HK01- CIVIL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

COURSE

KA42003 ADVANCE CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

TITLE

ASSIGNMENT 1

DATE OF SUBMISSION

21ST MARCH 2019

PREPARED FOR

DR. HIDAYATI BINTI ASRAH

PREPARED BY

NAME MATRIC NO
DANIEL SELVARAJ BK15110293
MASITA BINTI MOHD ABAS BK15110149
SURESH RAJAN BK13110406
INTRODUCTION

Concrete deterioration or also known as concrete degradation may have various causes such
as fire, aggregate expansion, sea water effects, bacterial corrosion, calcium leaching, physical
damage and chemical damage. Sabah has always been known as “The Land below the winds”
and it still lives up to its name as the constant wind movement at Sabah is always consistent
especially the sea side areas. As a state in Malaysia, it is directly located at the Equator of the
Earth meaning equal sunshine and rain throughout the year theoretically. Factors such as
wind, rain, acid and temperature are one of the main culprits to concrete deterioration. In this
study, we are to visually observe two chosen structure/buildings, 1 with the age of more than
5 years and the other less than 5 years. We chose DKP Baru of University Malaysia Sabah as
more than 5 years old building and Mr. Abas second house as less than 5 years old building.

OBJECTIVE

This study has the following objectives:

a. To study the selected buildings’ history (age, function and location)

b. To classify the concrete deterioration found in both buildings and identify the causes.
c. To propose remedial action for the listed deterioration.
HISTORY

Dewan Kuliah Pusat Baru (DKP Baru), University of Malaysia Sabah (UMS).

The 2nd lecture hall complex of UMS went to full operation at the year 2011 upon its
completion within the same year. That makes the building in its 8 years of service to the
university as spots for daily lectures of students and occasionally places for carnivals or
celebration open to the public was held here for example: Christmas Carnival. Besides the
lecture halls, this complex was also the place for the Academic Administration Division’s
building.

Figure 1: Scenery view of the DKP Baru, UMS.

Within the campus, the average maximum temperature throughout the year is approximately
32 °C with a wind speed about 5 km/h to 10km/h. Hence, the studied area is affected with
quite a high temperature and a very moderate wind velocity. The new lecture hall of UMS is
surrounded relatively close to the ocean which is affected by sea breeze. The figure below
shows the cross section of the lecture hall, 2D plan of the ground floor and the first floor and
the satellite image from Google Earth.
Figure 2: 3D-view of the DKP Baru, UMS.

Figure 3: 2-D Ground Floor plan of the DKP Baru, UMS.

Figure 4: 2-D First Floor Plan of the DKP Baru, UMS.

Figure 5: Satellite Image of the DKP Baru, UMS through Google Earth.
Mr. Abas 2nd Residence House

The current house is not the first house lived by Mr. Abas and his family. It is the second
address which located at Kg Laya-laya Jalan Bolong Tambalang, Tuaran Sabah. The house
was built in June 2018 by Mr. Abas’s own hands. Due to the lack of economical and workers,
the progress of construction is slow but the main structures such as slab, column and beam
were completed in November 2018. The main materials are concrete.

Figure 6: The house during its construction period

Tuaran shows the average daytime maximum temperature around 35˚C with wind speed
between 13 km/h and 17 km/h. Therefore, the study area is affected with high temperature
and gust of wind. The area of Kg Laya-laya is surrounded by Mangrove trees and salt water.
Figure 7: The Residential House area through Google Earth satellite image

Figure 8: Positions of the concrete deterioration throughout the structure

ANALYSIS/RESULTS/FINDINGS/OBSERVATIONS

Dewan Kuliah Pusat Baru (DKP Baru), University of Malaysia Sabah (UMS).

Classification of damage/deterioration

a) Long-term drying shrinkage

Figure 9: Long-term drying shrinkage at slab and column

It was observed that the formation of a horizontal crack throughout the slab and connection
to the columns. The gap of the crack is at the range of 11 mm to 14 mm and can be classified
as moderately severe.

b) Corrosion of reinforcement

Figure 10: Corrosion of reinforcement at the columns

Based on Figure 10, there is a visible horizontal and vertical cracks on the columns of the
structure. Each columns have different crack gaps width but it is observed at the range of 7
mm to 12 mm which is also classified as moderately severe.

c) Plastic shrinkage

Figure 11: Plastic shrinkage at the columns

Based on Figure 11, there is a small vertical gap crack alongside the columns. Since the gap
of the crack is barely more than 3 mm, therefore it is classified as very minimal.
Factors affecting deterioration/cause

a) Long-term drying shrinkage

Drying shrinkage is defined as the contracting of a hardened concrete mixture

due to the loss of capillary water (Nejadi S, 2014). As soon as water is added to the
mix, a chemical reaction between water and cement (hydration) is initiated, although
its effects may not be apparent for the first few hours. This shrinkage causes an
increase in tensile stress, which may lead to cracking, internal warping, and external
deflection, before the concrete is subjected to any kind of loading. The time at which
shrinkage cracks occur depends on the rate of drying but is usually several months to
three or four years after casting (Golden C, 2007). When the stress exceeds the tensile
capacity of the concrete, cracks develop. Thin members with a large surface area such
as slabs are particularly vulnerable. Drying out occurs from the surface and hence the
surface layer is first affected. The surfaces of large cross-section members may crack
because movement is restrained by the inner section of concrete. Concrete near to
corners and edges is particularly prone to cracking as loss of moisture takes place from
the adjacent surfaces.

The shrinkage of a particular concrete mix is also affected by additional factors

such as temperature history, curing, relative humidity and ratio of volume to exposed
surface. Sound aggregates for concrete have low shrinkage and the more quantity of
it is present in concrete smaller would be the shrinkage.

Figure 12: Section Showing Cracking Formation

b) Corrosion of reinforcement

Corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete is due to an electrochemical

process. Anodic site where ferrous ions (Fe++) pass into solution and due to a
secondary reaction with oxygen and water form rust (or the expansive product of steel
corrosion). Then, Conductor (steel reinforcement) that provides a conduit for excess
electrons (e-) to move to the cathodic site. Cathode where electrons are consumed
in the presence of oxygen and moisture (Jaffer, 2008). Steel reinforcing bars
embedded in concrete do not corrode because the high alkaline conditions in concrete
(pH > 13) produce a passive oxide film on the surface of the steel. The passive oxide
film prevents corrosion. However, carbonation and/or chlorides in solution can destroy
the passive oxide film. Carbonation and loss of passivity can occur when atmospheric
carbon dioxide penetrates into the concrete and in the presence of moisture reacts
with the calcium hydroxide to produce calcium carbonate. Calcium hydroxide is a
cement hydration product that helps create the high alkaline condition in concrete.
Due to the formation of calcium carbonate around the steel, the alkalinity (pH) of the
concrete falls from above 13 to less than nine. Subsequently, the low alkalinity destroys
the passive oxide film. For corrosion to occur, oxygen and moisture must be available
at both the cathodic region and along the hydroxyl ion conduit (concrete) between the
cathode and anode. Since these two requirements for corrosion are independent of
the crack width, it follows that the corrosion rate of the steel reinforcing is also
independent of the crack width.

Figure 13: Electrochemical Corrosion process

c) Plastic shrinkage

The primary cause of "plastic shrinkage" cracks is the rapid evaporation of

water from the surface of the concrete. Immediately after the concrete has been
placed, the particles within the concrete begin to settle. When the particles settle, the
water within the concrete displaces and rises to the top. This process is better known
as "bleeding" (Sivakumar A, 2006). Not all of the water within the concrete displaces.
Under most weather conditions, some of the water on the surface of the concrete
evaporates. The rate of evaporation depends on factors such as the temperature of
the concrete, temperature of the air, relative humidity, and wind velocity surrounding
the concrete. The highest evaporation rates are obtained when the concrete and air
temperatures are high, when the relative humidity of the air is low, when the concrete
temperature is high compared to the air temperature, and when a strong wind is
blowing over the surface of the concrete. The rapid evaporation of water at the surface
is most associated with placing concrete in hot weather conditions. Plastic shrinkage
cracks typically occur on horizontal surfaces exposed to the atmosphere. These cracks
are different from other early cracks because they are deeper and wider. Plastic
shrinkage cracks are typically two to four inches deep and approximately one-eighth
inch wide. They may also extend several feet in length adopting a crow’s-foot pattern.
These cracks form before any bond has developed between the aggregate particles
and mortar. Therefore, the cracks tend to follow the edges of large aggregate particles
or reinforcing bars and never break through the aggregate particles. Although plastic
shrinkage cracks usually do not impair the structural performance of the slab, cracks
in some building floors have been blamed for leakage.

Figure 14: Plastic Settlement Shrinkage Formation

Effect and remedy

a) Long-term drying shrinkage

Preventive measures for long term shrinkage cracks including minimizing water
content, use of plasticizer for compensating workability due to lesser water, use of
highest possible aggregate content and hence smaller quantity of cements, eliminate
external restrains (e.g. smooth polythene sheet on the sub grade for base slab),
sufficiently close spaced reinforcement (e.g. generally 15 cm in slabs & walls). In
addition, repair method for long-term drying shrinkage can be done through sealing
and grouting depending on the width of crack.

b) Corrosion of reinforcement

Minimizing the risk of steel reinforcement corrosion can be done by controlling

the quality of concrete by minimizing permeability. Recommendations for minimum
depths of cover should be followed according to the codes of practice and are based
on exposure conditions and minimum cement contents. Higher cement contents infer
lower water cement rations leading to permitted reductions in cover. Furthermore,
blended cements made from combinations of PC/PFA and PC/GGBS can lead to
significant reduction in chloride penetration. However, in situations where these
materials are not cured properly there is a risk of increased carbonation. Care must be
taken that all aggregates and admixtures contain limited amount of chlorides.

c) Plastic shrinkage

Remedy that can be done to reduce the risk of experiencing plastic shrinkage cracks
include: erecting temporary windbreaks and sun shades (if practical), applying a sprayable
evaporation retardant, covering the flatwork with plastic sheeting between finishing passes,
and fog spraying the flatwork. Other preventative measures include dampening the base
material and forms before placing concrete, lowering the concrete temperature by using
chilled water or chipped ice, including microfibers in the concrete mixture to increase the
tensile capacity of the plastic concrete, protecting the concrete from evaporation during
construction delays, and curing as soon as possible after finishing. Plastic shrinkage cracks
usually create aesthetic concerns, especially for architectural concrete. Crack width and
depth and the concrete’s exposure conditions, plastic shrinkage cracks may create durability
concerns. The best way to avoid aesthetic and durability concerns related to plastic
shrinkage cracks is to understand the susceptibility of the concrete mixture to cracking,
monitor the jobsite conditions and take the necessary actions to minimize rapid moisture
loss from the surface of the concrete.
Mr. Abas 2nd Residence House

SEGREGATION

Segregation means separation of designed fresh concrete ingredients from each other
resulting in the non-uniform mix. More specifically, this implies the separation of coarse
aggregates from the mortar because of differences in size, density, shape and other properties
of ingredients in which they are composed. Figure 16 shows that effect of segregation, honey
comb is created in the concrete and it basically affects the strength of the concrete and its
porosity. In good concrete all ingredients are properly distributed and make a homogeneous
mixture.

Figure 15: Segregation on slab

Figure 16: Honey comb created on part of the concrete slab for testing
Causes:

 The difference in the specific gravity of the mix constituents such as fine and coarse
aggregates.
 The difference in the size of aggregate
 Improper grading of aggregate.
 Improper handling of aggregate.
 Bad practices in handling and transporting of concrete.
 Concrete that is not proportional properly and not mixed adequately or too workable mix.
 Placing of concrete from a greater height.

Repair:

1. Segregation can be controlled by maintaining proper proportioning the mix.

2. By peculiar handling, placing, transporting, compacting and finishing of concrete.
3. Adding air entraining agents, admixtures and pozzolanic materials in the mix
segregation controlled to some extent.
PLASTIC SHRINKAGE

Plastic shrinkage is contraction in volume due to water movement from the concrete while still
in the plastic state, or before it sets. This movement of water can be during the hydration
process or from the environmental conditions leading to evaporation of water that resides on
the surface on the wet concrete. So, the more the concrete bleeds, the greater the plastic
shrinkage should be.

Figure 17: Diagonal plastic shrinkage causing cracking on the slab

 Figure 18: Cracking on top of column

Causes:

Plastic shrinkage cracks occur when there is rapid loss of water from the surface of freshly
poured concrete (before it has fully set). This causes the top of the concrete slab to dry more
quickly than the bottom, and they pull apart.

Weather also can cause the plastic shrinkage due to some factors:

1. High air temperature

2. Low relative humidity
3. High concrete temperature
4. High wind speed
5. High sun expose
Remedy:

To avoid plastic shrinkage, the key is to keep the concrete surface moist by covering it with
burlap, polyethylene sheeting or plastic. This is especially important in extreme weather
conditions such as high wind, hot temperatures or direct sunlight. Be sure to complete this
step after the concrete has set in order to assure the coverings do not disturb or leave
unwanted impressions on the new concrete. Further, misting the concrete with water a few
times a day will help to reduce the rate of evaporation from the surface. It is critical to continue
this process for at least the first three days of curing. Properly curing also can reduce the
damage.

Joint sealants should ensure structural integrity and serviceability. They should also serve as
protection against the passage of harmful liquids, gases, and other undesirable substance
which would impair the quality of concrete. In the case of repair of a cracked surface, the
cracks are first enlarged along their exposed face and are pointed up with the sealants.

Figure 19: Example of Sealant to repair cracked surface

DRYING SHRINKAGE

Concrete mixtures require water for proper placement and workability. As excess water
evaporates from the concrete slab during the curing process, there is a reduction in volume
or shrinkage that can occur.

Figure 20: Drying shrinkage on the slab

Causes:
When shrinkage is impeded or blocked — by supporting soils, granular fill, adjoining structures
or reinforcement within the concrete — tensile stresses develop within the concrete slab. As
a result, these stresses act against the weakest points of the concrete material and cause it
to crack.

Remedy:
To help control random cracking caused by shrinkage, control joints should be placed between
concrete slabs. These joints create a weak point in the concrete and help guide where cracks
will occur, ensuring they happen in a straight versus jagged line for better overall aesthetics.
Crazing

Crazing also called as pattern cracking or map cracking, is the formation of closely spaced
shallow cracks in an uneven manner.

Causes:

Crazing occurs due to rapid hardening of top surface of concrete due to high temperatures or
if the mix contains excess water content or due to insufficient curing.

Remedy:

Pattern cracking can be avoided by proper curing, by dampening the sub-grade to resist
absorption of water from concrete, by providing protection to the surface from rapid
temperature changes.

Figure 21: Map crazing on slab

Blistering

Blistering is the formation of hollow bumps of different sizes on concrete surface due to
entrapped air under the finished concrete surface.

Causes:

It may cause due to excessive vibration of concrete mix or presence of excess entrapped air
in mix or due to improper finishing. Excessive evaporation of water on the top surface of
concrete will also cause blistering.

Remedy:

It can be prevented by using good proportion of ingredients in concrete mix, by covering the
top surface which reduces evaporation and using appropriate techniques for placing and
finishing.

Figure 22: Concrete blisters on slab

 Figure 23: Concrete blisters on column

Delamination

Delamination is also similar to blistering. In this case also, top surface of concrete gets
separated from underlying concrete. Hardening of top layer of concrete before the hardening
of underlying concrete will lead to delamination.

Causes:

It is because the water and air bleeding from underlying concrete are struck between these
two surfaces, hence space will be formed.

Remedy:

Like blistering, delamination can also be prevented by using proper finishing techniques. It is
better to start the finishing after bleeding process has run its course.
 Figure 24: Delamination

Dusting

Dusting, also called as chalking is the formation of fine and loose powdered concrete on the
hardened concrete by disintegration.

Causes:

This happens due to the presence of excess amount of water in concrete. It causes bleeding
of water from concrete, with this fine particles like cement or sand will rise to the top and
consequent wear causes dust at the top surface.

Remedy:

To avoid dusting, use low slump concrete mix to obtain hard concrete surface with good wear
resistance. Use water reducing admixtures to obtain adequate slump. It is also recommended
to use better finishing techniques and finishing should be started after removing the bleed
water from concrete surface.
Figure 25: Dusting on concrete slab

Figure 26: Dusting on column

REFERENCES

1. Golden C, Myers JJ (2007) Investigation of Long-Term Crack Patterns in FRP and Steel
Reinforced Concrete Panels. Undergraduate Research. University of Missouri-Rolla.
2. Jaffer, S.J. Hansson, C.M., The influence of cracks on chloride-induced corrosion of
steel in ordinary Portland cement and high performance concretes subjected to
different loading Conditions, Corrosion Science Journal, 2008.
3. Nejadi S, Gilbert I (2004) Shrinkage cracking and crack control in restrained reinforced
concrete members. ACI Structural Journal 101(6): 840-845.
4. Sivakumar A, Santhanam M. Experimental methodology to study plastic shrinkage
cracks in high strength concrete. In: Measuring, monitoring and modeling concrete
properties. Springer; 2006.