CARTOGRAMS
 A non-contiguous cartogram is the simplest
and easiest type of cartogram to make.

GLS680
 In a non-contiguous cartogram, the
geographic objects do not have to maintain
connectivity with their adjacent objects.
This connectivity is called topology.
 By freeing the objects from their adjacent
objects, they can grow or shrink in size and
still maintain their shape.

149
AN EXAMPLE OF TWO NON-CONTIGUOUS CARTOGRAMS
OF POPULATION IN CALIFORNIA'S COUNTIES

GLS680
150
 The difference between these two
types of non-contiguous cartograms-
The cartogram on the left has
maintained the object's centroid (a
centroid is the weighted center point

GLS680
of an area object.)
 Because the object's center is staying
in the same place, some of the objects
will begin to overlap when the objects
grow or shrink depending on the
attribute (in this case population.)

151
 In the cartogram on the right, the
objects not only shrink or grow, but they
also will move one way or another to avoid
overlapping with another object. Although
this does cause some distortion in distance,
most prefer this type of non-contiguous

GLS680
cartogram.
 By not allowing objects to overlap, the
depicted sizes of the objects are better seen,
and can more easily be interpreted as some
attribute value

152
 CARTOGRAM-
CONTIGUOUS CARTOGRAMS
 In a non-contiguous cartogram the connectivity

GLS680
between objects, or topology was sacrificed in
order to preserve shape.
 In a contiguous cartogram, the reverse is true-
topology is maintained (the objects remain
connected with each other) but this causes great
distortion in shape.

153
 The cartographer must make the
objects the appropriate size to
represent the attribute value, but he
or she must also maintain the shape

GLS680
of objects as best as possible, so that
the cartogram can be easily
interpreted.

154
CONTIGUOUS CARTOGRAM OF POPULATION IN
CALIFORNIA'S COUNTIES. COMPARE THIS TO THE
PREVIOUS NON-CONTIGUOUS CARTOGRAM

GLS680
155
DORLING CARTOGARMS

 This type of cartogram was named after its

GLS680
inventor, Danny Dorling of the University of
Leeds.
 A Dorling cartogram maintains neither
shape, topology nor object centroids, though
it has proven to be a very effective cartogram
method.
 To create a Dorling cartogram, instead of
enlarging or shrinking the objects
themselves, the cartographer will replace the
objects with a uniform shape, usually a circle,
of the appropriate size. 156
DORLING CARTOGARMS

GLS680
157
GLS680
158
 LINEAR CARTOGRAMS-
LONDON UNDERGROUND

GLS680
159
METRORAIL NYC SUBWAY

GLS680
160
GLS680
161
DISTANCE CARTOGRAM -
REDRAWN TRAVEL COSTS
FROM LONDON

GLS680
162
GLS680
163