Management today
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010
Rothman, H.A. 2006. A Test of Adversity and Strength: Wildland Fire in the National Park
System. Available at <http://www.nps.gov/fire/fire/fir_wil_history.cfm>.
Cones, G. and Keller, P. 2008. Lessons Learned – Managing Naturally-Ignited Fire:
Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow. Video and document available at <http://www.wildfire-
lessons.net/Additional.aspx?Page=131>.
Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
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Fire and Aviation Management Editor
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September 2010
O
ne thing is certain in our busi-
ness—if we wait long enough,
things will change! This seems
to be the case in everything we do.
Fire Management Today (FMT) is
not immune. Over the past year,
I made a decision that I hope will
make the publication a more “nim-
ble” periodical. FMT has moved
from a subject-specific magazine
to one that will allow its authors
to write about those topics that
are current and relevant to what is
happening now. It will no longer be
necessary to wait until a particular
edition is being prepared.
C
rown fires, fire whirls, blow-
ups, conflagrations—presented Prolonged smoldering combustion in duff
with these eye-catching phe-
nomena in the dynamic field of fire
mounds at the base of trees causes cambial
research, garnering attention for injury and fine root mortality.
smoldering duff mounds is a chal-
lenge. Whereas extreme fire behav-
ior leaves immediate and promi-
nent scars, the deleterious effects
of duff mound consumption may
take several years to become appar-
ent. Yet if the goal of prescriptive
burning is to protect large trees
and improve forest health, then
this rather unsung subject deserves
some attention. The benefit to fire
managers is a better understanding
of fuel factors and the avoidance of
unintended consequences.
F
ire managers traditionally rec-
ognize three types of fire (Pyne
and others 1996):
Aftermath of a crown fire in the Blue Mountains, OR, showing the impact of crown fire
David Powell is a silviculturist on the on soils, coarse woody debris and down wood, and other site-level resources. Photo: David
Umatilla National Forest in Pendleton, OR. Powell, Umatilla National Forest.
Cover Diameter TPA (T/ha) for each crown fire susceptibility rating3
Type Class
Group1 Category2 Low Moderate High
Ponderosa Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 1,174 1,174–3,057 > 3,057
pine (< 475) (475–1,237) (> 1,237)
Poles (5–9” QMD) < 263 263–682 > 682
(< 106) (106–276) (> 276)
Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 102 102–262 > 262
(< 41) (41–106) (> 106)
Interior Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 564 564–1,406 > 1,406
Douglas-fir (< 228) (228–569) (> 569)
Poles (5–9” QMD) < 158 158–390 > 390
(< 64) (64–158) (> 158)
Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 70 70–172 > 172
(< 28) (28–70) (> 70)
Grand Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 593 593–1,692 > 1,692
fir (< 240) (240–685) (> 685)
Poles (5–9” QMD) < 138 138–390 > 390
(< 56) (56–158) (> 158)
Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 55 55–153 > 153
(< 22) (22–62) (> 62)
1 Cover
type groups are described in footnote 1 to table 1.
2 Average
diameter class pertains to an entire forest polygon; QMD is quadratic mean diameter, the diameter associated with a tree of average basal area (Helms 1998). Diameter
class is assumed to reflect an average or representative QMD condition for an entire polygon; “seed-sap” refers to the seedling-sapling diameter classes.
3 Crown fire susceptibility ratings are based on canopy bulk density and described in footnote 3 of table 1.
Cover Diameter BAA (BA/ha) for each crown fire susceptibility rating3
Type Class
Group1 Category2 Low Moderate High
Ponderosa Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 59 59–149 > 149
pine (< 14) (14–34) (> 34)
Poles (5–9” QMD) < 71 71–181 > 181
(< 16) (16–42) (> 42)
Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 80 80–206 > 206
(< 18) (18–47) (> 47)
Interior Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 29 29–68 > 68
Douglas-fir (< 7) (7–16) (> 16)
Poles (5–9” QMD) < 43 43–104 > 104
(< 10) (10–24) (> 24)
Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 55 55–135 > 135
(< 13) (13–31) (> 31)
Grand Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 30 30–82 > 82
fir (< 7) (7–19) (> 19)
Poles (5–9” QMD) < 38 38–103 > 103
(< 9) (9–24) (> 24)
Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 43 43–120 > 120
(< 10) (10–28) (> 28)
1 Cover
type groups are described in footnote 1 to table 1.
2 Diameter
class categories are described in footnote 2 of table 2.
3 Crown fire susceptibility ratings are based on canopy bulk density and described in footnote 3 of table 1.
sensing information sources, such stand exams or forestry surveys Equilateral Spacing
as satellite imagery or aerial pho- were uncommon then. Because it is A measure of tree spacing is useful
tography, or it can be sampled often important to be able to assess when there is a need to evaluate the
during field surveys such as stand how crown fire susceptibility has spatial relationship between adja-
exams. For polygons created from changed over time, the CC stand cent trees in a stand (tree-marking
remote-sensing information, CC density metric is particularly valu- guides often include inter-tree
(also known as canopy closure, able. spacing specifications). For older
crown cover, or crown closure) is stands, where most of the trees are
typically the only metric that can Attempts to directly measure CC by pole-size or larger, ES is generally
reasonably represent stand density using instruments such as a spheri- thought to be the best measure of
because other measures, such as cal densiometer or moosehorn have tree spacing. To express crown fire
TPA or BAA, cannot be accurately often been unsatisfactory (Cook susceptibility by using the ES met-
determined from this information. and others 1995), so it is common ric, it was necessary to convert the
practice to use mathematical equa- TPA values from table 2 into their
The CC stand density metric is tions to calculate CC (Dealy 1985). equivalent ES values (table 5).
unique in that it allows us to esti- To express crown fire susceptibility
mate crown fire susceptibility for using CC, I converted the BAA val- Cautions and Caveats
historical time periods from old ues into their equivalent CC values
aerial photography. The other stand using Dealy’s (1985) equations The five tables in this article do not
density metrics are seldom available (table 4). predict potential crown fire behav-
for historical time periods because ior because there is no explicit
Table 5— Estimated equilateral tree spacing in feet (meters) for three crown fire susceptibility ratings.
Cover Diameter ES in feet (m) for each crown fire susceptibility rating3
Type Class
Group1 Category2 Low Moderate High
Ponderosa Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) > 6.4 6.4–4.2 < 4.2
pine (> 1.95) (1.95–1.28) (< 1.28)
Poles (5–9” QMD) > 13.8 13.8–8.7 < 8.7
(> 4.20) (4.20–2.65) (< 2.65)
Small+ (> 9” QMD) > 22.2 22.2–13.9 < 13.9
(> 6.76) (6.76–4.24) (< 4.24)
Interior Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) > 9.4 9.4–6.1 < 6.1
Douglas-fir (> 2.86) (2.86–1.86) (< 1.86)
Poles (5–9” QMD) > 17.8 17.8–11.4 < 11.4
(> 5.42) (5.42–3.47) (< 3.47)
Small+ (> 9” QMD) > 26.8 26.8–17.1 < 17.1
(> 8.17) (8.17–5.21) (< 5.21)
Grand Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) > 9.1 9.1–5.6 < 5.6
fir (> 2.77) (2.77–1.71) (< 1.71)
Poles (5–9” QMD) > 19.1 19.1–11.4 < 11.4
(> 5.82) (5.82–3.47) (< 3.47)
Small+ (> 9” QMD) > 30.5 30.5–18.2 < 18.2
(> 9.30) (9.30–5.55) (< 5.55)
1 Cover type groups are described in footnote 1 to table 1.
2 Diameter class categories are described in footnote 2 of table 2.
3 Crown fire susceptibility ratings are based on canopy bulk density and described in footnote 3 of table 1.
References
Agee, J.K. 1993. Fire ecology of Pacific
Northwest forests. Washington, DC:
Island Press. 493 p.
Agee, J.K. 1996. The influence of for-
est structure on fire behavior. In:
Proceedings of the Seventeenth
Annual Forest Vegetation Management How likely is a crown fire? Here, a firefighter takes a break to get more firing devices from
Conference; 16–18 January; Redding, CA: his pack during a night burnout operation on the Blossom Complex, Siskiyou National
52–68. Forest, OR. Photo: Eli Lehmann, Forest Service, Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National
Alexander, M.E. 1988. Help with mak- Forest, Concrete, WA, 2005.
ing crown fire hazard assessments. In:
Fischer, W.C.; Arno, S.F., compilers. Graham, R.T.; Harvey, A.E.; Jain, T.B.; Tonn, Reineke, L.H. 1933. Perfecting a stand-den-
Proceedings of the Symposium and J.R. 1999. The effects of thinning and sity index for even-aged forests. Journal
Workshop: Protecting People and Homes similar stand treatments on fire behavior of Agricultural Research. 46(7): 627–638.
from Wildfire in the Interior West. Gen. in western forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW- Reinhardt, E.D.; Crookston, N.L., technical
Tech. Rep. INT-251. Ogden, UT: USDA 463. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, editors. 2003. The fire and fuels exten-
Forest Service, Intermountain Research Pacific Northwest Research Station. 27 p. sion to the forest vegetation simulator.
Station: 147–156. Graham, R.T.; McCaffrey, S.; Jain, T.B. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-116. Ogden, UT:
Bilgili, E. 2003. Stand development 2004. Science basis for changing forest USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
and fire behavior. Forest Ecology and structure to modify wildfire behavior and Research Station. 209 p.
Management. 179: 333–339. severity. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-120. Fort Sando, R.W.; Wick, C.H. 1972. A method of
Cochran, P.H.; Geist, J.M.; Clemens, D.L.; Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky evaluating crown fuels in forest stands.
Clausnitzer, R.R.; Powell, D.C. 1994. Mountain Research Station. 43 p. Research Paper NC-84. Saint Paul, MN:
Suggested stocking levels for forest Helms, J.A. 1998. The dictionary of for- USDA Forest Service, North Central
stands in northeastern Oregon and estry. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Forest Experiment Station. 10 p.
southeastern Washington. Research Note Foresters. 210 p. Schmidt, K.M.; Menakis, J.P.; Hardy,
PNW-513. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Keane, R.E.; Reinhardt, E.D.; Scott, J.; C.C.; Hann, W.J.; Bunnell, D.L. 2002.
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Gray, K.; Reardon, J. 2005. Estimating Development of coarse-scale spatial
Station. 21 p. forest canopy bulk density using six indi- data for wildland fire and fuel manage-
Cook, J.C.; Stutzman, T.W.; Bowers, C.W.; rect methods. Canadian Journal of Forest ment. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-87. Fort
Brenner, K.A.; Irwin, L.L. 1995. Spherical Research. 35: 724–739. Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky
densiometers produce biased estimates Keyes, C.R.; O’Hara, K.L. 2002. Quantifying Mountain Research Station. 41 p (+CD).
of forest canopy cover. Wildlife Society stand targets for silvicultural preven- Scott, J.H.; Reinhardt, E.D. 2001. Assessing
Bulletin. 23(4): 711–717. tion of crown fires. Western Journal of crown fire susceptibility by linking
Cram, D.S.; Baker, T.T.; Boren, J.; Applied Forestry. 17(2): 101–109. models of surface and crown fire behav-
Edminster, C. 2003. Inventory and classi- Mutch, R.W.; Arno, S.F.; Brown, J.K.; ior. Research Paper RMRS -29. Fort
fication of wildland fire effects in silvicul- Carlson, C.E.; Ottmar, R.D.; Peterson, Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky
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Reineke’s stand density index in tabular levels for forest stands in northeastern Pendleton, OR: USDA Forest Service,
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Agricultural Experiment Station. 16 p. F14-SO-TP-03-99. Pendleton, OR: USDA (accessed December 2009).
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Range Experiment Station. 6 p. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 769 p.
L
and managers throughout the rp_burn_tonnagecalculator.htm>) .
West pile and burn surface fuels Tools and applications
to mitigate fire hazard in dry Differences in structure and
forests. Whereas piling was histori-
developed for composition between hand and
cally conducted with heavy machin- describing machine machine piles, however, result in
ery following commercial harvest- piles may overestimate different relationships between pile
dimensions, pile volume, and pile
ing operations, land managers are the amount of fuel in weight, so tools and applications
increasingly prescribing the use of
hand piles. developed for describing machine
hand piling and burning to treat
surface fuels created by thinning piles are likely to mis-characterize
and brush cutting. An estimate of hand piles. To address this issue,
the weight of the piled debris to 1996) is incorporated into the we measured and weighed hand
be burned is necessary to assess fire and fuel management deci- piles to document the relationships
potential smoke emissions and air sion support software application between easily measured variables
quality impacts associated with this CONSUME 3.0 (Prichard and oth- and fuel loading and incorporated
practice. ers, no date) and the Washington this information into the Hand-
State Department of Natural Piled Fuels Biomass Calculator, a
How Much Fuel Is in
This Pile?
It is impractical to weigh piled
fuels, so methods have been devel-
oped to estimate weight from pile
dimensions and other characteris-
tics. Data are available for charac-
terizing large, machine-constructed
piles (Hardy 1996; Johnson 1984;
Little 1982; McNab 1980, 1981;
McNab and Saucier 1980), but not
hand-constructed piles. Research
to quantify the amount of woody
debris in machine piles (Hardy
F
rom October 2009 through
February 2010, fire manage- Almost all respondents indicated that they
ment and other professionals
with interest and experience in fire
expect increasing air quality regulatory
smoke issues were asked to com- pressure on smoke as a pollutant.
plete a short online questionnaire
as part of a smoke science plan
development effort by the Joint Fire Gauging Concern for needs. In 2009, it was determined
Science Program, sponsored by the that these 11 recommendations
Smoke Issues
U.S. Department of the Interior were not sufficient to guide future
(DOI) and U.S. Department of Since at least the U.S. 1977 Clean smoke research investments. As
Agriculture (USDA). Five hundred Air Act Amendments, there has a result, JFSP commissioned the
and fifty-four individuals answered been concern that air quality regu- development of a smoke science
the questionnaire. Although some lations and smoke from prescribed plan, a framework to focus smoke
of the results might have been fires could collide in conflicting research for the next 5 years. As a
anticipated, there are differences in legal requirements, vested interests, foundation for this, a brief Web-
responses between this and previ- overly bureaucratic interpretations based questionnaire was developed
ous needs assessments; one exam- of regulations, lack of appreciation to gauge current perceptions of
ple is that, although many respon- for ecosystem health and public wildland fire smoke as an issue,
dents saw regulatory restrictions health, and fumbled communica- what research topics are perceived
increasingly impacting the ability tion. Although there has been fric- as highest need, and what value
of fire managers to apply prescribed tion over the issue, air quality and people placed on the 11 recom-
fire (a common perception since at forest management have avoided a mendations of the preceding JFSP
least the late 1970s), there are also national showdown. There may be smoke roundtables.
new concerns that the public’s per- a number of reasons for this happy
circumstance, but it can be right-
ceptions of fire may also increas- Distributing the
ingly limit its use. Finally, the fully said that the fire community’s
support of smoke research has pro- Questionnaire
questionnaire results and written
comments highlight a perceived duced tools to ameliorate potential The use of a Web-based question-
fundamental tension between the conflicts. The Joint Fire Science naire is not unique to development
need for fire to maintain ecosystem Program (JFSP) has been very sup- of the JFSP smoke science plan.
health and air quality regulations portive of fire smoke research and An earlier Web-based question-
to protect public health. has funded more than 34 studies naire was used to complete a smoke
on the topic, much of this funding research needs assessment in
based on results from needs assess- 1999 (Riebau and Fox 1999). This
Allen Riebau is principal scientist for
Nine Points South Technical Pty., Ltd., in ments. In 2007, JFSP conducted 2 questionnaire was brief (12 ques-
Clarkson, Western Australia. He retired workshops to identify new smoke tions) and took only about 10 to
from the Forest Service as chief atmo- research areas at both regional 15 minutes to complete. A link to
spheric scientist. Doug Fox is the senior
contributing scientist for climate change, and national levels, resulting in 11 the questionnaire was distributed
meteorology, and air quality for Nine recommendations. Some recom- by email to about 150 individuals
Points South Technical Pty., Ltd., and mendations were clearly within the beginning in early October 2009.
retired from the Forest Service as chief
meteorologist and climate change program research scope of JFSP and others Recipients were asked to complete
director at the Rocky Mountain Research addressed technology or procedural the questionnaire themselves and
Station.
Two Important
Viewpoints
While many written comments
were received, an interesting over-
all pattern in them emerged. In
general, fire and natural resources
managers (especially those from
U.S. agencies) believe that educa-
Figure 1—Research priorities chosen from 537 people who completed the Joint Fire
Science Program Smoke Science Plan questionnaire. Responses answer the question tion on the need for fire as an eco-
“What issues concerning fires are more important research topics than smoke?” WUI system process will lower the con-
stands for wildland–urban interface. cerns of the public about smoke.
Conclusions managers who responded indicated there was danger to public health
that education of the public about from smoke intrusion.
It was both gratifying and perhaps the ecological and emergency
even a bit surprising that the ques- response needs for fire manage- It is clear that the debate over
tionnaire drew so many people to ment would ultimately lessen con- wildland fire smoke is far from
respond and that the questionnaire troversy about wildland fire. Air over. Readers of this paper who
was forwarded by so many individu- quality managers didn’t necessarily have been involved in the issue of
als to their colleagues. A conclusion agree that this was so. Almost all smoke, from either air quality or
we draw from this is that smoke respondents indicated that they fire management perspectives, will
from prescribed fires is an impor- expect increasing air quality regula- not find the results reported here
tant issue that many respondents tory pressure on smoke as a pollut- surprising. It is clear that conflicts
said would surely become more ant, with some written responses between smoke production and air
important in the next decade very gloomy about the future of quality regulations are still seen
(fig. 2). prescribed fire in the light of per- as threatening the application of
ceived more stringent regulations. prescribed fire, just as they have
A majority of the respondents There was also a clear division in earlier decades. Of course, a
also voted that the United States between respondents on the bal- common concern of respondents
should spend more research funds ance between the need for fire in is whether or not future regula-
for smoke research, and a major- ecosystems and the protection of tions related to climate change will
ity indicated that about 25 percent the public from unhealthy smoke somehow preclude all prescribed
of fire research funding should concentrations. Some extremes burning, favoring (as expressed by
address the smoke issue. The JFSP in expressed views were that the some respondents) the requirement
smoke roundtable recommenda- public should just accept smoke to turn all excess fire fuels in all
tions were not well known to the or be educated enough to accept U.S. forest ecosystems into boiler
questionnaire respondents, but a that burning to improve ecosystem fuels or biofuels. Although such a
significant number of respondents health should trump concerns for concern may at first appear novel,
expressed that the recommenda- their own health. Another extreme climate change regulations and
tions had value, although to vary- was that fire and resulting smoke fire smoke concerns have been dis-
ing degrees, relating closely to must be stopped at whatever cost if cussed since the 1980s and perhaps
the respondents’ work duties. Fire
S
everal published accounts In a recent paper (part of a project Operations Safety Conference held
exist of how smokejumper dealing with survival zones for in March 2010 in Portland, OR.
foreman Wag Dodge survived wildland firefighters), Alexander
the 1949 Mann Gulch Fire in and others (2009a) critically exam- For a copy of the paper, includ-
northwestern Montana by setting ined the question of how big an ing an associated presenta-
an “escape fire” in cured grass area was burned off before Dodge tion at, visit <http://fire.feric.
fuels, the most notable among was overrun by the main advanc- ca/36702008/36702008.asp>.
them being Norman Maclean’s ing fire front. They also addressed
1992 book Young Men and Fire. the issue of how tall the flames of References
Two other smokejumpers sur- the advancing fire front were that Alexander, M.E.; Baxter, G.J.; Ackerman,
vived by reaching a rockslide. initially met and ultimately swept M.Y. 2009a. Is a wellsite opening a
Sadly, 12 smokejumpers and a around the area burned out by safety zone for a wildland firefighter or
a survival zone or neither? In: Masters,
local fireguard perished in their Dodge’s escape fire. R.E.; Galley, K.E.M.; Despain, D.G., eds.
attempt to try and outrun the The ’88 Fires: Yellowstone and Beyond.
rapidly spreading grass fire in The contents of the paper pre- Tall Timbers Miscellaneous Publication
No. 16. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers
steep terrain. pared by Alexander and others Research Station: 110.
(2009b) were first presented at the Alexander, M.E.; Ackerman, M.Y.; Baxter,
10th Wildland Fire Safety Summit G.J. 2009b. An analysis of Dodge’s
sponsored by the International escape fire on the 1949 Mann Gulch
Dr. Marty Alexander is an adjunct Fire in terms of a survival zone for
professor of wildland fire science and Association of Wildland Fire held wildland firefighters. In: Proceedings
management in the Department of in April 2009 in Phoenix, AZ, and, of 10th Wildland Fire Safety Summit;
Renewable Resources and Alberta School 2009 April 27–30; Phoenix, AZ.
of Forest Science and Management at
again, as an invited presenta-
Birmingham, AL: International
the University of Alberta in Edmonton, tion at the Pacific Northwest Fire Association of Wildland Fire. 27 p.
Alberta, Canada. CD-ROM.
A
bout 22 South Lake High
School students crowded into
the tiny room listening quietly
to Gerald Williams describe what
it is like to be a Forest Service
firefighter. “I don’t want to sugar-
coat this. This is hard, grueling
work. You dig all day,” he said. He
described fuel breaks and explained
a controlled burn, digging lines,
and how to fight a wildfire in the
middle of nowhere. They liked the
pictures he showed of what could
be their office next summer: tents
staked outdoors with fixed-wing
airplanes and a helicopter in the
background. “We ask you to show
up, ready to work, have a strong
work ethic, and be in shape,” he Gerald Williams, supervisor of Mt. Baker Initial Attack Fire Crew, instructs students
during basic firefighter training, or “guard school.” Photo: Renee Bodine.
said. Students asked questions
about physical training, travel, fire
former student from the commu- those interested in applying to nav-
camp, and money.
nity helps his recruiting efforts and igate through their first experience
gives kids a first-hand perspective with Avue.
Most of the kids Williams recruits
on working as a firefighter for the
are from the city. “The learn-
Forest Service. Williams has been successful filling
ing curve is incredible. Imagine
the six to eight vacancies on his
never having been in a forest
Williams starts in early spring initial attack crew with diverse can-
environment, never even taking
recruiting at local area high schools didates every year since he started.
a walk in the woods, then learn-
and colleges. Williams’ approach His additional recruits round out
ing the business of fighting fires,”
is systematic. For the last 6 years, other fire and recreation crews on
Williams said. Richard Tavares,
he’s started early in the year coordi- the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National
who has worked several summers
nating with Seattle schools, coun- Forest, and the excess candidates
for Williams on the fireline, helped
selors, teachers, the International go to other forests in the Pacific
present to his former classmates
District, tribes, the National Northwest Region. After presenting
and neighborhood friends. He
Association for the Advancement to 60 students at 6 Seattle schools
shared his experiences: camping
of Colored People, and women’s and 2 in Burlington this year, he
outdoors for the first time, trying
groups. Williams schedules back- identified 20 who were serious
to sleep through a thunderstorm,
to-back presentations throughout about going to work for the Forest
and standing on the edge of the
Seattle in early spring. “Finding Service.
Grand Canyon and feeling like
highly motivated recruits who can
he was on the top of the world.
take orders, handle hard labor, “Gerald is successful because he is
Williams explained that having a
who enjoy the outdoors, takes passionate about what he does: fire
extra effort,” described Williams. and outreach to diversity. He does
Renee Bodine is a public affairs officer on
the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest He brings his computer and helps the job, and the candidates respond
in Everett, WA.
to that,” said Tony Engel, fire man- hours a day, 7 days a week, eating, of a team. “It helps that I hire the
agement officer for the Mt. Baker- working, and resting. “Under these best of the best, highly motivated
Snoqualmie National Forest. conditions, compatibility, camara- people,” explained Williams. “It is a
derie, understanding, communica- hard, but rewarding job.”
When school gets out and the tion, and crew pride are an absolute
recruits start firefighter training, necessity,” noted Williams. For more information about the
Williams immediately sets the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie type 2 initial
tone for the season. He’s build- Williams says his hope is that all attack firefighters, contact Gerald
ing a team—when they deploy to members of his crew get a sense Williams or go to <http://www.
fight a fire, they will be together 24 of accomplishment out of being fs.fed.us/r6/mbs/fire/mbs-ia>.
firefighters and working as part
P
hoto series and their associated The Natural Fuels Series
data provide a quick and easy Photo Series Fire and fuels management
way for managers to quantify requires extensive fuel and veg-
and describe fuel and vegetation Accurate, complete, detailed fuels
data are critical for fire manage- etation data, like those included
properties, such as loading of dead in the NFPS, to effectively plan
and down woody material, tree den- ment planning and implemen-
tation, but are often lacking, management activities, including
sity, or height of understory vegeta- the application of prescribed fire
tion. This information is critical for insufficient, or difficult to obtain
for many geographic areas or and mechanical fuels treatment.
making fuel management decisions Development of new fire- and natu-
and for predicting fire behavior and ecosystems. Developed to address
the need for high-quality fuels ral resource-based software applica-
fire effects. The Digital Photo Series tions that require fuel and stand
(DPS) is a user-friendly, Web-based information, the NFPS is a printed
compilation of georeferenced data information as inputs further high-
application that displays data and light the need for electronically
images from all 16 currently pub- and photographs that displays
conditions and fuel loadings in a accessible data.
lished volumes of the Natural Fuels
Photo Series (NFPS) (42 differ- wide variety of forest, woodland,
shrubland, and grassland ecosystem The objective of the DPS project
ent photo series for a total of 438 was to create a user-friendly, intui-
sites). The database format of DPS types (Ottmar and others 2009).
tive software application that could
enables searching, downloading, be accessed online or run locally
customized site generation, and The NFPS is built on a well-estab-
lished tradition and methodology and would be capable of displaying
side-by-side comparison of data and site-level data and images in a for-
images. DPS follows the published (see Blank 1982, Fisher 1981a,
Maxwell and Ward 1980a, and oth- mat that is familiar to users of the
volumes in both content and pre- printed volumes of the NFPS. The
sentation. ers). At the inception of the NFPS
project in the mid-1990s, conven- result is a Web-based application
tional printing was the most effec- that provides better access to and
tive way to distribute the images enhanced functionality of NFPS
and data in a concise, economical, fuels data and images. The digital
Clint Wright is a research forester with the
Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research intuitive, and user-friendly package. form of NFPS data provides users
Station, Pacific Wildland Fire Sciences Technological changes enabled us with the ability to view data and
Laboratory, Seattle, WA. Paige Eagle is a
to enhance the utility of the NFPS images across series and volumes,
Web designer and programmer with the
College of Forest Resources, University of
Washington, Seattle. Diana Olson was a
forester with the Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station, Pacific Photo series provide quick and easy ways
Wildland Fire Sciences Laboratory, and
is now the project manager for the Fire for managers to quantify and describe fuel
Research and Management Exchange and vegetation properties.
System (FRAMES) project in the College
of Natural Resources, University of Idaho,
Moscow.
References
Blank, R.W. 1982. Stereo photos for
evaluating jack pine slash fuels. Gen.
Tech. Rep. NC-77. St. Paul, MN: USDA
Forest Service, North Central Forest
Experiment Station. 23 p.
Blonski, K.S.; Schramel, J.L. 1981. Photo
series for quantifying natural forest
residues: southern Cascades, northern
Sierra Nevada. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-
56. Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest Service,
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Figure 3—Example of site-level data displayed by DPS. Data content and page display
Experiment Station. 145 p.
vary dynamically based on the type and amount of data collected at the different sites.
Fischer, W.C. 1981a. Photo guides for
The contents of DPS can be browsed much as in the printed volumes by using the
appraising downed woody fuels in
navigation tree (left side of page) or by selecting the previous or next site in a series
Montana forests: how they were made.
(lower and upper right of page). Data can be displayed in English or metric units and can
Res. Note INT-299. Ogden, UT: USDA
be printed (top left of page) or exported to a Microsoft Excel, text, or XML file (bottom of
Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
page). Species are listed with their scientific names; hovering the cursor above a name
Range Experiment Station. 12 p.
will display the accepted common name. Documentation describing the NFPS in general
Fischer, W.C. 1981b. Photo guide for
and the volume or series in particular can be viewed using the links at the bottom of the
appraising downed woody fuels in
page.
Montana forests: grand fir-larch-
Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western
• As a free, Web-based tool, DPS ecosystem or fuel type to com- hemlock-western redcedar, and west-
provides fire management and pare them with other, less famil- ern redcedar cover types. Gen. Tech.
Rep. INT-96. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest
academic instructors with data iar types. Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
and images for a wide variety of • DPS is expandable, allowing Experiment Station. 53 p.
ecosystems. it to accept new NFPS images Fischer, W.C. 1981c. Photo guide for
appraising downed woody fuels in
• Users are able to draw on data and data as they are developed. Montana forests: interior ponderosa
and images from all published Future versions may also incor- pine, ponderosa pine–larch–Douglas-
volumes simultaneously. Among porate data from other published fir, larch–Douglas-fir, and interior
Douglas-fir cover types. Gen. Tech.
other uses, the ability to query photo series or photodocument- Rep. INT-97. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest
across locations and ecosystems ed fuels inventories. Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
allows users familiar with one Experiment Station. 133 p.
W
ith the expansion of the
wildland–urban inter- Fire often results in changes in soil
face, social pressures have
increased to reduce potential
properties, reducing nutrient content and
wildfire threats to human life and promoting soil erosion, sedimentation, and
property and minimize the nega- lower surface water quality.
tive environmental effects of fire
(Pierson and others 2001; Elliot
and Robichaud 2001; Parsons
2003; Pyne 2004; Stephens 2005;
Miller and others 2003; Cochrane Bridging Suppression
and Flanagan 2005). The Watershed and Rehabilitation
Stephens and Ruth 2005; Carroll Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP)
and Cohn 2007). Because fire often and the geospatial interface for
Efforts
results in changes in soil proper- WEPP (GeoWEPP) are two process- Initial attack incident organizers
ties, reducing nutrient content and based erosion models developed for (IAIOs), pamphlets used by Forest
promoting soil erosion, sedimenta- forested environments (Flanagan Service initial attack forces, are
tion, and lower surface water qual- and Livingston 1995; Elliot and used to track fires and collect infor-
ity (Neary and others 1999; Cannon Hall 1997; Elliot and others 2000a, mation on fire suppression efforts.
2001; Ice and others 2004), Federal 2000b; Renschler 2001, 2003). Such IAIOs can contain site-specific
and State land management agen- models predict post-fire soil erosion information, such as fuel type, fire
cies often focus on post-fire soil potential and help resource manag- character, fire spread potential,
erosion control as a first step in ers prioritize areas for site reha- threatened resources, and weather
post-fire site rehabilitation. bilitation (Moody and Martin 2000; conditions (NWCG 2006). IAIOs
Elliot and Robichaud 2001). are maintained for all wildfire
Computer-driven prediction models incidents (types 5, 4, and 3) until
of post-fire soil erosion can aid site Site rehabilitation efforts are often the fire is declared out or until it
prioritization for erosion control limited by funding, time, available becomes more complex (type 2
measures (Robichaud and oth- information, and staff resources or 1), at which point the use of a
ers 2003; Covert and others 2005) (USDA 1995; Robichaud and oth- higher level incident action plan is
and incorporation of geographical ers 2000; Beeson and others 2001; required.
information system (GIS) data has Robichaud and others 2003).
made these models useful water- Furthermore, post-fire manage- The site-specific information gath-
shed management tools (Renschler ment decisions often lack detailed ered by on-the-ground personnel
and others 1999; Flanagan and information about which areas are could serve to increase the accu-
others 2000; Elliot and Foltz 2003; at highest risk of soil erosion and racy of fire severity classification,
where to assign erosion control which currently is based on remote
treatments for watershed rehabilita- sensing imagery, and post-fire ero-
Esther Godson is the assistant tanker base tion. Fire and site characterization sion potential models, which are
manager for the San Juan National Forest based on soil and topography data.
in Durango, CO. When completing the by fire crews during suppression
work presented in this article, Godson was efforts could address this informa- The addition of an IAIO field for fire
a squad leader on the Price Valley heli-rap- tion gap and provide information severity could serve this need.
pel crew on the Payette National Forest in
New Meadows, ID, and a Master’s student
to resource managers immediately
in forestry at Colorado State University after fire containment for better
in Fort Collins, CO. John Stednick is a post-fire management decisions.
professor in the Department of Forest,
Rangeland, and Watershed Stewardship at
Colorado State University.
Sample p-Value
Fire Severity Size Soil Loss Mean Std. Dev. Minimum Maximum (α = 0.05)
Low 38 Watershed 13.3 ± 3.2 20 0 111 0.01
(11,800 ± 2,800) (18,000) (0) (99,000)
Flowpath 21.4 ± 4.4 27 0 110
(19,000 ± 3,900) (24,000) (0) (98,000)
Moderate 15 Watershed 63.6 ± 13.9 51 1 186 0.20
(56,700 ± 12,000) (46,000) (890) (166,000)
Flowpath 78.2 ± 15.5 60 0 182
(69,800 ± 14,000) (54,000) (0) (162,000)
High 9 Watershed 69.4 ± 19.9 60 0 154 0.08
(61,900 ± 18,000) (54,000) (0) (137,000)
Flowpath 115.7 ± 33.0 99 3 286
(103,000 ± 29,000) (88,000) (2,700) (255,000)
Summary and sensitive to soil slope, we recom- include the roles of off-site erosion
Recommendations mend that IAIOs have smaller slope and stream connectivity to post-fire
class intervals for more accurate conditions in the fire area. The next
Results from this proof-of-concept modeling and use of fine scale GIS step in site prioritization would be
study suggest that IAIO data can data. to incorporate these considerations
be used in the GeoWEPP model in the post-fire management strat-
to estimate post-fire soil erosion Based on the sensitivity analysis, egy and decision process.
potential. Using this methodology, we recommend that an additional
land managers can better identify data entry field for fire severity be Literature Cited
and prioritize site rehabilitation included within the IAIO, accom- Beeson, P.C.; Martens, S.N.; Breshears,
and make efficient post-fire deci- panied by a description of each D.D. 2001. Simulating overland flow fol-
sions. classification, similar to the fuel lowing wildfire: Mapping vulnerability
to landscape disturbance. Hydrological
type descriptions. This would help Processes. 15: 2917–2930.
Modeling efforts pointed to a few improve rating consistency and Buescher, C. 2004. Annual Fire Report,
issues to be addressed in future use decrease subjectivity. A field guide Payette National Forest. McCall, ID:
of GeoWEPP and IAIO data. Output for classifying fire severity would be USDA Forest Service, Payette National
from the watershed and flowpath Forest. 19 p.
a useful supplement to the IAIOs to Cannon, S.H. 2001. Debris-flow genera-
methods of modeling of soil erosion provide ready classification guid- tion from recently burned watersheds.
differed significantly for low sever- ance for use by suppression forces. Environmental and Engineering
ity fires only, but potential eco- Geoscience. 7(4): 321–341.
Carroll, M.S.; Cohn, P.J. 2007. Community
logical differences between model We also recommend that future impacts of large wildland fire events:
outputs suggest that additional modeling include additional factors. consequences of actions during the
research is needed to recommend fire. In: Raish, C., ed. People, Fire, and
To better anticipate site-specific Forests: A Synthesis of Wildfire Social
one method over the other. Because effects, further investigation should Science. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State
estimated soil erosion rates were University Press: 104–123.
Cochrane, T.A.; Flanagan, D.C. 2005. Effect
of DEM resolutions in the runoff and soil
loss predictions of the WEPP watershed
model. Transactions of the American
Results from this proof-of-concept study suggest Society of Agricultural Engineers. 48(1):
that IAIO data can be used in the GeoWEPP model 109–120.
Covert, S.A.; Robichaud, P.R.; Elliot, W.J.;
to estimate post-fire soil erosion potential. Link T.E. 2005. Evaluation of runoff
E
ach year in Texas, wildfire rates of spread, flame lengths, and captured fire photos in this study
events impact many small rural fireline intensity relationships in ranged in price from $80 to $100.
communities. On Thursday, controlled conditions on small-
April 9, 2009, Texas experienced scale fires. Clark and others (2005) Land managers establish objectives
an outbreak of wildfires in 12 used digital video imagery to ana- prior to conducting a prescribed
North Texas counties. In Montague lyze the convective-scale motion burn. Afterward, they can deter-
County, where 7 fires burned inde- in the plane viewed by the camera mine the success or failure to meet
pendently of each other, 36,408 and then develop a computational objectives but generally cannot
acres (14,734 ha) of agriculture observe how these objectives are
land, 86 homes, and 4 lives were met during the burn. Regarding the
lost. A case study team was sent to By using trail cameras, threat to homes in the wildland–
examine the economic, agricultur- urban interface (WUI), understand-
al, and community impacts to the researchers and ing fire behavior and effects that
area, and the factors affecting home professionals can gain take place within different ecosys-
loss during this fire event. a unique view of fire tem types can encourage builders
activity during an event to develop fire-resistant building
Observing Fire From at a low, affordable cost. techniques for homes in areas of
Within high risk.
While collecting data for the case
study, several homeowners indicat-
Monitoring Fire
technique to derive quantitative Conditions
ed that they had acquired images estimates of the convective motion
of the fire within the fire perimeter within a grass fire from the digital The timber fuels throughout
from game cameras placed around video imagery. The latter stud- Montague County were composed
their property. The cameras provide ies yielded valuable information of mixed hardwoods, including
a firsthand view of the fire move- regarding fire behavior, but each blackjack oak (Quercus marilandi-
ment within the cameras’ sight cost thousands of dollars. This cost ca), post oak (Quercus stellata),
range. The study team recognized makes the technology unattainable and, in some places, hickory (Carya
that such images could have great to most land managers and fire spp.) and elm (Ulmus spp.). Dead
value in fire analysis. analysts. oak leaves are sizeable and create a
deep layer of burnable biomass on
Existing equipment can capture Trail cameras are a logical com- the forest floor. These dead leaves
high-quality images, collect data, plement to equipment already increase ember production and
and produce scientific fire outputs being used to study fire behavior. spotting ahead of the fire front.
for examination; however, this Researchers have used buried elec- The undergrowth in some parts of
information comes at an extremely tronic data loggers and surface the study area was so matted with
high cost. McMahon and others thermocouples to capture tempera- greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox), a
(1986) discuss using a low-cost ture dynamics during prescribed thorny vine, that almost impen-
video imagery analysis system to fires, yielding information on etrable “roughs” were formed.
measure fire behavior in both lab heat outputs and rates of spread. Greenbrier can overwhelm the
and field experiments. Nelson and Equipment cost is about $300 per lower canopy of hardwood forests
Adkins (in preparation) studied firelogger (Grace and others 2005). and create elaborate vine communi-
Trail cameras can capture images at ties on hardwood trunks. With each
Karen Ridenour is a GIS specialist and
Rich Gray is mitigation and prevention an affordable cost to complement series of photos, visual inference of
coordinator with the Texas Forest Service firelogger data. The cameras that the fire that took place in specific
in Bastrop, TX.
Images taken by a game camera during a wildfire on April 9, 2009, on the property of Dan Cordonnier. Photos: Dan Cordonnier.
Images taken by a game camera during a wildfire on April 9, 2009, on the property of Robert Lindsey. Photos: Robert Lindsey.
Rethinking Fire
Modeling
Assumptions built into existing
fire models do not accommodate
the temperatures and prolonged
duration of the fire environment
observed in this study. For example,
BEHAVE, a fire modeling program
commonly used to predict wild- Ambient air temperatures recorded on game cameras and surface fire temperatures
land fire behavior, has a maximum recorded on research fireloggers for a wildland fire in Montague County, TX, on April 9,
dry bulb temperature parameter 2009. Although the firelogger captures the extreme temperature spike of more than 1,000
˚F (537 ˚C), the trail cameras reveal longer duration, elevated ambient air temperatures.
I
t has become one of the most radio transmissions; for frequencies, failure to clear fre-
memorable lines in the history of • Avoidance of radio use that quencies during emergencies, and
American cinema: “What we’ve reflects panic, anger, or other difficulty enforcing standards of
got here is failure to communi- behaviors associated with a loss behavior related to radio use. This
cate.” That line, from the 1967 film of professional composure; and article focuses specifically on the
Cool Hand Luke, aptly and ironi- • Avoidance of pointless traffic in overabundance of radio traffic, its
cally describes a serious issue in radio transmissions—communi- ramifications on the fireline, and
radio communication on wildfires cation that is irrelevant or only how leadership can respond to this
and other incidents: too much marginally relevant to the job at issue.
radio traffic. Rather than facilitat- hand.
ing communication, too much of
a good thing actually causes prob-
lems. Constant radio transmission is likely to diminish a
person’s ability to mentally sort, track, and act on
Overabundant radio communica-
tion isn’t just an annoyance; it can
information in a dynamic environment.
have serious consequences in all
areas of fire suppression. Leaders
in fire and aviation management—
particularly supervisors at the crew
level—should be mindful of radio
discipline and encourage good
radio use and etiquette.
Defining “Radio
Discipline”
Radio discipline is the adherence
to codes of use and behavior (both
Fire Management Today (FMT) number of entries taken at any the release, see http://www.fs.fed.
invites you to submit your best fire- time, but you must submit each us/fire/fmt/release.pdf.
related images to be judged in our image with a separate release/
photo competition. Entries must application form. You may not Disclaimer
be received by close of business at enter images that were judged in • A panel of judges with signifi-
6 p.m. eastern time on Wednesday, previous FMT contests. cant photography and publish-
December 1, 2010. • You must have the author- ing experience will determine
ity to grant the Forest Service the winners. Their decision is
Awards unlimited use of the image, and final.
Winning images will appear in you must agree that the image • Images depicting safety viola-
a future issue of FMT and may will become public domain. tions, as determined by the
be publicly displayed at the Moreover, the image must not panel of judges, will be disquali-
Forest Service’s national office in have been previously published fied.
Washington, DC. in any publication. • Life or property cannot be jeop-
• FMT accepts only digital images ardized to obtain images.
Winners in each category will at the highest resolution using • The Forest Service does not
receive the following awards: a setting with at least 3.2 mega encourage or support deviation
• 1st place: One 20- by 24-inch pixels. Digital image files should from firefighting responsibilities
framed copy of your image. be TIFFs or highest quality to capture images.
• 2nd place: One 16- by 20-inch JPGs. Note: FMT will eliminate • Images will be eliminated from
framed copy of your image. date-stamped images. Submitted the competition if they are
• 3rd place: One 11- by 14-inch images will not be returned to obtained by illegal or unauthor-
framed copy of your image. the contestant. ized access to restricted areas,
• Honorable mention: One 8- by • You must indicate only one cat- show unsafe firefighting practic-
10- inch framed copy of your egory per image. To ensure fair es (unless that is their expressed
image. evaluation, FMT reserves the purpose), or are of low technical
right to change the competition quality (for example, have soft
Categories category for your image. focus or camera movement).
• Wildland fire • You must provide a detailed cap-
• Aerial resources tion for each image. For exam- To help ensure that all files are kept
• Wildland-urban interface fire ple: A Sikorsky S-64 Skycrane together, e-mail your completed
• Prescribed fire delivers retardant on the 1996 release form/contest application
• Ground resources Clark Peak Fire, Coronado and digital image file at the same
• Miscellaneous (fire effects, fire National Forest, AZ. time.
weather, fire-dependent commu- • You must submit with each
nities or species, etc.) digital image a completed and E-mail entries to:
signed Release Statement and fmtphoto@me.com
Rules Photo Contest Application grant-
• The contest is open to everyone. ing the Forest Service rights to Postmark Deadline is 6 p.m.,
You may submit an unlimited use your image. For a copy of Wednesday, December 1, 2010