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“a” OPERATOR

FAULT ANALYSIS

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FORTESCUE’S THEOREM
EXAMPLE 1
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴1 + 𝑉𝐴2 + 𝑉𝐴0
What is for the resultant of 1 +a + a2?
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵1 + 𝑉𝐵2 + 𝑉𝐵0
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶1 + 𝑉𝐶2 + 𝑉𝐶0
POSITIVE NEGATIVE ZERO SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE SEQUENCE COMPONENTS
COMPONENTS COMPONENTS

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POSITIVE SEQUENCE NEGATIVE SEQUENCE

0 -120 120 0 120 -120
𝑉𝐴1 = 𝑉𝐴1 ∠0 𝑉𝐴2 = 𝑉𝐴2 ∠0
𝑉𝐵1 = 𝑉𝐴1 ∠ − 120 = 𝑎2 𝑉𝐴1 𝑉𝐵2 = 𝑉𝐴2 ∠120 = 𝑎𝑉𝐴1
𝑉𝐶1 = 𝑉𝐴1 ∠120 = 𝑎𝑉𝐴1 𝑉𝐶2 = 𝑉𝐴2 ∠ − 120 = 𝑎2 𝑉𝐴1

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ZERO SEQUENCE HOW TO GET THE SEQUENCES?

0 0 0 1
𝑉𝐴1 = (𝑉𝐴 + 𝑎𝑉𝐵 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝐶 )
𝑉𝐴0 = 𝑉𝐴0 ∠0 3
1
𝑉𝐵0 = 𝑉𝐴0∠0 𝑉𝐴2 = (𝑉𝐴 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑎𝑉𝐶 )
3
𝑉𝐶0 = 𝑉𝐴2 ∠0 1
𝑉𝐴0 = (𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐶 )
3
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HOW TO GET THE SEQUENCES?

EXAMPLE 2
1
𝐼𝐴1 = (𝐼𝐴 + 𝑎𝐼𝐵 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝐶 ) Obtain the symmetrical components
3 of the following unbalanced currents.
1 Ia = 1.5∠30°amps.
𝐼𝐴2 = (𝐼𝐴 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝐵 + 𝑎𝐼𝐶 )
3 Ib = 1.5∠-120° amps.
Ic = 0.777∠135° amps
1
𝐼𝐴0 = (𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 )
3
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STEPS IN DETERMINING BASE

PER UNIT SYSTEM
VALUES
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 1. Choose base voltage (VB) and
𝑝𝑢 = base apparent power (SB)
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2. Solve base current (IB)
3. Solve base impedance (ZB)
𝑆𝐵
𝐼𝐵 =
3𝑉𝐵
Note: Be consistent with line and phase values
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CHOICE OF SB CHOICE OF VB

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CHOICE OF VB PER UNIT VALUES

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PER UNIT TO ACTUAL CHANGE OF BASE

VALUES FORMULA

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EXAMPLE SHORT CIRCUIT KVA

Generator: 𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑆𝐶 = 3 𝑘𝑉𝑔𝑒𝑛 ∗ 𝐼𝑆𝐶

Any point along the system:
Generator: 15 MVA, 13.8 kV, x = 0.15 pu
Load 1: 10 MVA at 0.9 pf lead 𝑉𝑝𝑢 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
T1: 25 MVA, 13.2/161 kV, x = 0.10 pu 𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑆𝐶 =
𝑍𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡
T2: 15 MVA, 161/13.8 kV, x = 0.10 pu
Load 2: 4 MVA at 0.8 pf lag
If the load bus voltage is 15.18 kV, find the
voltage at the generator terminals, Vg.

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EXAMPLE 6 FAULT
At a certain point in an electric power A fault is a failure in any circuit that
system, the available fault MVA is interfere the normal flow of current
given to be as 400 MVA. At that point, to any given loads.
a 15MVA, 34.5 kv / 6.24 kv, 2.5%
impedance, wye-wye grounded
transformer is installed. At this
condition, determine the short circuit
MVA at the secondary side of the
transformer.

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IMPEDANCES TYPES OF FAULT

Positive Sequence --------- Z1
• Synchronous (X) – used in power
swing calculations
• Transient (X’) – for fault current few
cycles after fault (25 cycles)
• Subtransient (X’’) – for fault current
immediately after fault (2-5 cycles)
Negative Sequence --------- Z2
Zero Sequence --------------- Z0
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3-PHASE FAULT (BOLTED) EXAMPLE 3

The fault occurs on the low side of T2.
Calculate the fault current on the
generator side and the fault current on
the high side of T2.
Generator: 350 MVA, 18 kV, X’’d=18%
T1: 350 MVA 18 kV- 345kV X = 20%
T2: 200 MVA 345kV-138kV X = 15%
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑐 = 0 𝑉𝐹 T3: 400 MVA 345kV-230kV X = 15%
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑐 =
𝑍1
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝐹 = 3𝐼𝑎
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EXAMPLE 4
A 150-MVA, 13.8-kV, Y-connected, 3-
Φ, 60-Hz alternator is operating at
rated voltage and at no-load when a
three-phase fault occurs at its
terminals. If X’’d is equal to j0.2 p.u.,
solve for the current the instant the
fault occurs.
EXAMPLE 5
A 150-MVA, 13.8-kV, Y-connected, 3-
Φ, 60-Hz alternator is operating at
rated load and at 0.866 lagging power
factor when a three-phase fault
occurs at its terminals. If X’’d of the
alternator is j0.2 p.u., calculate the
current the instant the fault occurs.

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1-LINE TO GROUND FAULT 1-LINE TO GROUND FAULT

𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝑎2 = 𝐼𝑎0

𝑉𝐹
𝐼𝑎1 =
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍0
𝐼𝐹
𝐼𝐹 = 3𝐼𝑎1
𝑉𝑎 = 0 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑐 = 0
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EXAMPLE 7
A 150-MVA, 13.8-kV, Y-connected, 3-Φ, 60-
Hz alternator has a sub-transient reactance
of j0.25 pu, its negative-sequence reactance
is j0.30 pu, and its zero-sequence reactance
is j0.15 pu. The neutral of the alternator is
solidly grounded. The alternator has no-
load when a single-line-to-ground fault
occurs on phase a of the alternator’s
terminals. Determine the currents and
voltages on each phase with the occurrence
of the fault.
EXAMPLE 8
A 10-MVA, 6.9-kV, Y-connected, 3-Φ, 60-Hz
alternator has a sub-transient reactance of
j0.25 pu, its negative-sequence reactance is
j0.25 pu, and its zero-sequence reactance is
j0.05 pu. The neutral of the alternator is
grounded through a reactor having an
actual impedance of 0.375-Ω. The
alternator is operating without a load when
a line-to-ground fault occurs in one of its
terminals. Determine the current in the
faulted phase.

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LINE TO LINE FAULT LINE TO LINE FAULT

𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝑎2

𝑉𝐹
𝐼𝑎1 =
𝑍1 + 𝑍2
𝐼𝐹
𝐼𝐹 = 3𝐼𝑎1
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑐 𝐼𝑎 = 0 𝐼𝑏 = −𝐼𝑐
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DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND

EXAMPLE 9 FAULT
A 150-MVA, 13.8-kV, Y-connected, 3-Φ, 60-
Hz alternator has a sub-transient reactance
of j0.25 pu, its negative-sequence reactance
is j0.30 pu, and its zero-sequence reactance
is j0.15 pu. The neutral of the alternator is
solidly grounded. The alternator is
operating without a load when a line-to-line
fault occurs between the alternator’s 𝐼𝐹
terminals b and c. Determine the currents
and voltages on each phase with the
occurrence of the fault.
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑐 = 0 𝐼𝑎 = 0
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LINE TO LINE FAULT EXAMPLE 10

A 150-MVA, 13.8-kV, Y-connected, 3-Φ,
60-Hz alternator has a sub-transient
reactance of j0.25 pu, a negative-
sequence reactance of j0.30 pu, and a
zero-sequence reactance of j0.15 pu. The
neutral of the alternator is solidly
grounded. The alternator is unloaded
when a fault occurs between the
𝑉𝐹 alternator’s terminals b and c and
𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝐹 = 3𝐼𝑎0 ground. Calculate the currents and
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ‖ 𝑍0 voltages on each phase with the
3𝑍2 𝑉𝐹 occurrence of the fault.
𝐼𝐹 =
𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍1 𝑍0 + 𝑍2 𝑍0
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END

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