Fundamentals of

Cutting
Velocity Relationship

Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting. (b) Velocity diagram in
the cutting zone
Velocity Relationship, btn Cutting speed, chip
velocity(frictional) and velocity of shear……..

Vf

Vc

Analytically,
vc vf vs
 
sin(90  (   )) sin  sin(90   )
vc vf v
  s
cos(   ) sin  cos 

vc sin   sin 
vf   r  
cos(    )  cos(  -  ) 
v f  vc  r Volume of material per unit time  Volume of material flowing up the chip
 v c  t0  w  v f  tc  w
vc cos  t0
vs   v f  vc  r As, r 
cos(    ) tc
Cutting forces
The force system in general case of conventional turning process
Cutting forces
The largest magnitude is the vertical
force Fc which in turning is larger than
feed force Ff, and Ff is larger than radial
force Fr.
For orthogonal cutting system Fr is made
zero by placing the face of cutting tool at
90 degree to the line of action of the tool.
Cutting forces in oblique cutting
Orthogonal and Oblique cutting
The two basic methods of metal cutting using a single point
tool are the orthogonal (2 D) and oblique (3D).
Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of the
tool is 90 degree to the line of action of the tool. If the
cutting face is inclined at an angle less than 90 degree to
the line of action of the tool, the cutting action is known as
oblique.
The forces in orthogonal cutting (turning)
Forces acting on Chip in two-dimensional cutting

Source “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid, Prentice
Hall 2003
The forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting

/  
R  NF
  
R  FS  FN

Fs = Shear Force, which acts along the shear plane, is the resistance to
shear of the metal in forming the chip.
Fn = Force acting normal to the shear plane, is the backing up force on the
chip provided by the workpiece.
F = Frictional resistance of the tool acting against the motion of the chip as it
moves upward along the tool.
N = Normal to the chip force, is provided by the tool.
It is assumed that the resultant forces R & R/ are equal and opposite in magnitude and direction.
Also they are Collinear. Therefore for the purpose of analysis the chip is regarded as an
independent body held in mechanical equilibrium by the action of two equal and opposite forces
R, which the workpiece exerts upon the chip and R/ which the tool exerts upon the chip.
Merchants Circle Diagram
….MCD
Merchant circle diagram
The procedure to construct a merchants circle
diagram
α
Chip Tool
Fs
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle

Work
Fn
Ft R
α

β
N
The procedure to construct a merchants circle diagram
CHIP
 Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the α
TOOL
Fs
origin in the centre of the page. The cutting Fc 
force (Fc) is drawn horizontally, and the
tangential force (Ft) is drawn vertically. WORK
(Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft. Fn R α
Ft
 Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that
encloses vector R. If done correctly, the heads F
and tails of all 3 vectors will lie on this circle.
β
 Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right
N
hand quadrant, taking care to draw the correct
rake angle (α) from the vertical axis.
 Extend the line that is the cutting face of the
tool (at the same rake angle) through the
circle. This now gives the friction vector (F).
 A line can now be drawn from the head of the
friction vector, to the head of the resultant
vector (R). This gives the normal vector (N).
Also add a friction angle (β) between vectors
R and N. Therefore, mathematically, R = Fc +
Ft = F + N.
 Draw a line parallel to the horizontal axis, at the tool tip,
to represent the ‘uncut’-dc. Next draw a cut-chip
thickness line; this line will be parallel to the tool cutting
face. ….give some thinking about the scale on x and y axis, with which
you had started this exercise……Remember what was told in class..
 Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the
intersection of the two chip lines, until this line cuts the
circle. Now you have found out the shear angle Ø. The
result will be a shear force vector (Fs). Also measure the
shear force angle between Fs and Fc.
 Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of
Fs to the head of R.
 Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances
(forces) and angles.
Merchant’s Circle Diagram

Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle
(β - α)
Work
Fn
Ft R
α

β
N
Cautions …. While drawing the MCDgm

I hope you guys, remember the mistake done by the author

of this Merchant Circle diagram procedure…..

That’s important point to remember, else the concept shall be

different.

Another point to remember is that the the ‘determination’ of

shear angle by graphical means can be done on a separate
sheet too….. But….
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram

Frictional Force System

D Chip α
α Tool
C Fs
Fc Clearance Angle
(90-α) ∅
α
E α Fc O (β - α)
(β - α) Work
(90-α) G Fn
Ft R
Ft R α
α
F
α F

β
β N
B N
A
F  OA  CB  CG  GB  ED  GB The coefficient of friction
 F  FC sin   Ft cos F
  tan 
N  AB  OD  CD  OD  GE N
 N  FC cos  Ft sin  Where   Friction angle
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Shear Force System
B
α Chip α
A Tool
Fs Fs
(90-∅) Fc Clearance Angle
Fc ∅ ∅
C O
∅ (β - α)
(β - α)
(90-∅) Work
Fn
Fn D
Ft R Ft R
α α

∅ F

β
E N

FS  OA  OB  AB  OB  CD
 FS  FC cos   Ft sin  Also:

FN  AE  AD  DE  BC  DE FN  FS tan(     )
 FN  FC sin   Ft cos 
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram

Chip α

Fc
Fs
Tool
F  FC sin   Ft cos 
∅ Clearance Angle
(β - α)
Work
N  FC cos   Ft sin 
Fn
Ft R
α
FS  FC cos   Ft sin 
F F N  FC sin   Ft cos 
β F N  FS tan(     )
N
Merchant’s eqn…

 Shear stress = ζ = Shear force/area of uncut chip

cross section at the shear plane.

 ζ = (FcCos-FtSinØ)/(tow/sinØ)

 Ø = 45 + /2 - /2 ….. This is called as the merchant’s eqn

 Assumptions:
 Shear strength is unaffected by shear rate
 Temperature and other factors.

Power required in Metal cutting

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in cutting: PC  FC  vC

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in shear: Ps  Fs  vs

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in friction: PF  F  v f

The total Power required:
P  Power supplied by the motor
 P  Work consumed in cutting per sec  work spent in feeding per sec
 P  (Fc  vc )  ( Ft  feed velocity)
In comparison to the cutting velocity the feed velocity is very nominal. Similarly Fc is
very small compared to Fc. So the work spent in feeding can be considered negligible.

Therefore, total power required in cutting P  Pc  Ps  Pf

Numerical problem on power consumption:

 During an experiment on machining, the

Dynamometer showed Fc to be 1557N, Ft = 1271N
while the workpiece was machined at a cutting
speed of 100m/min. the rake angle is measured to
be 10o, dc is set at 0.5mm. After machining, the chip
thickness was measured to be 1.125mm. and
w=3mm. Find out the power consumed in the cut
assuming Orthogonal cut.
 Find out the specific energy (power consumed to
machine one unit volume of material…mm3)
Power consumed…solution
 Pc = Fc V = 1557 x 100 …….*
 = 155700 N-m/min = 155700J/min.
 = 2595 J/sec. = 2595 W (1J/sec=1W)..This is the cutting power reqd. This
cannot be the reqmt for the electrical motor. Considering 90% efficiency to take into
account of frictional loses in driving machine tool elements, 2595/0.90 will give the
electrical power specification for the motor.
 Specific Energy: (U)
 Power / volume of chip removed.
 Vol of chips =V.t0w…all in mm…(if you want real volume of chips, then
Vol= Vctcw…..where Vc is the chip velocity, which u have to again calculate
from the velocity diagram relations.)
 U = 155700/150000 = 1.038N-m/mm3
 *-note that only Fc is used up in the power calculations since the thrust force
has very little contribution to the power. (Fc is the representative of Fs and
Ff.)
Specific Energy
Specific Energy, ut ,is defined as the total energy per unit volume of material
removed.
HOT
FC vc FC
ut  
wt0vc wt0
Therefore is simply the cutting force to the projected area of cut.
If uf and us be specific energy for friction and specific energy for shearing ,
then

Fv f Fs vs Fr Fs vs
ut  u f  us    
wt0 vc wt0 vc wt0 wt0vc

As the rake angle increases, the frictional specific energy remains more or
less constant, where as the shear specific energy rapidly reduced.
Approximate specific-energy requirements in
cutting operations.
MATERIAL SPECIFIC ENERGY*
W-s/mm3 hp-min/in3
Aluminum alloys 0.4-1.1 0.15-0.4
Cast irons 1.6-5.5 0.6-2.0
Copper alloys 1.4-3.3 0.5-1.2
High-temperature alloys 3.3-8.5 1.2-3.1
Magnesium alloys 0.4-0.6 0.15-0.2
Nickel alloys 4.9-6.8 1.8-2.5
Refractory alloys 3.8-9.6 1.1-3.5
Stainless steels 3.0-5.2 1.1-1.9
Steels 2.7-9.3 1.0-3.4
Titanium alloys 3.0-4.1 1.1-1.5
* At drive motor, corrected for 80% efficiency; multiply the energy
by 1.25 for dull tools.
Source “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid, Prentice Hall 2003

But…… What is Specific Energy? ? ?