believed to be fairly conservative and
urge Protection or Cable-Connected
Equ ipment
R. L. WITZKE
MEMBER AIEE
THE adequate surge protection of
* electric equipment connected to over-
head lines through cable has been a sub-
ject of discussion for many years. The
usual question is "How long can a cable be
without requiring lightning arresters at
the equipment in addition to those at the
junction between the cable and overhead
circuits?" This question is taking on in-
creasing importance because of the trend
toward the use of cable connections in
unit substations. This practice has the
advantages of decreased congestion in the
vicinity of substations and of improved
appearance, the latter being particularly
important in residential districts. The
use of cable does, however, influence the
surge protection problem because of the
added complications incident to the in-
stallation of lightning arresters close to
the equipment being protected. With
overhead connections, the generally ac-
cepted practice is to install lightning ar-
resters as close as possible to the equip-
ment, whereas with cable the more com-
mon practice is to install lightning ar-
resters only at the junction between the
cable and overhead circuits. The purpose
of this paper is to review the latter prac-
tice and show the degree of protection
afforded.
The general data included in this paper
are based on analogue computer studies.
Daevie508,rcomitteend Poetv
apoed by the AIEE
ytheAE nuation atevnsus for the surges encoun- -
Technical Program Commaitteefrpresven
the AIEE Winter General Meeting, New York,
N. Y., January 30-February 3, 1950. Manuscript
submitted November 2, 1949; made available for
printing December 6, 1949.
R. L. WETZEE and T. J. BLISS are both with the
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, East Pitts-
burgh, Pa.
The authors acknowledge the helpful suggestions
made by W. L. Teague, L. B. Rademacher, E. L.
Harder, E. W. Beck, and A. M. Opsahl during the
course of the investigations reported.
1950, VOLUME 69
subject to modification as more data and
T. J. BLISS
ASSOCIATE AIEE
Tests made on 15-kv power cable in the
Impulse Laboratory showed that very
good results could be obtained on the
analogue computer. This is fortunate
because the use of the analogue computer
permits a study of the wide range in con-
ditions that must be considered to obtain
a complete picture of this important surge
protection problem. The general data
included permit an evaluation of the in-
fluence of the magnitude and rate-of-rise
of surge currents, lightning-arrester dis-
charge-voltage characteristics, cable
surge impedance, as well as other factors.
Typical oscillograms are included to show
the general wave shape of the surges
across the equipment.
Tables of permissible cable lengths are
included for switchgear assemblies and
oil-insulated transformers in the voltage
classes up to, and including, 34.5 kv
These tables are based on surge currents
with a 10,000-ampere crest and a rate-of-
rise of 4,000 amperes per microsecond.
The cable lengths based on these assump-
tions, which were considered reasonable
and not severe, appear to be short when
viewed in the light of experience, es-
pecially with oil-insulated transformers
This would indicate that certain prob-
ability factors, which are normally neg-
lected, are important in these applica-
tions. These might include probable
lightning-arrester characteristics and pos-
silationpoaleve
neupetR
Aagn
tered. Available data do not permit a de-
tale cosdrto of eac of thes
aldcndeto fech ftesEEof
probabilities at this time. A survey
current practices and experiences may be -~
.B
required before any table of values, com-
pletely acceptable to the industry, can be
formulated. The tables included in this
paper for oil-insulated transformers are
Witzke, Bliss-Surge Protection of Equipment
experience are obtained. The table of
switchgear
values for assemblies are
probably not as conservative as the
values for oil-insulated transformers.
Appication Guides
The studies reported in this paper are
limited to the case of a single overhead
circuit connected to a single metallic-
sheath cable terminated in a circuit
breaker or transformer, see Figure 1.
The results thus obtained will be con-
servative when applied to cases involving
a cable terminated in a bus having a
multiplicity of circuits. It is assumed
that the cable has a continuous metallic
sheath bonded to the transformer case, or
to the circuit-breaker frame. At the junc-
tion end a lightning arrester is connected
between a phase conductor and the metal-
lic sheath with leads of the shortest pos-
sible length.
Lightning-arrester ground resistances
can be neglected because they will not
have any practical influence on the con-
ductor-to-sheath voltages in lead-covered
cable. The surge characteristics of the
transformer are represented by a capaci-
tance, which is permissible for surges of
short duration, such as obtained in this
investigation. The same representation
would apply for cases involving a circuit
breaker, the only difference being in the
magnitude of the capacitance.
It is assumed that any surge arriving
at the junction between the overhead and
OVERHEAD
LINEC
LIGHTNING j ,
ARRESTER
E
Esi __c_
Figure 1. Circuit considered in general in-
vestigation and simplified circuits used in
studies
527
 w Figure 2 (left). Lightning -
IMPULSE SPARKOVER arrester volt-time charac- - K- lX
DISCHARGE VOLTAGE teristics
> / A. Discharge voltage less
a: than impulse sparkovervolt- 140| N _ I _
age >
sr: / B. Discharge voltage z
cr ~~~~~~~~equalto impulse sparkover BIC--__ 1. L.
voltage 200KV
TIM

A wI0C - __

a.
DISCHARGE VOLTAGE
0

_J~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-

,I,I w~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~L601 U 4S
ui
/°) I 1 1-_1_1_11 11 11
7 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~
a:
It cr j0 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0~
< \1 7
FTIME
2
B

cable circuits has a uniform rate of rise. Figure 4 (right). Permis- 0 _ _

Based on this assumption, the voltage
across the junction pothead will have a
uniform rate of rise, except with short
cables, where reflections from the equip-
ment end may modify the junction-pot-
head voltage before the junction lightning
arrester operates. With the longer
cables, the lightning-arrester voltage will
increase at a constant rate to the im-
pulse sparkover value and then change
to a discharge voltage drop determined
by the current through the lightning ar-
rester.
40 - -_ -- -
-___- - -
w WLJ_
>100
sible junction-pothead volt- 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000
age for Class 11 equipment CABLE LENGTH IN FEET
The lightning-arrester voltage will leads will have an inductance of approxi-
have the general shape shown in Figure mately 0.4 microhenry per foot, which
2(A) if the discharge voltage is less than gives a voltage of 0.4 kv per foot for each
the impulse sparkover voltage, or the 1,000 amperes per microsecond rate-of-
shape in Figure 2(B) if the discharge volt- rise in the lightning-arrester current.
age is equal to or greater than impulse The maximum lead drop will be present
sparkover voltage. as long as the lightning-arrester current is
The voltage at the junction pothead changing at the assumed rate. As the
will include lead drop as well as lightning- lightning-arrester discharge voltage also
arrester voltage. The lightning-arrester is a maximum during the maximum rate-
of-rise of current, it is permissible to add
the lead drop directly to the lightning-
PFiure 3 (left). arrester discharge voltage.
t
- - Permissibleuotc-
-
The studies are based on the assump-
- - -. - - voltage for Class tion that excepting as modified by reflec-
I equipment
B.IL.
200KV _sI 0 2 -0

z .41
a:zC
12
080
0.~ ~ ~ ~~
LNT
~ ~
N
~ ~ ~
2 0
~ ~
|
BisSr-
~ P cot oE
ciiged
~~~~~~
5 0 1
20 0 i t || nxmmsn- |X
(~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~)~~~~~~~~~SM O

20 40 60120 0 0 100 1rm.nl6u

Table 1. Assembled Switchgear Basic Insula. Table 11. Suggested Maximum Cable Lengths With Class I Equipment
tion Levels- -
Maximum Cable Length, Feet
Rated Basic Insulation
Kilovolts Level, Kv Equipment Lightning Station-Type Line-Type Distribution
Basic Insulation Arrester Lightning Lightning Lightning
4.16 .60 (45) * Levels, Ky Rating,* Kv Arrester Arrester Arrester
7. ...........................95 (75)*NL.70
13. ............................ 95 (75) *
14.4.110 .................... 3 NL NL
34. .. .......................... NL.256.
.N
34.55 ....................... 20
34 ....................... 200 150*5.3. .................... 3
L.....................
NLN
.NL
6.NL.56
.. . ..

56

* Some circuit breakers have lower insulation levels 9. 68. S

in the open position as indicated by the values in 95. NL6..
. NL
parentheses. It is the intention of the industry to 9.. .34 NL
raise these values to the basic levels as soon as 12.. 76. S
design improvements permit. .30.15 S
** The 150-kv basic insulation level may be used 110. 9.. .76 NL
in applications where adequate surge protection is 12 .NL.32
provided. 15 .70. S
150 .20 .94. S
25 .30. S
tions from the equipment end of the 200 ................. 30 .74............... S
cable, the total voltage across the junc- NL means no limit to cable length.
tion pothead rises at a uniform rate to a S means cable length too short to consider.
maximum value determined by the * Rating of arrester at junction between cable and overhead circuits.
lightning-arrester discharge voltage plus
lead drop, and that this maximum voltage Class IH nonstandard wave shape. However, the
is maintained for at least twice the cable Liquid-filled transformers. method is not proposed for general ap-
propagation time. Based on this as- Dry- and compound-filled instrument trans- plication purposes at this time. The
sumption the total voltage across the formers. authors have chosen to co-ordinate with
junction pothead has the general shape The basic insulation levels for switch- the chopped-wave level of Class II ap-
showninFigure2
tamned by dividing() The1fron
Fi
t
the maximum voltage
gear assemblies are given in Table I.
The levels for dry-type distribution and
paratus, using the integration method as a
guide in evaluating the adequacy of the
across the junction pothead by the rrate-
of-risesofvoltagejacrossie pothead.yAe IV. Protection
transformerspower included in Table are protection provided.
of-ront 0.4tagmiacrosecondwas uhead the should be based limitingI equipments
of for Class Application Tables. Tables II and III
aronalogue4computerostndias; howeve
i
the surge on give the maximum permissible cable
resultsare genputeraltudized towpermt voltages at
a the equipment to the basic lengths for Class I and Class II equip-
revaluatio ofe otherfronizedts. permi insulation levels. ments for basic insulation levels between
Inaluathen wherefronthe junctionIn the of Class II apparatus it
case 45 and 200 kv. If these lengths are ex-
vlthcageis modifiedbyeby relctionst insulation levels
cas
should be possible to exceed the basic ceeded in any application, lightning ar-
from volthge reforecthe
equipmentfdend before
head
from the equipment the
in cable-connected ap- resters must be installed at the equip-
maximum voltage is reached, the front F plications where the surge voltages
are of ment, in addition to those at the junction
is defined as the maximum junction- short The permissible over-
duration. pothead, or the application should be
voltage, however, should be associated studied in detail, using procedures dis-
rathe-of-rised voltage.div byther tions
dividedbythei
pothead voltage d
with the wave shape of the applied surge. cussed in a later section. The tables are
noltagent
rathereforiedodo not defiitions
o
therefore inThe
enter into the definition
As these wave shapes vary over a wide
ragandifrcsdeblfomtn-
based on the following assumptions:
of the front F. range and differ considerably from stand- 1. Protection is provided for lightning-ar-
ard test waves any exact determination of rester currents of 10,000 amperes.
EQUIPMENT INSULATION LEVELS the permissible overvoltage is impossible 2. Lightning-arrester discharge voltages as
at this stage of the art. The authors have given in Table VII.
For surge protection pur poses it is
necessary todfeetaebetween equip-
necessary to differentiate between equip- derived an integration method for evalu- 3. Lightning-arrester lead lengths and
ments having only a full-wave test level,
the disrptive
atinggth dir effect of surges of voltages as given in Table VIII.

and equipments having full-wave,

chopped-wave, and front-of-wave levels. Table Ill. Suggested Maximum Cable Lengths With Class 1I Equipment
Conservative practices will require that Maximum Cable Length, Feet
the surge voltages be limited to the full-_____________________
wave lurgeveltwhene the simitadar do
not
wave level whenever the standards do not
Equipment
Basic Insulation
Lightning
Arrester
Station-Type
Lightning
Line-Type
Lightning
Distribution
Lightning
specify chopped-wave or front-of-wave Level, Ky Rating,* Ky Arrester Arrester Arrester
levels. In the case of apparatus having 60. 3. NL .NL
higher short-time levels, it should be pos- .6...,...
.68 NL
sible to exceed the full-wave levels when 6. NL.......................... NL
the applied surge is of short duration. 95 V9.NL
T

For these reasons the equipments nor- 12 . NL .............

32
mally encountered in cable-connected ap- 110 .9 .NLNL
plications have been divided into two 12 .NL .. 90
15.NL..30
classifications, as follows: 150 .20 .NL . 77
25.90.S
Class I 200 .30 . 150 .45
..S
37.64
Switchgear
assemblies.
Dry-type distribution and power trans-
~~NL means no limit to cable length.
S5 means cable length too short to consider.
formers. * Rating of lightning arrester at junction between cable and overhead circuits.

1950, VOLUME 69 Witzke, Bliss-Surge Protection of Equipment 529

Table IV. Maximum Receiving-End to Sending-End Voltage Ratios for Dry-Type Distribution
and Power Transformers
Insulation
Basic Insulation
Class, Kv Level, Kv
1.2.10.3.15.0.0.67
2.5 . 20.
5.0 ................. 25 . ..................... 3.................... 15.0.............. 1.67
8.66 . 35.
15 ................. 50 . ................... . 12 . ................. 52.0.............. 0.96
Rating arrester
Rating of lightning arrester at junction between cable and overhead circuits.
4. The maximum rate-of-rise of the junc-
tion-pothead voltage results from a 4,000-
ampere-per-microsecond current surge into
the cable, and the cable surge impedances in
Table IX.
5. Terminal equipment capacitances of
zero or 3,200 micromicrofarads, depending
upon which value results in the highest
voltage across the equipment.
6. The maximum equipment voltage is
limited to the full-wave level for Class I
equipment, and to the chopped-wave level
for Class II equipment. .ves
In using these tables it is necessary to
know the basic insulation level (BIL) of
the equipment being protected, and the
type and rating of the lightning arrester
at the junction 1~t
* between the overhead t and
cable circuits. The lightning-arrester
rating is determined by the system volt-
age and grounding conditions as in any
other application. The cable lengths
given in the tables will be shorter than
,ueessryin an caesbecus ofth
necessary in.manycsesbecaseot
conservative assumptions that had to be
conervootativ assumptieon thatuehidtoe
pendent of cable surge impedance, equip-
ment capacitance, magnitude and shape
of incoming surge, and so forth. Less
cofncomvtin surge,andnso frh Less
conservyadetaivedapicaonsidcration be madhe
fatonly byian alved. cndrinfath
Dry-TypeDistribution and Power Trans-
formers. The proposed insulation levels
for dry-type distribution and power
transformers are given in Table IV.
These levels are such that adequate pro-
tection cannot be provided without
lightning arresters at the transformers,
whenever the equipment is connected to
exposed overhead lines through cable.
Even with station-type lightning arresters
at the junction between the overhead
Lightning Arrester Junction Pothead
Rating,* Kv Voltage Er/Es
3 .1.33
.15.0
6 .28.0 .. 1.25
V~~~~~~~~~~~
v=velocity of surge propagation in feet per
microsecond
and cable circuits, the junction pothead
voltage is
former
ts the on thead
so high in terms of the trans-
former levels that adequate protection is
not provided even with short cables, un-
less additional lightning arresters are in-
stalled at the transformers. Assuming
station-type lightning arresters at the
junction between the overhead and cable
circuits, the junction pothead voltage
based on the lightning-arrester and lead
. .
in Table
givn V. and VIwle
i Tale V. iviingthee vlt
as
ages by the transformer insulation levels
gives the maximum permissible receiving-
end to sending-end voltage ratios. Com-
paring these ratios in Table IV with the
data in Figure 5 shows that lightning ar-
resters are generally required at the
transformers.
A more comprehensive discussion of
the protection of these transformers
is given in reference 1.
Application Curves. The curves in
Figures 3 and 4 give the maximum per-
missible voltages across the junction pot-
head for cable lengths up to 1,000 feet.
These curves are based on the same condi-
.. ...'
tions as used in preparing the application
tables, excepting that no assumptions are
made relative to lightning arrester charac-
teristics and lead lengths. These curves
permit an evaluation of the influence of
lightning arrester discharge voltages and
lead lengths on the permissible cable
lengths. In a particular application,
where the cable length is known, the per-
missible junction-pothead voltage can be
obtained from the curves. A study then
is made to determine whether available
lightning arresters and possible lead
lengths will limit the voltage to this
level.
APPLICATION OF BASIC -DATA
The data in Figure 5 should be used
when an application is to be checked in
detail. These data are expressed in
terms of (s/v)/F and ZC/F ratios, where
s =cable length in feet
Z =cable surge impedance
CC=equivalent
equivt surgee capacitance
of termi-
t= in oftrmi-
nating equipment in microfarads
F=front in microseconds of surge voltage
across the junction pothead
Some discussion of these variables is
required as a basis for using the data in
Figure 5.
The velocity of propagation of surges in
power cables depends only on the di-
electric of the cable and never varies ap-
preciably from 500 feet per microsecond
for oil-impregnated paper-insulated
cables. Little general data are available
onbtes eftive capactanceoeqipmen
to sre of shortation. Typical
to surges of short duratwon. Typhcal
values will range between
m f c several bhundred
andr1,000otor3,000micromicrofaradsefo
ansformers. The capacitance s
ap-
pearsein.the
pasacproduc w the
cabl surge pedan Z the rsting
Zc prou being e contan ofuthe
ZC product being the time constant of the
circuit consisting of the cable and the
terminal equipment. The maximum
practical ZC/F ratio is estimated at 0.4,
which is obtained with a 50-ohm cable, a
capacitance of 3,200 micromicrofarads,
and a front of 0.4 microsecond. The
minimum ZC/F ratio will be very close to
zero. A study of Figure 5 will show
that the surge voltage at the equipment
will not vary more than =i 3 per cent as
the ZC/F ratio varies between zero and
0.4, which indicates that it is not essential
to have exact data on the terminating
capacitance. It is suggested that pro-
tection practices be based on a capaci-
tance of zero or 3,200 micromicrofarads,
depending on which value gives the most
severe voltage at the terminal equip-
ment.
The cable surge impedance Z appears

Table V. Surge Impedance of Cables Table VI. Influence of Line Insulation Level on Protection Provided
Conductor Line* Stroke Protected Strokes** Per Probable
Size, Insulation Current, Distance, 100 Miles Per Protection Period,
Thousand Voltage Class, Ky Level, Ky Amperes Feet Year Years
Circular
Mils 4-5 7-8 i4-15
-_____
22-23 34-35 25010,000. . 125. 50.80
20,000 . 62.5 .30 . 266
83.69..14.4. .19.6. .25.6. ..30.5 .40,000.. ..1031.25 . 1,600
133.1. ...12.0. ...16.6. .21.8. .26.3.. .32.8 ..500 . .10,000 .. ... 250 . ....... ...... 50 ..........40
250 . ...9.0. ...12.8. .17.0. .21.0.. .26.6 ..20,000..125 .... .........30.133
...
500 . ...6.8.. 9.7. .13.0. .16.2.. .20. 8 40,000 ..62.5 .... ...
.........10.800
1,000 . ...5.1.. 7.2.. 9.8. .12.1. .16.0 1,000 . .10,000
..500. . . .......50 ..........20
Note : The above impedances are for single-con- 20 ,000 . 2250 .......3.66.510 40
ductor lead-covered cables. The effective imped- 4000 . 2. 1.0
ances of 3-conductor belted cables may be esti- * Insulation level to ground.
mated as li/a the values given. ** Data from reference 2.

530 Witzke, Bliss-Surge Protection of Equipment AIBE TRANSACTIONS

 Table VII. Maximum Lightning Arrester Voltages For Co-ordination Purposes results are based on a stroke current
Lightning Arrester Voltage, Kv having a 21/2-microsecond front, which is
Lightning Arrester Station-Type Line-Type Distribution probably on the conservative side. It is
Rating, Kv Lightning Arrester' Lightning Arrester2 Lightning Arrester3 evident that the line insulation level is a
3... . 12 .21 primary factor in the surge protection of
6.24..38 cable-connected
ctd equipment. In any par-
.

6.............2 ................................................38cbe on qup Ina

n .
y ar

9.36 . 3 . 57
2.4 . . ticular application, where the line in-
15 .58 . .85 sulation level is known, it is possible to
20 .77 .101
25.9 7 ................122 select a lightning-arrester current for co-
30. 116 .149 ordination purposes and estimate the
37.142.181
probability of exceeding this current.
1,2 Average discharge voltage at 10,000 amperes, plus one-half of maximum positive tolerance. However, for general application pur-
3 Average discharge voltage at 10,000 amperes, plus full positive tolerance.
poses it would be highly desirable to
simplify procedures by basing all except-
in the ZC product, as discussed before, leads, the maximum current in an in- ing special cases on the same lightning-
and also influences the magnitude of thecoming surge is limited to less than 2,000 arrester current. With this in mind, the
front F. It will be recalled that the front
amperes. Considering reflections, the authors have tentatively selected a cur-
Fwas defined as the ratio of the maximumlightning-arrester current might approach rent having a magnitude of 10,000 am-
voltage to the rate-of-rise of voltage at
twice this value, or 4,000 amperes. If peres and a rate-of-rise of 4,000 amperes
the junction pothead. Assuming a cur- low-voltage circuits were protected with per microsecond. The calculated results
rent surge having a rate-of-rise of K kilo-
properly designed shielding, it would be in Table VI indicate that this protection
amperes per microsecond coming in over considered adequate to base equipment limit might be exceeded once in 40 years if
the overhead circuit, the rate-of-rise of
protection on lightning-arrester currents the line insulation level is as high as 500
voltage at the junction pothead is 2Z,ZK/
of this order of magnitude. However, as kv to ground. Field studies show that
(Z,+Z). The overhead-circuit surge im- shielding is not generally used over the approximately 0.8 per cent of the current
pedance Z1 appears in both the numeratorlower voltage lines, consideration should discharges in station lightning arresters
and denominator, and is large by com- be given to close-in strokes to the line might exceed 10,000 amperes.3 By com-
parison to the cable surge impedance, soconductors. For such strokes, the struck parison to the 4,000 amperes per micro-
practical variations in this impedance point may be protected from flashover by second rate-of-rise, the highest rate ever
will have only a small influence on the reflections from the cable, in which case recorded in an arrester was between 5,000
rate-of-rise of voltage at the junction pot-
the lightning-arrester current may ap- and 5,500 amperes per microsecond.4
head. The use of a typical value of 500 proach the stroke current. Lightning Arrester Characteristics. The
ohms should, therefore, be satisfactory. The distance over which these reflec- published information on valve-type
The cable surge impedance, however, has tions can protect the line insulation de- lightning arresters includes average im-
considerable influence on the rate-of-rise
pends on the rate-of-rise of stroke current pulse sparkover and discharge voltages,
of voltage at the pothead, and conse- and on the line insulation level. Assum- and permissible tolerances. Only a small
quently on the front F, so should be re-ing a rate-of-rise of current of 4,000 am- percentage of the lightning arresters man-
tamned as a variable. Typical values areperes per microsecond, which might cor- ufactured will have positive tolerances
included in Table V. respond to a 10,000-ampere stroke with a exceeding one-half the permissible maxi-
2i/2 microsecond front, the voltage at the
Surge Currents. The front F is a func- mum values. For this reason the authors
tion of the maximum voltage and the struck point will rise at 1,000 kv per have chosen to base protection of cable-
maximum rate-of-rise of voltage across microsecond, assuming a 500-ohm line, connected equipment on lightning-ar-
If the line insulation level to ground is 500
the junction pothead, and, therefore, de- rester characteristics equal to the average
pends on the magnitude and rate-of-rise kv at this rate-of-rise, reflections must published values plus one-half the per-
of the surge currents reaching the junc-return from the cable in 0.5 microsecond missible positive tolerances. The only
to prevent flashover, which means the
tion between the overhead circuit and the exception is the discharge voltage of dis-
cable. Surges originating at some dis- struck point must be within 250 feet of tribution lightning arresters, in which case
the cable junction. The probability of
tance will be limited in magnitude by the the maximum tolerance is used. This ex-
overhead-line insulation level and surgeexceeding 10,000 amperes in a stroke is 50 ception is made because all manufacturers
impedance. Assuming a line level of strokes per 100 miles per year,2 or one do not design to the same average dis-
1,000 kv, which is probably higher thanstroke in 40 years to a 250-foot line sec- charge voltage in these lightning ar-
used on low-voltage circuits, even with tion. If protection were based on a resters, and consequently a larger per-
woodpole construction and no down 10,000-ampere stroke with a 21/2-micro- centage of these lightning arresters may
second front, the protection limit would
be exceeded on an average of once in 40
Table VIII. Maximum Lead Drops Assumed years. This, however, does not mean that Table IX. Calculated Rate-of-Rise of Junction-
11 in Tabes nd 111apparatus failures would result this often Pothead Voltage
Lead Permissible because probable lightning-arrester char- Cable Cable Surge Rate-of-Rise,*
Insulation Drop, Lead Length,
Class, lKy Ky Feet acteristics and equipment margins, which Insulation Impedance, KRilovolts Per
5 3 . . . 88 were not considlered, enter into the overall Cas yOm irscn
8.66 .4 . 2.50 rbbl i4-5.e
ypcu
.19.2 .77
.5.53.12
15 prbailt pitr. 7-8..26.1 .104
25 .6 . 3.75 The datailnTable VIshow the influence 14-15..34.1 . 136
34.5 .8 . 5.00 of line insulation level on the p rtcin22-23. .40.6 . 163
Note: Lead length is based on inductance of 0.4 afforded if such protection is based on the
microhenry per foot and 4,000-amperes-per-micro- give * Based on 4,000 amperes per microsecond into
second rate-of-rise. stroke currents ilen the table. These cable.

1950, VOLUME 69 Witzke, Bliss-Surge Protection of Equipment 531

 40000 OHMS TRIP GAP L 40000 OHMS TRIP GAP L R

CHARGiNG.1.5IHR I 20 2 MEGOHMS
EQUIPMENT ME OHS ARRESTFER __EQUIPMENT ME OHMSR
I~~~~~~~~BIC

- CABLE, Zs-58.2 OHMS CABLE, ZT58.2 OHMS

A B

Figure 6. Impulse Laboratory test circuits 4,000-ampere-per-microsecond front en- Front =51 8=058irsc
pptering the cable. This rate-of-rise multi-
A.Stane-tilsRge 100
B. Chppedave dpliedplied
FigureB6. ImpulseLaboratorytest circu pedance the maximum
by expected in anycable im-
surge class
voltage s=200 feet = 0.4 microsecond
s/v = 200/500
gives the rates of voltage rise in Table l -=0.4/0.518=0.771
have discharge characteristics exceeding IX. F /5180.7
those that would be obtained if only one- Illustrative Example. To illustrate the F= 0 1\80-6 =0.0483
half the permissible tolerance were used. application of the basic data included in F 0.518
The maximum lightning-arrester voltages Figure V, a typical case will be reviewed From Figure 5
used for co-ordination purposes are given
in Table VII for ratings up to 37 kv.
in detail. In this example the following Er/Es
E7=
= 1.96
conditions are assumed: 1.96Es=
1.96X51.8= 102 kv
These are based on the lightning-arrester
discharge voltages at 10,000 amperes, in- impedance of 25 ohms. As this voltage exceeds the permissible
cluding tolerances as discussed above. impeane o2 ohms. voltage of 95 kv, the protection is inade-
Lightning Arrester Leads. Careful lteequipment to be quate. Protection cannot be provided
for a 10,000-ampere 4,000-ampere-per-
limited to 95 ky.

consideration should be given to the Terminal equipment capacitance = 1,000 microsecond surge without additional
length of lightning arrestcr leads because micromicrofarads. lightning arresters at the equipment. If
approximately 1.6 kv will appear across Lightning-arrester lead length =3 feet. the terminal apparatus were in Class II,
each foot of lead at discharge currents of Protection to be based on a surge current having a 95-kv full-wave level and a
4,000 amperes per microsecond. The with 10,000 ampere-magnitude and 4,000- 110-kv chopped-wave level, the protec-
voltages given in Table VIII have been amperes-per-microsecond rate-of-rise. tion would be considered adequate with-
assumed for general co-ordination pur-
The lowest voltage lightning arrester out additional lightning arresters at the
poses and are based on an inductance of
normally used with 95-kv equipment is equipment.
0.4 microhenry per foot of lead and a cur- the 12-ky unit. Assuming a 12-ky sta-
rent rate-of-rise of 4,000
,0 amperes per tyelgt
raeo.ieo
rent~~~~ mee
microsecond. The lead lengths required
e
tion-type
tin lightning retr the
n arrester, h maxi- ai General
eea Studies tde
toiproducend 'Thes vlta alehso uin
cluded.cThe gheneraoldtagesalsoae
req
in-s
mum lightning-arrester voltage is
given in Table VII. Based on 0.4 micro-
47 kv as
This part of the paper discusses in some
chaper
permit an evaluation of the protection'' henry per foot, the lead drop is 4.8 kv, detail the impulse laboratory and ana-
affrded in thosevalapiaftin whrotecthe giving a total voltage of 51.8 kv across the logue computer studies made to obtain
leafodledngthsd ipplicaons etabe
those w
junction pothead. the basic data used in formulating the ap-
VIII. The maximum rate of rise of voltage plication
across the junction pothead is equal to 100 paper. Inguides general, the first
in the part of con-
procedure the
Evaluating the Front F. Having es- kv per microsecond, which is based on a sisted of making tests in the Impulse
tablished the maximum voltage across the 4,000-ampere-per-microsecond surge into Laboratory on 15-kv power cable, and then
junction pothead, which is the lightning- a 25-ohm cable. using these data to show that satisfactory
arrester voltage plus lead drop, it is next
necessary to determine the maximum
rate-of-rise of voltage across the pothead Table X. Impulse Laboratcry Test Results With Sustained Waves Applied
to evaluate the front F. As given in a Terminating Maximum
previous section, the rate-of-rise of volt- Test
Number
CableFeet
Length, Front,
Microseconds
Capacitance,
Micromicrofarads
Applied
Voltage, Kv Er/Es
age is equal to 2Z,ZK/(Z,+Z), where Z1 6i-62 . 1,000 .1.1 . 0 .10. 1.93
and Z are the overhead line and cable 63-64.1.1 . 0 .9.8.1.92
impedances, and K is the rate-of-rise, in 65-67.................1. 1.1500 .10.0.1.84
'
kiloamperes per microsecond, of the ' in- ~68-70..............1...1.l ............. 2, 000 . 9.9 .. 1 .90
71-73 .... . .......... ...........9.7
1.1.6,300 . 1.91
coming surge. The front F, in micro- 76-80.0.5 .0 . 1l2.0 . 1.837
seconds, is then obtained by dividing the 81-83.... . ........... .........0.5.0.12.4 . 1.93
total junction pothead voltage by the 88.. . ,0 . 1519
rate-of-rise of pothead voltage. 87-89 200....
. 90-92 ..... .
. .........
.....0.5.0 .12.0
................ 0.5 .500 .11.6
.. 1.91
1.87
For general application purposes, the s-97 .. 0.5 .2,000 . 11t.6... .1.92
authors have assumed a current with a 98-100.0.5 .6,300 . 11.2 . 1.98

532 Witzke, Bliss Surge Protection of Equipment ATEE TRANSACTIONS

 SUSTAINED WAVE APPLIED
1000 ft 0 mmf 1000 ft 0 mmf 200 ft 0 mmf 200 ft 6300 mmt

_/
61 } 81 87 98.

"icVI,rY-' 62 888 992"' 1'1'1. ill

0 I 2 4 6 8
________ --______ STIME IN MICROSECONDS
0 5 10 15 25 0 1 2 4 6 8 0 1 2 4 6 8 0 1 2 4 6 8 Figure 8. Surge voltage across a 14,300-
micromicrofarad capacitor at the end of a
CHOPPED WAVE APPLIED 1,000-foot cable
1000 ft 0 mmt 1000 ft 0 mmf 200 ft 0 mmf 200 ft 6300 mmf
34. 44 103 109 primarily to show that consistent records
were being obtained.
/l C
vowaz, /tTable X summarizes the results of the
35 45 104 lar,, 110 tests made with an applied voltage having
J t 4~2 -r I-/ /1
I A / A A /(A a sustained tail. Terminating capacitance
values up to 6,300 micromicrofarads were
v l \, \! V V V V 2 used with both cable lengths. The
maximum value of the applied surge is
. 1-
01I2 4 68 01I2 4 68 I,01e2
I, i .X.i..
i..
4
i
680O1I2
.
4
I,
68
given in kilovolts, and the crest receiving-
or remote-end voltage is expressed as a
Figure 7. Typical oscillograms obtained in Impulse Laboratory tests ratio to the applied voltage. The re-
ceiving-end voltages generally fall be-
tween 1.83 and 1.93 times the applied
results could be obtained by making the keep terminal lead lengths as short as voltage for the 1,000-foot cable; the re-
general studies on the analogue com- physically possible. The general arrange- sults being substantially independent of
puter. ment of the laboratory circuits is illus- the wave front and the terminating
trated in Figure 6. Tests were made with wave T he terminatin
IMPULSE LABORATORY TESTS an applied wave having a sustained tail capacitance. The voltages recorded in
In order to obtain fundamental data on and also with an applied wave, chopped 1.87 and 1.98, the highest value being oh-
the propagation of surge voltages through on the front. The sustained-tail tests tamned with a 6,300-micromicrofarad ter-
cables, a series of tests was conducted in were made by discharging the surge gen- minating capacitance. The tests do show
the Impulse Laboratory on 200- and erator into a 3-kv station-type lightning that the receiving-end voltages approach,
1,000-foot lengths of 15-kv 2/0 single- arrester block connected conductor-to- within about 5 per cent, the theoretical
conductor lead-covered cable. In making sheath at one end of the cable. The front figure of 2.0 for an open-end cable without
the tests the cable was removed from the was controlled by inductance in series loss, indicating that attenuation is not a
reel and looped back and forth on the dry with the surge generator. In making the primary factor in cable lengths up to
concrete floor in the laboratory. This chopped-wave tests, the lightning ar- 1,000 feet. It also is apparent that at-
precaution was taken to rule out the rester block was replaced by a sphere gap, tenuation does not increase directly with
possibility of extraneous effects due to and the front controlled with resistance cable length.
contact or capacitance between adjacent in parallel with the gap, and resistance The oscillograms in Figure 7 are typical
turns on a reel. The two ends of the and inductance in series with the gen- recordsobtainedinthetestsmadewithan
cable were brought to a common point erator. applied surge having a sustained tail.
and the lead sheath bonded to the surge Six records were taken at each end Oscillogram 88 shows the receiving-end
generator ground. Steps were taken to of the cable for each test condition, voltage for the case of a 0.5-microsecond-
front wave applied to a 200-foot cable,
Table Xi. Impulse Laboratory Test Results With Chopped Waves Applied open circuited at the receiving end. The
maximum receiving-end voltage is ap-
Terminating Maximum proximately 191 per cent of the crest
Test Cable Length, Front Capacitance, Applied
Number Feet Microseconds Micromicrofarads Voltage, Kv Er/Es value of the applied voltage. Oscillo-
56-59 . 1,000 . 0.45 . . 10.3 . 1.46 gram 82 shows a receiving-end voltage of
34-35 ..
.........

0.5 ........... 0. 11.1 . 1.50 193 per cent for the same surge applied
52-53 . . 1.5 ........... 0. 11.1 . 1.77
28-29 .. 1.7 .0. 11.2 . 1.78 to a 1,000-foot cable, open circuited at the
38-41.. 1.7 .0.... 011.2.1.77 receiving end. These data show that
3-33 ..2.5
.0. 011.0.1.83
...
44-46 .. 3.5 .0... 011.2.1 .94 attenuation factors obtained from tests on
47-48 .. 3.5 .0.... 011.1.1.88 one cable length cannot be used to cal-
10-4 . 00 . 0.7 . 0 . 11.7 . 1.97
105-6 .. 0.7 . 500 . 12.0 . 1.87 culate attenuation in other cable lengths.
107-8 .. 0.7 . 2,000 . 11.3.1.90
109-10 .. 0.7 . 6,300 . 11.6 . 1.57 If attenuation were directly propor-
113-14 .. 2.2 . 500 . 12.1 . 1.17 tional to cable length, the over-voltage
115-16 .. 2.2 . 2,000 . 12.0 . 1.1I9
117-18 .. 2.2 . 6,300 . 12.2 . 1.19 recordedona 1,000-foot cable
119-20 .. 4.2 ..........0
. 11.4 . .1.09 ...been considerably lower thanwouldhave
on a 200-
..4.2
121-22 ......... 500. 11.1.1..12
123-24 .. 4.2 .2.... . ....2000
.11.2.1.11 ..
foot cable. The fact that the recorded
125-26 .. 4.2 ...... . 6,300
..
.11.3..1.12 ...voltage is higher on the longer cable is not

1950, VOLUME 69 Witzke, Bliss-Surge Protection of Equipment 533

 loo age in Figure 8 shows an increase in 4
zC
80 voltage, or pip, just before the voltage
:
608 decreases to zero. This pip is present be-
3 40 ____ ____ ~~~cause the reflection from the
~~ I4C. lul. receiving end z__
WO 0 2 3
TIME IN MICROSECONDS
4 5 of
.
the cable is negative until the capacitor Om W
aT Iis charged to a potential equal to the a-
> __ _magnitude of the incoming surge, after 2

62 _
Fz which the reflection is positive. The o
2 6260
U) negative reflection from the receiving end
400 15 20 25
reflects as a positive voltage from the
5 10
TIME IN MICROSECONDS sending enid of the cable, because the 3
voltage at that point is maintained. It °
Figure 9. Plot of transient components of then adds to the receiving-end voltage.
surge voltages from oscillograms 62,88, and 99 The maximum voltage actually recorded _ 20
of Figure 7 0 200 400 600 BOO 1000
was only 192 per cent because the send- FREQUENCY IN KILOCYCLES
ing-end voltage was not maintained at a
significant because the difference is less toltage ve
than the accuracy expected in reading the
bndaru
constant level. Estimates indicate that Figure 10. Measured power factor of oil-
210 impregnated paper insulation
per cent if the sending-end voltage had Circles- 15-kv power cable
oscillograms.2
An inspection of Figure been maintained at its maximum
Table XI is a summary of the data ob-
value. Crosses-oil-insuldted shunt capacitor
7, shows that attenuation is much larger tamed with chopped waves applied to the
on the front than on the tail of the wave.
On the front, when the rate-of-change of test cable. In this case the receiving-end micromicrofarad capacitor decreased the
current in the cable is high, the current voltages are influenced considerably by voltage to 1.57 (see oscillogram 110).
penetration into the surface of the copper the front of the applied voltage. With Oscillograms 35 and 45 show the voltage
and lead is very small, resulting in a large the 1,000-foot cable the voltages vary be- at the receiving end of a 1,000-foot cable
effective rcsistance. The lower rate-of- tween 1.46 and 1.94 as the front is changed with applied voltages having fronts of
change of current on the tail permits a from recorded 0.45 to 3.5with microseconds. The volt- 0.5 and 3.5 microseconds, respectively.
deeper current penetration and a lower ages wict the longer
the fronts do
fronsud
..
fromner
age rer Losses. The general shape of the
not differ significantly the maximum
effective resistance. It will be noted, voltages measured with an applied wave voltage in oscillogram 88, Figure 7, in-
however, that there is no abrupt change dicates that the receiving-end voltage
ininattenuation
attenuationbecause time iS
because time is required
requ having a sustained tail. Adding capaci-
...might be a 'proximated bv a steady-state
tance at the receiving end definitely re- m a
component equal to the applied voltage,
for the current to redistribute in the con- duces the voltages. Tests 113-26
were

ductors. Shunt losses will also be higher d . T and a transient component that decays
on the front when the rate-of-change of m
made with w an applied surge having a exponentiallv with time. This repre-
voltage across the cable insulation is a front f considerably
c longer
l than twice theI
sentation, although not strictly correct,
cable propagation
maximum. These factors make the ana- for the low voltages recorded. accounts time, which f a
es9isa attenua-
In these tioneanalytically
lvtical determination of attenuation ex- . . . tion analyticallv. Figure 9 is a plot of the
tremely difficult. cs tefreceing-end voltageihopp transient components obtained from oscil-
Oscillogram 62, Figure 7, was recorded by reflectilons before the oltage has a lograms 62, 88, and 99. In these plots the
on a 1,000-foot open-end cable with the chane. to
.
front of the' applied.surge increased
uppto wice the incoming voltage
to 1.1 ~~~~~~surge. With chopped waves the attenua-
is expressed in per cent of the
mantd oftetasetcmoeta
magmtude
..instant of the maximum component
of the transient at
microseconds. Several cycles of the oscil- tion iS moretiontis more 'nearly
nar proportional
potinltcato cable ble the receiving-end
lation are included to show the general length, which was not the case with ap- voltage. Time is measured from the in-
Theplied voltages m n
attenuaton of the open-end voltage. having sustained tails. stant of maximum receiving-end volt-
r 7
maximum receiving-end voltage is 193 . . age. It will be noted that the plotted
per cent of the applied voltage, which is of the ones obtained in the chopped-wave points fall very close to straight lines in-
the same as recorded with a 0.o micro- tests. Oscillogram 104 applies for the dicating that the decrement can be ap-
second-front applied surge. This shows case of a 0.7-microsecond-front surge ap- proximated by the use of the simple
that, within limits, the front has little in- plied to a 200-foot open-end cable. The resistance-inductance-capacitance circuit
fluence on the maximum voltage. This receiving-end voltage was equal to 1.97 damping factor e-Rt/2L. The inductance
.. hold for fronts as long as ~~~~~~~~times
condition should t t crest of the applied voltage.. of the test cable was estimated, at 9.93
the
twice the cable propagation time. Terminating the same cable with a 6,300- microhenries per 200 feet. Using this in-
In obtaining oscillogram 99, Figure 7, ductance and the data from oscillogram
the 200-foot cable was terminated in a 88, Figure 7, the effective cable resistance
6,300-micromicrofarad capacitor. The Table Xll. Comparison Between Measured is estimated at 3.72 ohms per 200 feet. An
receiving-end voltage was 198 per cent and Calculated Resistance effective resistance of 2.24 ohms was esti-
as compared with 191 per cent recorded Measured Calculated mated for the case involving the 6,300-
without the capacitor termination, in- Condition Resistance, Resistance, micromicrofarad terminating capaci-
dicating that the maximum voltages are tance, indicating that capacitance has
not obtained with open-end cables. In 200-foot open-end cable..... ..3.72.2.06 some influence on loss. The estimated
order to obtain a better picture of the in- nated in 6,300-micro- resistance for the 1,000-foot open-end
fluence of capacitance, a 1,000-foot cable microfarad capacitor. 2.24 i .67
cbei .7om,wihiculyls
was terminated in a 14,300 micromicro- * Reitneotie. rmdceeto ug than the effective resistance of the 200-
farad capacitor. The receiving-end volt- voltage recorded in Impulse Laboratory cable tests. foot open-end cable.

534 Witzke, Bliss-Surge Proteclion of Equipment AIFE TRANSACTIONS

 300

200
2-2
A -T0 35 KV. CABLE
34
B -22 " 23 *'
<
____ __0_
100 C
D- 7 14
8 "1 oi.6 /
15 a_ _ 1

OZZ

60
z

E~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~T 4 E N > OSCND

0 w~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~002 06 .04. .
0..

2 _ _ __ < _ >~~- Figure 13. Voltage at the end of a 200-foot cable terminated in a
0.04 I 0.0D6.-. 0. ____ 0.O2 -i 0. 4 -I0.6 _ Calculated
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~capacitor
0.01 0.02 2 S A. without attenuation. B. Analogue computer data
FREQUENCY IN MEGACYCLES C. Impulse Laboratory data
Figure 11. Calculated 2L/R ratios for oil-impregnated paper-
cr~~~~~~~~~~~~ vola0 0alsfrcbeln sfo 0
insulated, single-conductor power cables
purposes, the lowest natural frequency of
the circuit is obtained, including the
As a basis for checking the effective re- desired frequencies and added to the effects of terminal capacitance. The
sistances obtained from an analysis of equivalent series resistance, used to rep- dtinFgr17cnbusdfrhs
the oscillographic data, a method was de- resent shunt loss. Following this purpose. The 2L/R ratio corresponding
veloped for estimating loss from the cable method, the effective resistances given in t hsfeunyadtecbeislto
characteristics. The cable power factor Table XII were calculated for the cases casi hnue ntedmigfco
was measured over a frequency range of discussed previously. The measured relation e - Rt/2L. Figure 12 is a plot of the
950 kc as shown in Figure 10. Also, in- losses are higher than the calculated c r
cluded are test points obtained in meas- values, which is partially explained by the votg *aisfrcbelntsfo 0
urements on an oil-insulated capacitor more rapid attenuation of the higher- to 6,000 feet, including the effects of at-
unit.5 The close agreenilent between the frequency components in the measured tenuation. These curves apply for the
cable and capacitor test data illustrates voltages, and by reflection losses present case. of open-end cables, that is, no ter-
that the power factor is a function of the because the applied voltage was not held miatn caaitne an asueh
insulating materials only. exactly constant. Both the measured front of the junction-pothead voltage is
Knowing the cable capacitance and and calculated values show that the ef- lesta wc h al rpgto
power factor, it is possible to determine fective resistances are influenced by ter- time. These curves are included to show
the effective shunt resistance of the cable minal capacitance and by cable length. tepoaltrnofhevtgeais
at any frequency. This shunt resistance As a basis for estimating attenuation in wihcbelnt*ndcbeislto
can be converted to an equivalent series single-conductor cables, the 2L/R ratios class.
resistance, as follows: in Figure 11 were calculated for cables in
0voltage classes between 4 to 5 and 34 to 35 COMPARISON OF ANACOM AND IMPULSE
Loss =i2R(series) = -kv. In making the necessary calcula- LABORATORY TEST RESULTS
R(shunt) ~~tions, it was noted that conductor size
e2___ _____ had little influence on the ratios. Small Three receiving-end voltage curves are
R(series) = i2R(shunt) =R(shunt) conductors had large series losses and low plotted in Figure 13, all applying to the
shunt losses, whereas the large conductors case of a sustained-tail wave applied to a
where had small series losses and large shunt 200-foot cable terminated in a 6,300-
surelosses, the2L/Rratiosbeingsubstantially micromicrofarad capacitor. The highest
~~ ~ ~ ~ ~
cable ~idpednsurg impedancesiz voltage shown was calculated and neg-
This relation between shunt resistance In using these ratios for estimating lects all attenuation. The analogue com
and equivalent series resistance can be puter curve was obtained with a 20-pi
considered approximate only when deal- section representation of the cable, and
ing with traveling waves, because volt- 20o includes the effects of the inherent loss of
agesandcurrentare not alwaysnrelatedlby f le, rep- the eo puter elements. The sImpulse
surge impedance at all times and loca- , , su- s ss. Laboratory curve include the actual loss
tions in the cable. The relation has been 6 esIse in the 15-ky power cable. These results
retained, howevrer, because no better tr 4') llll show that the analogue computer and Im-
practical method has been developed f for the cases pulse Laboratory test results check very
introducing attenuation due to dielectric ?oIO 200 400 600 1000 2000 4000 6000 closely over the first 1.6 microseconds.
loss. CABLE LENGTH eN
fT The curves ln Figure 14 apply for the
The series resistance of the conductor Figure 12. Calculated receiving-end to same case, and compare the analogue
and lead sheath are calculated, at the sending-end voltage ratios for open-end cables computer and Impulse Laboratory re-

1950, VOLUME 69 Witske, Bliss Surge Protection of Equipment 535

 2.4 two curves is the rapid rise to maximum 2.2
voltage as obtained on the analogue com- , A __X__
2.0 -puter and the more gradual rise obtained l t
C wo~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ x in the Impulse Laboratory. This dif- i,>/> B___
:16 < \ '--~ i'\ | ference is due to the high losses present in 0 z
ol Z § / \ a cable when the applied surge has a short
o v 1.2 J \ -__ / \ front, and the gradual change to a con- - Z_1_
W1 1oe , ZZZ \i\ l \ | dition of low loss on the tail. This char- ,|
wO 08 z I \ - acteristic of the cable, which was not rep- ' E
>l 111 1 \ / resented on the analogue computer, is t
0 : 0.4 not significant in applications where it is <
srx ll necessary to limit the maximum voltage, 0.
:s~~~~~ o ___\_ irrespective of wave shape, to a pre- lI
0 2-
TIME INnMleCROSECONDSsit
scribed level. However, in applications
should be possible to take advantage of
/___ l______
TIME IN MICROSECONDS
l___
Figure 14. Surge voltage at the end of a200- higher short-time insulation levels, the Figure 15. Surge voltage at the end of a
foot cable actual shape of the voltage curves may 1,000 foot cable
Solid curve-Analogue computer ddta pro to HA. Anlogue
ve be important. computerdata
Dashed curve-Impulse Laboratory data ANALOGUE COMPUTER STUDIES B. Impulse Laboratory datd
.........
Crs-naou c d i Afterlt was established that sathsfac-
calculateda ttenuation
toryagreementcouldbeobtainedSbetween
shouldbeless
t ha n 0.5. Capacitor C1 is charged
analogue computer studies and Impulse thro ugh Se .
resistor Rv by closing switch
sults overa period of four microsecotd s. Laboratory tests, a general investigation The voltage a cross C is applied to the
be noted that the Impulse Lab ora- was made on the
It will anals through resistor R2,
caol putteri.
tory curve isconsiderably belowthe of the cable consisted of pi sections as which representsthe overhead line surge
ana logue
compute curve at time
he tof shown in Figure 16, total
a of 20 being impedance. When the voltage across the
the second peak, which is attributed to cable terminals reaches the desired level,
used for cables up to 800 feet in length. .........
the lower attenuatteion in the analogue An appropriate time base was selected to switch S2 is closed to hold the voltage
co mputer circuits. The cross in Figure keep the natural fequencies o f the com- bconstant. Capacitor C2 is lar enough
ge to
r epresents the second crest obtained puter circuits within desirable limits, so thpreven t reflections from altering the
y applying attenuation to the first crest that the losses would not exceed those voltageestablished by battery V2. It
of computer th e curve. Attenuation was expectedie on actual power cable.The shouldbenoted that, thrgthis analogue,
appliedon a straight time basis using complete analogue depended upon thei reflections from the remote end of the
he s imple resistance-inductance-capaci- ratio of the cable propagation time to the cable can influence the voltage across the
tance c ircuit decrement factorib Rt/2Le F. Th circui e Figure
front t in 16(A) was. cable-input terminals untilswitch S2 is
These r esults indicateon tha analy ue forose cases where this ratiow as witclosed.
satisfactory results can be obtained by more tha n 0.5. The capacitor C, iis erge based on a
pplying calculated decrement to the charged through resistor R1 by closing 25- ohm cable and terminating capacitance
analogue computer data, whenever it i-s switch t1.l swhen the across C1
voltage v alues from zero to 12,800 micromicro-
necessary to know the general shape of the reaches the desired level, switch S2 is .........farads. A front F of 0.4 microsecond was
entire receiving-end voltage curve. It closed to hold the voltage across C1 t.con- r epr sented e in all cases. The cable
wouldbe possibleto in e de eto in s tant. The battery voltage isplargeby flenthows varied between 25 and 800
the computer studies; however, this comparison to the maximum cable-input the feet.
would require a separate study for each voltage in order to produce a relatively In selectingthese limits, it was
voltage-clas s cable. Furthermore, it is uniform rate-of-rise of roltage. The realized that the basic variables in the
the authors' op that accurate data
inion capacitance
C1 islarge in order to pre- problem surge propagationtime
thewere
are not generally required on the mag- vent reflections from changing the input of th cable,e the duration of the front F,
nitude of the second and successive peak voltage appreciably. With this analogue and thetime of the circuit con-
constant
voltages. the input end of the .sisting of the cable surge impedance and
the voltage across
Fig ure15 comparesanalogue computer cable has the wave shape illustrated in the terminating capacitance C. As all
andImpulse Laborator data y for ac as Fe igu 2(B).
re to produce a rof hesevariables can be expressed
t basic
involving a 1,000-foot cable terminated The analogue in Figure 16(B) was em-
in 2,000-micromicrofarad
a capacitor. ployed in those cases where the ratio of Figure 16. Basic circuits used inanalogue
The significant difference between thes e cable propagation time to the front wascomputer
F studies

KLSURGE ANALOG CABLE ANALOG SURGE ANALOG *1CABLE ANALOG *

TV WRaTT T LT
UJJ TVj TC4rv2iiaT T LILiJT
A B

536 Witzke, Blissa-Surge Protection of Equipmen t AJEE TRANSACTIONS

 S/V 020.0.0.0pulse
0.125 Laboratory studies, indficating that
25F i40they suffer high attenuation in an actual
2510 500 (00 200
40000-------------00less
cable. As practical ZC/F ratios will be
102

ZF C 100 than 0.4, these pips are not too signifi-

(0.40) (0.40) (4)'0)(0.40) cant in the over-all protection problem.
190 196 192* The lines in Figure 17 are labeled in
15o 166 (0.40) (0.80) (1.50) terms of ZC/F ratios, and also ZC prod-
(020) (0.30) ~~~~~~~~~~~ ucts based on a 0.4-microsecond front.
'J ' 1
0 0 /' . /\ , The column headings include (s/v)/F ra-
______ U~ ~~tios, and also cable length in feet based on
192 190 198 a 0.4-microsecond front and a velocity of
(0.5)(80) (ISO0)
(030
162
(0.36) - .0)propagation of 500 feer per microsecond.
/ The upper figure of the individual records
/. is the maximum voltage expressed in
per cent of the input voltage. The figure
149 160 00
(1.690 98
in parentheses is the time to maximum
(039)05 (0.39)(0.45) (0.54)
.1 (085
rvoltage in microseconds, assuming a 0.4-
0.2 0.08 / ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~microsecond
front and velocity of prop-
/
I / ~~~~~~agation
of 500 feet per microsecond. For
other fronts these times will vary directly
14750 1053 (058)
153
195
(0-65)
203
(~ ~ 1.0 ) 208
(1.65) with the front.
~ ~ 0-
147 0.5
(050) / //\ ( (\ Figure 5- summarizes the maximum
0.4 0.16 receiving-end voltages obtained in the
__________ \/ \
v
~~~~computer studies. The voltages are ex-
198 ~~206 220 pressed as ratios to the maximum voltage
10.43 (1.1I0)
15180
(1.80)
(08)at the sending or input-end of the cable.
0.8 0.32 , .....,/\INTEGRATION METHOD
-- _ ffiffi~ ~~~~
In the integration mnethod of evaluating
the effect of surge voltages on oil-insulated
Figure 17. Typical oscillograms obtained in mnicrosecond front and 25-ohm cable.
a transformers, the disruptive effect of the
analogue computer studies General Data. Typical oscillograms ob- surge is defined by the equation
in mcroecods,
tamned in the computer studies are shown DE = f (e- KI)K2 dt,
inomictroseconds,
compter gosbeneaiaio
enealiatio
fte
ofthe
in Figure 17. The upper line of oscillo-
dtispsbl.grams is the voltage across the input whr
whr

Let: ~~~~~~~~~~terminalsof the cable, neglecting reflec- DE = disruptive effect

s cable length in feet
= tions from the remote end. In each case e =volt-time curve of the applied surge
V =velocity of surge protection in the cable this voltage rises to 100 per cent in 0.4 K1, K2 =constants fixed by the standard
in feet per microsecond microsecond. As reflections do not alter transformer test voltages
Z =cable surge impedance in ohms the input voltage when the (s/v)/Fratiois This relation was established on the gen-
greater than 0.5, based on the assumptions eral basis that transformer insulation
C = ermnatng cpactane (efeciveca-
C=temintin caacianc (efeciveca-
made in this study, the upper line of could withstand some constant voltage
paitnmcerofard temntn qimn)
oscillograms is also the actual voltage K1 for an extended period of time (a few
F =front in microseconds of the voltage across the cable-input term-inals for hundred microseconds) without suffering
across the cable input terminals, (s/v)/F ratios of 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0. The ill effects. It was realized that the dis-
neglecting reflections input voltages, as modified by reflections, ruptive effect of a surge is a function of
Then ~~~~~~~~~are
shown in Figure 18 for (s/v)/F ratios
of 0.125 and 0.25.
both voltage magnitude and time, but
that these two factors are not of equal im-
s/v calepopaatio tie inmicosecnds
slv=caleropgaton imein icrsecnds
The second line of oscillograms in Fig- portance. Introducing the exponent K2
ZC= time constant in microseconds of the ure 1 7 shows the voltage across the remote allows some variation in the relative
circuit consisting of the cable and end of the cable for the case of zero ter- weight given to magnitude and time. The
terminating
equipment minating capacitance. The succeeding constants in the disruptive-effect equa-
If the cable propagation time and the lines illustrate the general shape of the tion can be evaluated from the standard
circuit time constant are divided by the receiving-end voltages with ZC/F ratios tests for transformers, if the assumption
front F, these two quantities will be ex- up to 0.8. is made that the tests are of equal sever-
 \/v 0.1d5
0
l 0.25 l Figure 18. Surge voltages > l- ll -l l I -- I-
F at input end of cable for 2 _ - _
s 25 5o (s/)/F ratios of 0.125 and 0 ll
zc
~ 00-~0.25 - ---
F z

100 200 >J 600 100-

0.2 0.03 / 0)
100
100 _u
0 120 4 6 0 200 0 000
/ .1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a

-----F-igurves19 Comar-ison ofmintegrationoand

le Ivelm
-

0.1 0.08 / (0.30) J 10.36) c

prisbejntion-pothead voltageismntne forCls

twice the cable propagation time, which

00o 00o is 4 microseconds in the case of a 1,000-
l
0.8 0.32 ,*_''
, ^' :/(0.52)
-
.
1'0'55) foot cable. The prob ability of this hap-
pening in an installation not having ade-
I i' ,' _ quate equipment-insulation margin is
consDdered too small to be a significant
factor.
ity. This assumption should be reason- missible junctiont pothead voltages for Although the integration method ine -
able from a general application standpoint Class II equipments for two methods of dicates that the surge voltages at the
because transformers must be designed interpretation of the basic data. The equipment may be permitted to exceed
and built to withstand these standard dashed curves are based on limiting the the chopped-wave levels, the authors de-
tests. The general form of the equation surge voltages to the equipment chopped- cided not to take advantage of this pos-
requires that the constants be evaluated wave levels, and the solid curves are sibility at this time. It was felt that
by a cut-and-try procedure. The con- based on the integration method. It further study should be given to the in-
stants have been evaluated for insulation should be noted that the solid curves are fluence of wave shape on the permissible
classes up to andpincludd b ase front F of 0.4 microsecond maximum voltages before co-ordinating
are given in Table XIII. The disruptive rather than on a surge current having a with anything higher than the chopped-
effect, obtained by substituting any one 4,000-ampere-per-microsecond rate-of- wave levels.
of the three standard test waves in the rise. Assuming a constant front of 0.4
equation, is also included in the table. microsecond makes these curves some- References
As the equation gives the same dis- what more conservative, especially with
ruptive effect for the three standard test the shorter cables. 1. DIELECTRIC STRENGTH AND PROTECTION OF
waves, which vary over a wide range in The integration method permits higher MODERN DRYsTYPEAIRd-COOLEDTe t Eng- NRMgi
magnitude and duration, it should give voltages with short cables, and slightly neering(AIEE Transactions), volume 64,November
acceptable accuracies in determining lower voltages with the longer cables. 1945, pages 759-63.
whether particular nonstandard waves This should be expected because the .BASED 2. TRANSMISSION LINE DESIGN AND PERFORMANCe
ON DIRECT LIGHTNING STROKES, E. L.
are more, or less, severe than the stand- times associated with the overvoltages Harder, J. M. Clayton. AIEE Transactions,
ard test waves. Judgment, however, is with short cables are less than the mini- volume 68, part I, 1949, pages 439-49.
required in evaluating oscillatory waves mum times to flashover used in chopped- 3. LIGHTNING PROTECTION POE ROTATING MA-
G. D. McCann, E.Be ck, L. A. Finzi.
as expenienced
tregmraed rls,svron circuits involvng wave
hntesan- testing, whereas
tmsascae ihte long cables CHINES
nlyrvolages
with AIEE Transactions,
.HBoer 63, Transactions,
M. BClato. volumeAIEE
e, 1944, pages
transformers connected to overhead lines the reverse is true. The curves would 319-33.
through cable. The authors have in- indicate that the equipment voltages 4. LIGHTNING INVESTIGATION ON TEE 25-Ky
tegther onlythe first cycle of such os- should be held below the chopped-wave SYSTEM SWESTD EN ANEPOERFCORMANY,
OP THE
cillations, because the second cycle is levels with the longer cables. Practical volume 66, 1947, pages 831-36.
usually of appreciably reduced magnitude, considerations, however, will show that 5. CHARACTERISTICS OF CHLORINATED IMPREG-
and because the condition of the insula- this requirement is not necessary. First, NANTS IN D-~C PAPER CAPACITOARS, L- J. BerbCetric"h,
tion probably improves some during the the differences even with 1,000-foot volume 63, 1944, pages 1173-79.
period of low voltage between the first cables are only 7 per cent. Second, the 6. A LARGE;-SCALE: GENERAL-PURPOSE: ELECTRIC
and second crests o scillation. analogue computer studies were based on ANALOG COMPUTER, E. L. Harder, G. A.McCann.
Figure l9 is a comparison of the per- the assumption that the maximum junc- AAIEE Transactions, volume 67 part I, 1948,

538 Witzke, Bliss-Surge Protection of Equipment AIEE TRANSACTIONS


Discussion
P. A. Abetti (General Electric Company,
Pittsfield, Mass.): This discussion is con-
cerned with the representation of trans-
formers at the cable terminal.
While the authors have gone into a de-
tailed investigation of the effect of the
losses in the cable, they have neglected
completely the losses in the terminal equip-
ment. In particular, transformers have
been represented as pure capacitances,
thereby neglecting the damping of the oscil-
lations due to the losses in the transformer
winding, and in the capacitances to ground,
to shield, between coils, and between turns.
These losses may be considerable at high
frequencies. Especially for short cable
lengths, these internal losses of the trans-
former, rather than the cable losses, are
instrumental in limiting the maximum volt-
ages at the transformer terminals.
This statement is corroborated by Figure
10 of the paper, where it is shown that cable
insulation and capacitor insulation have the
same power factor. It is believed that the
losses are larger in a transformer than in a
commercial capacitor, and it would be
interesting to know whether the authors
have any such data taken on transformers,
and whether they have made tests to deter-
mine the reduction of the terminal voltage
due to this factor.
W. L. Teague and L. B. Rademacher
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation,
Sharon, Pa.): The paper presents pertinent
data in a very useful and concise form.
By using Table II and III of the paper, the
maximum cable length permissible for
general applications is given directly. For
more specific applications, the curves,
Figures 3 and 4 of the paper, and the basic
application data permit a more detailed
study. The tables and figures mentioned
above are derived from Figure 5 of the
paper which contains the basic data for the
complete investigation.
During 1947 and 1948 a similar investiga-
tion was made at Sharon and the data ob-
tained, Figure 1 of the discussion, are super-
imposed on Figure 5 of the paper. For this
study either an actual transformer or a
simulated transformer and a 37-ohm cable
were used to give a ZC/F value of 0.195.
By starting with a 200-foot cable and cut-
ting to the desired length, the length was
varied from 200 to 50 feet. Initially the
tests were made using several ratings of
completely assembled lightning arresters
values between
reflected 0.125theand
wave from 0.5 the e1initial
transformer sees
at the junction of cable, overhead line, and
lightning arrester the high impedance of the
overhead line and the low capacitance of
the lightning arrester isolating gap; ca-
pacitance only at the lightning arrester
since it has not operated as yet. At this
point because of high-surge impedance of
the overhead line and the relatively low
impedance of the cable, a positive reflected
wave having approximately the same mag-
nitude and wave front as el is reflected
back to the transformer. It is this reflected
wave that reaches the transformer before
the lightning arrester operates that causes
the higher reflection ratio as reported by
Mr. Witzke and Mr. Bliss.
In the case for no isolating gap, the
reflected wave from the transformer el sees
at the junction point the low impedance of
the lightning arrester block limiting the
total voltage, lightning arrester voltage
plus el, to just the lightning arrester dis-
charge voltage. This action will send a
negative reflected wave back to the trans-
former. This negative wave added to the
original traveling wave causes a lower volt-
age at the transformer, and thus a lower
reflection ratio as shown by our data.
For smaller (s/v)/ F values the same argu-
ments can be applied. It is evident how
more reflections will occur with the smaller
(s/v)/F values for the isolating gap case
and thus produce a larger reflection ratio.
The valid range for the various approximate
equations for calculating the reflection
ratio are given as
ER 4/ S/v\ S/V
Es 3 )0.5 F >0.125
E problem and have assigned very definite
ER 61 2s/v \ sv
1+ 0.125>. >0.056
/s F F
ER 8 3s/v\
- -(1+ l0.056>s/v>0.0315
ES 7\ F /
By using equations 1, 2, and 3 it can be
seen that Witzke's and Bliss' data below
0.25 are correct. Above this value the
2.4
22
2.0
i
.3 1.8
o
a
is most grati-
two sets
fying of data
since two which
the agree, investigations were
carried out independently and in different
laboratories. The agreement of the data
also shows the value of the analogue com-
puter which is much easier and less time-
consuming to use provided the actual cir-
cuit constants are known.
From the paper it should be apparent
that for cable-connected equipment careful
consideration should be given to proper
surge protection. It also points out that
the practice of installing lightning arresters
at the junction between overhead lines and
cable is sound for many applications.
H. A. Comelius (Public Service Company
of Northern Illinois, Chicago, Ill.): Evalu-
ation of many factors which must be con-
sidered in the problem of providing satis-
factory lightning protection for cable-con-
nected electric equipment has been needed
in the industry for a long time. The paper
by Mr. Witzke and Bliss is considered a
major contribution which will be of great
value to protection engineers and to the
industry at large.
With the Witzke and Bliss data available,
it will be possible to make lightning-arrester
applications with greater assurance that the
results will be satisfactory, than has been
possible in the past.
A M Opsahl (Westinghouse Electric Cor-
poration, East Pittsburgh, Pa.): For years
the hazards of double voltage reflections at
the ends of cables tied to overhead lines
have been pointed out. Witzke and Bliss
(1) have made a very adequate study of the
values to the factors involved.
(2) Flashovers do occur at the ends of cables,
but no extensive surveys have been made
to evaluate the percentage of trouble. The
(3) authors express the estimated hazard in
terms of the average number of years per
outage at a given location. One outage in
40 years at a given location seems safe,
but expressed in another way, one flashover
in 40 installations, even with the recom-
_ & 7

z
and the 200-foot cable. The action of the W

lightning-arrester isolating gap caused er- zl1 l1

ratic fronts which made interpretation >
difficult. Like the authors tests, the isolat- 1 zc
ing gaps were removed and the major part zS
of the study was made without the lightningp 1.0
arrester gap. The data presented in Figure 1 x o
of the discussion are for the gap removed. aX08 _ _ _ .
Over a (s/v)/F factor of 0.25 the two Figure 1. Maxi- i .
sets of data are in good agreement. Below mum receiving-end U
this value, Sharon's data show a lower voltages expressed 0. - _
reflection ratio (ER/Es) for corresponding as a ratio to the_
values. This difference is attributed to the
omission of the lightning arrester isolating maximum sending- o.e - --_
gap. Theoretically, this error should occur end voltage. Sharon __
at 0.5 and become predominately greater data superimposed %. 0.°2 0.3 0 4 0.6S 2 ;3 4 6 ;
as the ratio decreases. With the isolating on Figure 5 of the S/V LENGTH OF CABLE /VELOCITY Of SURGE PROPOGATION
gap in lightning arrester and for (s/v)/F paper f F

1950, VOLUME 69 Witzke, Bliss-Surge Protection of Equipment 539


> 200 FT CABLE
A LLEAD SHIELD
$
3KV ARRESTER ~
SItV
Figure 2. Top oscillogiam shows the discharge through a single set of pole-mounted lightning
arters. In the lower oscillograms the discharge duty is shared by the pole and switchgear
lightning arresters
mended protection may not seem so safe.
There are alleviating circumstances how-
ever. The second cable connected to the
same terminal equipment in many installa-
tions eliminates the over-voltage reflection.
Cable entrances would be more common in
the densely-populated areas where light-
ning exposure of the line is low, and there
may be lightning arresters on the line near
the cable entrance. Slower rates of rise
of surge voltage and current than those in
the study will decrease the magnitude of the
reflections on the shorter cables. As op-
posed to these alleviating conditions, the
older installations will have questionable
co-ordination between insulation and the
lightning-arrester protective characteristic.
Lightning-arrester ground leads at the line
end of cable may not be tied to the cable
sheath at the top of the poles as is assumed
and recommended in the study.
Nonmetallic-sheath cable has no sheath
to tie to the lightning-arrester ground lead,
and its insulation will be subjected to all
of the lightning-arrester discharge voltage
plus impedance drop in the lightning arrester
ground circuit. The nonmetallic-sheath
cable is more nearly like a section of over-
head line with much reduced insulation.
Lightning protection of the equipment at
the end of overhead lines is the object of an
additional study.
H. B. Wortman (Westinghouse Electric
Corporation, East Pittsburgh, Pa.): This
paper provides, in an easily usable form, the
information for properly applying surge
protection to cable-connected equipment.
While it had been accepted that the length
of the connecting cable was a factor, there
was little quantitative data available. The
tables showing the combinations of light-
ning arresters and connected cable lengths
540
SWITCHGEAR
__ eJ-LA SHIELDCIR. SKR.
LEADSHIELD , ~OPEN
KV ARRESTEP.
_
SWICHEA t independent investigations.
<k{3v,_
A CIR. OKR.
OPEN
ARRESTER- , _ ning arrester at the junction of the cable
and formulas for the calculation of surge
behavior for a given set of conditions will
be very helpful.
There has been an increasing interest in
the need for lightning-arrester protection of
individual circuits. The information con-
tained in this paper will determine the
amplitude of the surge voltage possible at
the switchgear end of the circuit. If this
exceeds the basic insulation level rating,
then consideration should be given to the
capacity of the switchgear lightning ar-
resters.
Since the switchgear lightning arresters
share the discharge burden with the pole-
mounted lightning arresters, the distribu-
tion type will usually provide adequate
capacity. Figure 2 of the discussion shows a
test circuit and oscillograms illustrating the
result of this parallel discharge circuit.
To obtain this data, a 200-foot length of
lead-covered cable was connected to a
metal-clad unit. In the first test and oscil-
logram, a lightning arrester was connected
to the cable end away from the switchgear.
This simulated the usual pole-mounted
lightning arrester. The current through
this single lightning arrester reached a
maximum of 4,750 amperes.
The lower set of oscillograms shows how
the discharge was shared when a lightning
arrester was added to the switchgear end
of the cable. In this case, the maximum
current through what would be the pole-
mounted lightning arrester was 3,480
amperes, while the current through the
switchgear lightning arrester was 1,220
amperes, only about 25 per cent of the total.
The fact that most of the discharge duty
is assumed by the pole-mounted lightning
arrester makes the use of the distribution-
type generally satisfactory for switchgear
protection.
This paper will serve as a guide to more
Witzke, Bliss-Surge Protection of Equipment
complete protection of metal-clad switch-
gear connected to overhead lines. If
lightning arresters are necessary, adequate
and more economical protection can usually
be obtained through the use of distribution-
lightning capacity
type discharge arresters.is In casesstation-
when
more needed,
type lightning arresters should, of course,
be used.
E. M. Hunter (General Electric Company,
Schenectady, N. Y.): This paper was of
considerable interest to a group of us in the
General Electric Company, because over a
year ago we undertook to study this same
problem. From our work, application
guides for the protection against lightning
of metal-clad switchgear and unit substa-
tions were formulated and presented in a
paper in March 1949.1 It is of interest to
compare the results obtained by these two
drawn following
The general conclusions can be
from each investigation, that where
exposure is through a short length of cable
and there is an adequately installed light-
and overhead line:
1. Additional lightning arresters are required in
the metal-clad gear if the application is in the
13.2-kv class.
2. No lightning arresters are required in the gear
if the application is in the 4.16-kv class.
These similar results were obtained
through somewhat different assumptions.
In this paper, the decision on whether or
not additional lightning arresters were
required was based on whether the light-
ning-arrester characteristics with their plus
tolerances together with lightning-arrester
lead drop exceeded the demonstrable im-
pulse strength of the switchgear. In our
investigation, we also used plus tolerances
on the lightning arresters, but these were
somewhat larger than they would be today
because of downward industry changes in
these values. Our criterion was that these
lightning-arrester characteristics must be
80 per cent or less of the demonstrable im-
pulse strength of the switchgear. This 20
per cent margin was intended to cover such
variables as lead lengths, multiple strokes,
and the-other factors that are present in
every application and are not known with
preciseness.
Because of these differences in assump-
tions, our solution of "how long is a short
cable" is somewhat more conservative than
the results given in this paper, but in gen-
eral, the actual results have little practical
differences in them. There is a minimum
length cable that can be used in any given
application, and this length is dictated by
the height of the pole on which the cable
user is located at the junction of the cable
and overhead line, and the location of the
pole with respect to the substation site.
So regardless of whether 20 feet or 34
feet, to take a specific example, are speci-
fied each of these cable lengths are shorter
than can be practically installed.
With regard to the type of lightning ar-
resters to be used in metal-clad switchgear,
this type of gear should have the best
available. We feel definitely that the
station-type lightning arrester should be
used. We have developed a type of por-
celain housing for this lightning arrester for
AIEE TRANSACTIONS
this application which can be mounted on
close centers in these equipments where
space is at a premium. Each feeder posi-
tion in the metal-clad switchgear has room
for a cable pothead and a set of lightning
arresters so no additional compartment is
necessary if station lightning arresters are
specified.
In general, I would like to commend the
authors on their work on the propagation
of surges through cable. In general, there
appears to be a dearth of information on
this subject, and the work they have done
will undoubtedly pave the way for further
investigations.
REFERENCE
1. LIGHTNING PROTBCTION OF METALCLAD
SWITCHGEAR AND UNIT SUBSTATIONS CONNECTED
TO OVERHREAD LINES, Committee on Application of
Lightning Arresters to Switchgear. General Elec-
ric Review (Schenectady, N. Y.), March 1949.
F. E. Andrews and W. H. Hatch (Publlc
Service Company of Northern Illinois,
Chicago, Ill.): The authors have presented
a useful analysis of a problem of consider-
able importance, and of which there has
been some lack of understanding. This
analysis appears to be confined to paper-
insulated cable with complete metallic
covering such as provided by a lead sheath.
It would be desirable to have similar
information on types of cable coming into
more general use on distribution systems
having only partial metallic covering. With
the advent of buried cable for rural service
and the demand for underground distrlbu-
tion in certain classes of housig develop-
ments and subdivisions, the use of cable
interspersed in overhead distribution sys-
tems is rapidly increasing. Aerial cable
should also be considered, as it also may
be connected to open overhead conductors
and will involve a wide range of cable
of cabl
and will nvolve
awide
lengths.
These buried and aerial cables are com-
monly of oil-base rubber-compound insu-
lation and will have partial metal coverings.
In the buried cable this may take the form
of a number of spiral strands with some
spacing between them. In the aerial cable,
it will consist of the messenger and the
spiral metal binding tape which holds the
rubber-insulated conductors to the mes-
senger. In both cases, this metallic cover-
ing will generally be the neutral conductor.
Associated with this cable will be over-
head distribution transformers and fused
cutouts of the 5-kv insulation class.
The possible effects of the partial metal
covering and the different impulse charac-
teristics of the rubber-compound insulation
are added factors which make the analysis
of the problem difficult for the distribution
engineer. It is hoped that the authors, in
their published closing discussion will in-
dlude comments and some information, at
least qualitative, on the above aspects of the
cable protective problem.
B. L. Harder (Westinghouse Electric Cor-
poration, East Pittsburgh, Pa.): I would
like to comment on the use of the computer
in this problem. It requires no very great
imagination to realize the enormous poten-
tialities opened to us as electrical engineers
with the advent and perfection of large-
1950, VOLUME 69
scale computing machinery. However, as
with most activities, those of us working
closely with this equipment have these po-
tentialities impressed on us more vividly
than otherwise.
It is only five or six years since the first
studies of the type just described were made
on equipment which was the forerunner
of the analogue computer. These studies
were for open-wire line rather than cable
but involved a distance between the light-
ning arresters and the transformers. The
studies were made by H. S. Kirschbaum and
myself as part of a joint study with the
Philadelphia Electric Company directed
toward improving the lightning protection
in the 230-kv Plymouth Meeting station.
A line section, lightning arrester, and trans-
former were represented on the computer
to test out the method and check it against
theoretical analysis, and then the complete
station was represented to determine the
degree of protection afforded by lightning
arresters in various locations.
The computer equipment and techniques
used in these studies were generally the
same as had been devised and used earlier
by Evans, Monteith, and Witzke for study
of recovery voltages and switching tran-
sients on power system. The only differ-
ence was the introduction of lightning waves,
scaled down in time, in place of the 60-cycle
voltages and the use of inductor coils of
lower loss. These had been developed for
studying mechanical systems. Nonlinear
elements also were introduced for represent-
ing the lightning-arrester characteristic.
Since that time the lightning protection
of a number of particular substations has
been studied by this technique, for ex-
ample, substations of the Potomac Edison
system and of the Metropolitan Edison
system.
This is a perfectly practical thing to do 1. POWER-SYSTEM TRANSIENTS CAUSED BY
and quie
and quite useful
useful iff one
one wishes
to obtain aSto RCING AND FAULTS, R. D. Evans, A. C. Mon-
wiheteith,taR.
aL.eWitzke.L Electricalctr Engineeringing(AAEE
clear picture of what goes on when surges
enter a particular substation. It requires
analysis, based on the line construction and
exposure, as to what surges must be con-
sidered as entering the station, an analysis
similar to that which Witzke and Bliss have
so ably carried out in connection with the
cable problem.
There is a definite need for two kinds of
studies.
1. General studies of typical situations
which are simple enough to generalize so
that the results can be widely applied and
can form the basis for industry standardiza-
tion of practice. The study just outlined
by Witzke and Bliss is in this category.
2. Specific studies of particular stations.
Seldom are two stations exactly alike. The
exposures differ. The arrangements and
spacings differ. Each one requires considera- in a recent AIEE Committee report.i For
tion of some different aspect of the protec-
tion problem. We must not under-esti-
mate the value to an individual company
and to the industry of these specific studies used a value for the lightning-arrester din-
of important or typical stations. In addi-
tion to providing a much more accurate
picture of the individual case, they show
up the importance of practical station de-
sign practices which can later be incorpo-
rated into the general studies. They reveal
what general situations should be subjected
to study by the industry as a whole. Coin-
puters are available for this work on a
similar basis to a-c calculating boards.
In a paper entitled New Techniques on
Witzke, BlissSurge Protection of Equipment
the Anacom2 an analogue or representation
for corona was described, so that it is now
possible to represent accurately the effect
of corona on the travelling waves entering
stations and affecting the protection prob-
lem.
Both corona and transformer saturation
are being represented in current studies of
switching transients on high-voltage lines.
Other new types of studies taking place
on large scale computers which I believe
might be of interest in pointing out the
potentialities of computers are:
Series capacitors-the complex action of
currents and voltages when protective gaps
are operating during line faults. How else
would one study the relaying currents and
voltage prior to the actual installations?
Carrier current-during the year studies
were made of carrier propagation over a
5-terminal line. A smooth line representa-
tion over the entire carrier frequency spec-
trum were obtained by the use of 150 pi
sections. The 50 to 150 kc was scaled
down about 100 to 1.
Transient performance of potential de-
vices for various burdens and faults can be
analyzed.
Gas flow, fluid flow, and so forth all can
be handled now in addition to electric cur-
rent flow since general nonlinear elements
are available.
The open phase and fault to ground or
the simultaneous faults on twin circuit
lines need no longer be a mystery as a gen-
eral method of solution by computer is now
available for this problem.
These potentialities of the analogue com-
puter are quite unlimited and are some-
thing to stir the imagination indeed.
REFERENCES
Transactions), volume 59, August 1939, pages
386-97.
2. NEw TECHNIQUES ON THE ANACOM, E. L.
Harder, J. T. Carleton. AIEE Transactions,
volume 69, part I, 1950, pages 547-56.
E. Beck (Westinghouse Electric Corpora-
tion, East Pittsburgh, Pa.): Mr. Witzke
and Mr. Bliss have based their recommenda-
tions on certain characteristics of the light-
ning arresters located at the junction of the
cable and the overhead line. For distri-
bution lightning arresters they have as-
sumed the maximum industry figures with
which we agree. For station and line-type
lightning arresters they have used values
that are the average industry figures plus
one-half the industry tolerance published
station lightning arresters, for example, the
industry tolerance in that report is 15 per
cent, so Mr. Witzke and Mr. Bliss have
charge voltage which is 71/2 per cent higher
than the industry average. Consequent to
the publication of the AIEE report, the
lightning protective devices section of the
National Electrical Manufacturers Associa-
tion announced new tolerances for the dis-
charge voltages of station and line-type
lightning arresters, namely 10 and 15 per
cent instead of the former 15 and 20 per
cent. For station lightning arresters then,
the value used by Mr. Witzke and Mr. Bliss
541
is really three-fourths of the maximum
industry tolerance. NEMA also has sug-
gested a protective level for use as a basis in
insulation co-ordination problems, found by
adding to the average two-thirds of the
maximum tolerance in the case of station
arresters. This would be the average per-
formance plus 62/3 per cent.
It is probably subject to further discus-
sion and debate whether these sugges-
tions are practical or whether the full in-
dustry tolerances should be used. If Mr.
Witzke and Mr. Bliss had used the new
tolerance of 10 per cent for station lightning
arresters, the cable lengths would have been
a little more conservative. It seems to me,
and this is now opinion and not complete
conviction, that Mr. Witzke's and Mr.
Bliss' suggestions are conservative. They
should be. However, it has not been
brought to our attention that lightning
damage to cable-connected equipment with
lightning arresters installed only at the
pothead, is prevalent; perhaps the result
of the as yet imponderable probabilities
mentioned by Mr. Witzke and Mr. Bliss.
Since these are still undetermined it seems
to me that information from the users of
cable-connected equipment regarding their
experience would be most helpful in pro-
viding some kind of a confidence factor,
and I would recommend that such informa-
tion be accumulated.
For example, from Table VI of the paper,
it appears that line insulation can be a
potent-factor and that on a highly insulated
line, 1,000 kv for example, the installation
of a protective device which would spark
at 250 kv, located 125 feet from the pot-
head, would decrease the chances of light-
ning damage to the cable-connected equip-
ment, since for strokes beyond the protec-
tive device on the line and for strokes on the
other side in the vicinity of this protective
542 Witzke, Bliss-Surge Protection of Equipment
device this line-type protective device will
operate and the duty on the lightning ar-
rester at the pothead and therefore the
terminal equipment will be reduced. This
is only one of the probability factors that
may well operate in practice to give a con-
servative tinge to the recommendations.
Considering these factors, the practical
picture may actually not be altered much
by using the present maximum industry
tolerances or the NEMA suggestion for
station and line-type lightning arresters
instead of the compromise adopted by Mr.
Witzke and Mr. Bliss. However, the use
of the maximum tolerance with some
allowance for the probabilities would be
another method. The question affectively
boils down to this, the user of cable-con-
nected equipment must weigh the risks and
his experience and the consequence of pos-
sible lightning damage in the equipment.
The data on past experience would be of
much value in this connection.
REFERENCE
1. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS oF LIGHT
NING PROTECTIVE DEVICES, AIEE Committee Re-
port. AIEE Transactions, volume 68, part II,
1949, pages 1330-33.
R. L. Witzke and T. J. Bliss: The discus-
sion by Mr. Andrews and Mr. Hatch, as
well as the one by Mr. Opsahl, points out
the need for surge-protection application
data for installations involving cables with-
out a metallic sheath, or with a partial
metallic covering. The authors agree that
this information is desirable, and additional
studies should be made in the near future.
With no metallic sheath, the cable surge
impedance and the velocity of surge propa-
gation are more difficult to determine, be-
cause these constants depend upon the
location of the conductors relative to
ground, or metal ducts. Careful considera-
tion also must be given to the resistance
of the lightning arrester ground.
Mr. Beck's comments relative to the
installation of additional lightning ar-
resters on the line, at some distance from
the cable pothead, is pertinent. Surges
originating beyond this point will be limited
in magnitude by this second set of lightning
arresters, and the duty on the junction-
pothead lightning arresters will be reduced
considerably. In many applications the
installation of additional lightning ar-
resters one or two spans from the cable
junction may be preferable to the installa-
tion of lightning arresters at the equipment
end of the cable. This is particularly true
in those cases where the installation of
lightning arresters at the equipment is diffi-
cult because of space limitations.
Mr. Hunter recommends the use of sta-
tion-type lightning arresters in switchgear
assemblies on the basis that the best avail-
able lightning arrester should be used. The
data presented by Mr. Wortman show that
the duty on the lightning arresters in the
switchgear is moderate, because the junc-
tion-pothead lightning arresters discharge a
large part of the total current. For this
reason distribution lightning arresters should
be generally satisfactory for this service.
Mr. Abetti has asked whether or not
transformer losses have any important
influence on the surge voltages at the trans-
former terminals. Our investigations indi-
cate that these losses should have less in-
fluence than the cable losses, which we con-
cluded were of secondary importance for
cable lengths up to 1,000 feet. Investiga-
tions made by Mr. Teague and Mr. Rade-
macher showed no appreciable difference in
results between tests made with actual
and simulated transformers.
AIBE TRANSACTIONS