DISCHARGE OR FLOW RATE

The amount of fluid passing a section of a stream in unit time is called the discharge.
𝑉
• Volume flow rate,𝒬 𝑜𝑟 𝑉̇ = = 𝐴𝜗 .
𝑡
𝑚
• Mass flow rate, 𝑚̇ = = 𝜌𝒬 = 𝜌𝐴𝜗.
𝑡
𝑊
• Weight flow rate, 𝑊̇ = 𝑡 = 𝛾𝒬 = 𝑚̇𝑔.

where:
• 𝑉= volume; 𝑚= mass; 𝑊 = weight; 𝑡= time; 𝐴 = area; 𝜗 = velocity; 𝜌 = density; 𝛾 = unit
weight
•
CONTINUITY EQUATIONS
For incompressible fluids:
• 𝒬 = 𝐴1 𝜗1 = 𝐴2 𝜗2 = ⋯ = 𝐴𝑛 𝜗𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

For compressible fluids:

• 𝑚̇ = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝜗1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝜗2 = ⋯ = 𝜌𝑛 𝐴𝑛 𝜗𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

• 𝑊̇ = 𝛾1 𝐴1 𝜗1 = 𝛾2 𝐴2 𝜗2 = ⋯ = 𝛾𝑛 𝐴𝑛 𝜗𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(insert Ex.1)
Ex. 8.2
The discharge of air through a 600-mm pipe is 4 cu.m. per sec. Compute the mean velocity
in m/sec.
Given:
D = 600 mm
𝒬 = 4 m/s
Find:
𝜗=?
Solution:
𝜋
𝒬 = A 𝜗 = 4 𝐷2 𝜗
 𝜋 600 2
4 m/s = 4 (1000) 𝑚2(𝜗)

𝜗 = 14.147 m/s

Ex. 8.3
A pipe line consists of successive lengths of 380-mm, 300-mm, and 250-mm pipe. With a
continuous flow through the line of 250 LPS of water, compute the mean velocity in each size of
pipe.
Solution:
𝒬1 = 𝒬2 = 𝒬3
for 1:
𝒬1 = 𝐴1 𝜗1
1𝑚3 𝜋 380 2
250 L/s(1000𝐿) = 4 (1000) 𝑚2(𝜗1 )

𝜗1 = 2.204 m/s
for 2:
𝒬2 = 𝐴2 𝜗2
1𝑚3 𝜋 300 2
250 L/s(1000𝐿) = 4 (1000) 𝑚2(𝜗2 )

𝜗2 = 3.54 m/s
for 3:
𝒬3 = 𝐴3 𝜗3
1𝑚3 𝜋 250 2
250 L/s(1000𝐿) = 4 (1000) 𝑚2(𝜗3 )

𝜗3 = 2.204 m/s

Ex. 8.4
A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 10-gal bucket. The inner diameter of
the hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit. If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with
water, determine (a) the volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose, and (b) the average
velocity of water at the nozzle exit.
Given:
 𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 10 gal.
𝐷𝑖ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 = 2 cm

𝐷𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = 0.8 cm
Time = 50 s
Required:

a.) 𝑉̇ and 𝑚̇
b.) 𝜗𝑛𝑒𝑡
Solution:
𝑉
a.) 𝑉̇ = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
10 𝑔𝑎𝑙 60 𝑠
𝑉̇ = 50𝑠 × 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉̇ = 12 GPM

𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝜗
𝑔𝑎𝑙 1𝑚𝑖𝑛 3.785𝐿 1𝑚3
𝑚̇ = (1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) (12 𝑚𝑖𝑛 × × × 1000𝐿)
60𝑠 1𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑚̇ = 0.757 kg/s

b.) 𝜗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ?
𝑉̇ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉̇ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉̇ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝜗𝑖𝑛
𝑉̇ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝜗𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉̇ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜗 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜋 2
𝐷
4 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒

12𝑔𝑎𝑙 1𝑚𝑖𝑛 3.785𝐿 1𝑚3

× × ×
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60𝑠 1𝑔𝑎𝑙 1000𝐿
𝜗 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜋 1𝑚 2
(0.8𝑐𝑚× )
4 100𝑐𝑚

𝜗 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 15.06 𝑚/𝑠

EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS
In the fluid flow, the following forces are present:
• 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑊 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

• 𝐹𝑝 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

 • 𝐹𝜇 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

• 𝐹𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

• 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion,

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Thus,
𝐹𝑔 + 𝐹𝑝 + 𝐹𝜇 + 𝐹𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎

1. If 𝐹𝑐 is negligible, it is known as Reynold’s Equation of Motion.

2. If 𝐹𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 is negligible, it is known as Navier-Stokes Equation of Motion.
3. If 𝐹𝜇 is negligible, it is known as Euler’s Equation of Motion.

EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION

• The hydrostatic equations were derived by equating the sum of the forces on a fluid element
equal to zero. The same ideas are applied in this section to a moving fluid by equating the
sum of the forces acting on a fluid element to the element’s acceleration, according to
Newton’s second law.
• The resulting equation is Euler’s equation, which can be used to predict pressure variation
in moving fluids.
𝜕𝑃
+ 𝑔𝑑𝑧 + 𝜗𝑑𝜗 = 0
𝜌

ENERGY AND HEAD OF FLOW

Potential Energy and Elevation Head
In connection to the action of gravity, potential energy (PE) is manifested in a fluid by virtue of
its position or elevation (z) with respect to a horizontal datum plane.
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑊𝑧
𝑃𝐸
ℎ𝑧 = 𝑧 =
𝑊
where: ℎ𝑧 = elevation head
Kinetic Energy and Velocity Head
Kinetic energy (KE) is the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its velocity.
1 1𝑊 2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝜗 2 = 𝜗
2 2𝑔
𝜗2 𝐾𝐸
ℎ𝜗 = =
2𝑔 𝑊
where: ℎ𝜗 = velocity head

For circular pipe of diameter D flowing full,

𝜗2 (𝒬/𝐴)2 𝒬2
ℎ𝜗 = = =
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐴2
𝒬2
ℎ𝜗 = 𝜋
2𝑔( 4 𝐷2 )2

8𝒬 2
ℎ𝜗 =
𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷4
where: ℎ𝜗 = velocity head

Flow Energy and Pressure Head

A mass of fluid acquires pressure energy when it is in contact with other masses having some form
of energy. Flow energy (𝑊𝑓 ) therefore is an energy transmitted to the fluid by another mass that
possesses some energy.
𝑊
𝑊𝑓 = 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑃( )
𝛾
𝑃 𝑊𝑓
ℎ𝑃 = =
𝛾 𝑊
where: ℎ𝑃 = pressure head

Total Energy of Flow

The total energy or head in a fluid is the sum of kinetic and potential energies. Recall that potential
energies are pressure energy and elevation energy.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑

ℎ = ℎ𝑧 +ℎ𝜗 + ℎ𝑃
 𝜗2 𝑃
ℎ =𝑧+ +
2𝑔 𝛾

where:

𝜗 = mean velocity of flow (m/sec in SI and ft/sec in English)

𝑃 = fluid pressure (N/m2 or Pa in SI and lb/ft2 or psf in English)
𝑧 = position of fluid above or below the datum plane (m in SI and ft in English)
𝑔 = gravitational acceleration (9.8066 m/sec2 in SI and 32.174 ft/sec2 in English)
𝛾 = Unit weight of fluid (N/m3 in SI and lb/ft3 in English)

BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

Applying the law of conservation of energy to fluids that may be considered
incompressible, Bernoulli’s theorem may be stated as follows:
Neglecting head lost, the total amount of energy per unit weight is constant at any point in
the path of flow.

BERNOULLI'S ENERGY EQUATIONS

The following assumptions are made in the derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation:
A) The fluid is ideal, i.e. viscosity is zero.
B) The flow is incompressible.
C) The flow is steady.
D) The flow is irrotational

Energy Equation Neglecting Head Loss

Without head losses, the total energy at point (1) is equal to the total energy at point
(2). No head loss is an ideal condition leading to theoretical values in the results.
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝐻1 + 𝑄 = 𝑃𝐸2 + 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝐻2 + 𝑊
𝑃𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝑈1 + 𝑊𝑓1 + 𝑄 = 𝑃𝐸2 + 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝑈2 + 𝑊𝑓2 + 𝑊

But 𝑄 = 0, 𝑊 = 0, 𝑈1 = 𝑈2 ,
 𝑃𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝑊𝑓1 = 𝑃𝐸2 + 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝑊𝑓2

𝑚𝑔𝑧1 1 𝑚𝜗12 𝑚𝑔𝑧2 1 𝑚𝜗22

+ + 𝑃1 𝑉1 = + + 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝓀 2 𝓀 𝓀 2 𝓀
𝑚𝑔𝑧1 1 𝑚𝜗12 𝑊 𝑚𝑔𝑧2 1 𝑚𝜗22 𝑊
+ + 𝑃1 = + + 𝑃2
𝓀 2 𝓀 𝛾 𝓀 2 𝓀 𝛾
𝑊𝓀 2 𝑊𝓀 2
1 ( 𝑔 ) 𝜗1 𝑊1 1 ( 𝑔 ) 𝜗2 𝑊2
𝑊𝑧1 + + 𝑃1 = 𝑊𝑧2 + + 𝑃2
2 𝓀 𝛾 2 𝓀 𝛾
𝜗12 𝑃1 𝜗22 𝑃2
𝑧1 + + = 𝑧2 + +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

Energy Equation Considering Head Loss

The actual values can be found by considering head losses in the computation of flow energy.
𝜗12 𝑃1 𝜗22 𝑃2
𝑧1 + + = 𝑧2 + + + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Where: ℎ𝐿 = head loss from 1 to 2

Energy Equation with Pump

In most cases, pump is used to raise water from lower elevation to higher elevation.
In a more technical term, the use of pump is basically to increase the energy of flow. The pump
consumes electrical energy (Pinput) and delivers flow energy (Poutput).
𝜗12 𝑃1 𝜗22 𝑃2
𝑧1 + + + 𝑇𝐷𝐻 = 𝑧2 + + + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
where:
𝑇𝐷𝐻= total dynamic head or pump head or the amount of work needed by pump
ℎ𝐿 = head loss from 1 to 2

Energy Equation with Turbine

Turbines extract flow energy and converted it into mechanical energy which in turn converted into
electrical energy.
 𝜗12 𝑃1 𝜗22 𝑃2
𝑧1 + + = 𝑧2 + + + 𝐻𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
where:
𝐻𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = head developed by turbine
ℎ𝐿 = head loss from 1 to 2

MECHANICAL ENERGY AND EFFICIENCY

The MECHANICAL ENERGY can be defined as the form of energy that can be
converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such
as an ideal turbine.
A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by raising its pressure, and a turbine extracts
mechanical energy from a fluid by dropping its pressure. Therefore, the pressure of a
flowing fluid is also associated with its mechanical energy.
• For the pump (electricity-consuming device),
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
𝜂𝑚𝑒 = = =
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒

• For the turbine (electricity-producing device),

𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒
𝜂𝑚𝑒 = = =
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒

• For the pump,

𝑊𝑃 = 𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝛾𝒬(𝑇𝐷𝐻)

where:

𝑊𝑃 = 𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = water power or output power of the pump

𝛾 = specific weight of water

𝒬 = volume flow rate
𝑇𝐷𝐻 = total dynamic head of the pump

• Pump Efficiency
It is the ratio of the water or hydraulic power output of the pump to the brake input power
to the pump.
 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑃
𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐵𝑃

• Also, for pump,

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
𝜂𝑐 =
𝑊′𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝

where:
𝜂𝑐 = compression efficiency
𝑊′𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 =actual work of the pump

• Also, for pump,

𝑊𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑊𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒
𝜂𝑚𝑜 = =
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑊𝑘
Where:
𝜂𝑚𝑜 = motor efficiency
𝑊𝑘 = combined work or electrical power

• For the combined efficiency,

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊′𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒
𝜂𝑘 = = ∙ ∙
𝑊𝑘 𝑊′𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑊𝑘

𝜂𝑘 = 𝜂𝑐 ∙ 𝜂𝑚𝑒 ∙ 𝜂𝑚𝑜
if 𝜂𝑐 = 100%
𝜂𝑘 = 𝜂𝑚𝑜 ∙ 𝜂𝑚𝑒

• For the hydraulic turbine,

𝑊̇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝛾𝒬(𝐻𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 )

where:

𝑊̇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = power of the turbine or input power of the turbine

𝛾 = specific weight of water

 𝒬 = volume flow rate
𝐻𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = total head of the turbine

• Turbine Efficiency
It is the ratio of the brake output power of the turbine to the input power of the turbine .
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐵𝑃
𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊̇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
• Also, for turbine,
𝑊′𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑊𝐼
𝜂𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝜂𝐼 = =
𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
where:
𝜂𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝜂𝐼 = expansion or indicated efficiency
𝑊𝐼 = indicated work or actual work of the turbine

𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑊𝑘
𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛 = =
𝑊𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑊𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒
where:
𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛 = generator efficiency

𝑊𝑘 = combined work or electrical power

• For the combined efficiency,

𝑊𝑘 𝑊𝑘 𝑊𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑊𝐼
𝜂𝑘 = = ∙ ∙
𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑊𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑊𝐼 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝜂𝑘 = 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛 ∙ 𝜂𝑚𝑒 ∙ 𝜂𝐼

if 𝜂𝐼 = 100%
𝜂𝑘 = 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛 ∙ 𝜂𝑚𝑒

Ex. 8.5
Water is flowing from a hose attached to a water main at 400 kPa gage. A child places his
thumb to cover most of the hose outlet, causing a thin jet of high-speed water to emerge. If the
hose is held upward, what is the maximum height that the jet could achieve?
Solution:
from B.E.E.:
𝜗1 2 𝑃1 𝜗2 2 𝑃2 𝜗1 2 𝜗2 2
𝑧1 + + = 𝑧2 + + + ℎ𝐿 ; 𝑧1 , , , 𝑃2 , and ℎ𝐿 = 0
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔

hence,
𝑃1
= 𝑧2
𝛾

or,
𝑘𝑁
2 1
400𝑘𝑃𝑎( 𝑚 )
1𝑘𝑃𝑎
h= 𝑘𝑁
9.8066 3
𝑚

h = 40.79 m

Ex. 8.6
Water is flowing in an open channel at depth of 3 m and a velocity of 5 m/s. It flows down
a chute into another channel where the depth is 1 m and the velocity is 15 m/s. Neglecting friction,
determine the difference in elevation of channel floors.
Solution:
by B.E.E.:
𝐸1 = 𝐸2
ℎ𝜗1 + 3 + 𝑧1 = ℎ𝜗2 + 1 + 𝑧2
𝜗2 2 𝜗1 2
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = +1− −3
2𝑔 2𝑔

152 52
∆𝑧 = +1− −3
2(9.8066) 2(9.8066)

∆𝑧 = 8.20 𝑚

Ex. 8.7
A pipe 200 m long slopes down, 1 in 100, tapers from 0.80-m diameter at the higher end
to 0.40-m diameter at the lower end, and carries 120 LPS of oil (SG= 0.8). If the pressure gauge
at the lower ends reads 50 kPa, determine the velocities at the two ends and the pressure at the
higher end. Neglect all losses.
Solution:
by B.E.E.:
𝜗1 2 𝑃1 𝜗2 2 𝑃2
𝑧1 + + = 𝑧2 + + + ℎ𝐿 ; 𝑧2 , and ℎ𝐿 = 0
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑧1 200 1 √12 + 1002

100
𝑧1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = √12 + 1002
200

by similar triangles:
𝑧1 1
= √12 + 1002
200
200
𝑧1 = √12 + 1002

𝑧1 = 2.0 𝑚
for 𝜗1 ,
𝒬 = 𝒬1 = 𝐴1 𝜗1
𝜋
𝒬 = 4 𝐷1 2 𝜗1

or,
4𝒬
𝜗1 = 𝜋𝐷1 2

𝐿 1𝑚3
4(120 × )
𝑠 1000𝐿
𝜗1 = 2
𝜋(0.80𝑚)

𝜗1 = 0.239 𝑚/𝑠
for 𝜗2 ,
𝒬2 = 𝐴2 𝜗2
or,
4𝒬
𝜗2 = 𝜋𝐷2 2
 𝐿 1𝑚3
4(120 × )
𝑠 1000𝐿
𝜗2 = 2
𝜋(0.40𝑚)

𝜗2 = 0.239 𝑚/𝑠

thus,
𝜗1 2 𝑃1 𝜗2 2 𝑃2
𝑧1 + + = +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑃1 𝜗2 2 𝜗1 2 𝑃2
= − + − 𝑧1
𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾

2 𝜗 2 𝜗1 2 𝑃2
𝑃1 = 𝛾 ( 2𝑔 − + − 𝑧1 )
2𝑔 𝛾
2
𝜗2 2 −𝜗1 𝑃2
𝑃1 = 𝑆. 𝐺.𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 ) [ + − 𝑧1 ]
2𝑔 𝑆.𝐺.𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 )

0.9552 − 0.2392 50
𝑃1 = 0.8(9.8066) [ + − 2]
2(9.8066) 0.8(9.8066)

𝑃1 = 34.65 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Ex. 8.8
During a trip to the beach (Patm = 1 atm), a car runs out of gasoline, and it becomes
necessary to siphon gas out of the car of a Good Samaritan. The siphon is a small-diameter hose,
and to start the siphon it is necessary to insert one siphon end in the full gas tank, fill the hose with
gasoline via suction, and then place the other end in a gas can below the level of the gas tank. The
difference in pressure between point 1 (at the free surface of the gasoline in the tank) and point 2
(at the outlet of the tube) causes the liquid to flow from the higher to the lower elevation. Point 2
is located 0.75 m below point 1 in this case, and point 3 is located 2 m above point 1. The siphon
diameter is 4 mm, and frictional losses in the siphon are to be disregarded. Determine (a) the
minimum time to withdraw 4 L of gasoline from the tank to the can and (b) the pressure at point
3. The density of gasoline is 750 kg/cu.m.
Solution:
a.) time to fill tank/container of V = 4L
𝑉
𝒬 = 𝑉̇ = 𝑡
𝑉
t=𝒬 → (1)

for 𝒬,
𝒬=A𝜗 → (2)
 for 𝜗,
using B.E.E. (1 – 2):
𝜗1 2 𝑃1 𝜗2 2 𝑃2 𝜗1 2 𝜗2 2
𝑧1 + + = 𝑧2 + + + ℎ𝐿 ; 𝑧2 , , , 𝑃2 , and ℎ𝐿 = 0
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝜗2 2
𝑧1 = 2𝑔

𝜗2 = √2𝑔𝑧1

𝜗2 = √2(9.8066)(0.75)

𝜗2 = 3.84 𝑚/𝑠
from (1) and (2):
𝒬 = 𝒬2 = 𝐴2 𝜗2
and,
𝑉 𝑉
t= =
𝒬 𝒬2

𝑉 𝑉
t=𝐴 =𝜋
2 𝜗2 𝐷2 2 𝜗2
4

𝑉
t=𝜋 2
𝐷 𝜗2
4 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

1𝑚3
4𝐿( )
1000𝐿
t= 𝜋 4 2 𝑚
( ) 𝑚2 (3.84 )
4 1000 𝑠

t = 82.89 seconds
b.) 𝑃3 = ?
𝛴P = 0
𝑃3 = 𝑃1−3
𝑃3 = 𝛾𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ℎ1−3
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑔)
𝑃3 = ℎ1−3
𝑘
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
750 3 (9.8066 2 )
𝑚 𝑠
𝑃3 = 𝑘𝑔∙𝑚 (2𝑚)
1000
𝑘𝑁∙𝑠2
𝑃3 = 14.71 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Ex. 8.9
 As shown, the smaller pipe is cut off a short distance past the reducer so that the jet springs
free into the air. Compute the pressure at 1 if 𝒬 = 5 𝑐𝑓𝑠 of water. D1 = 12 inches and D2 = 4
inches. Assume that the jet has the diameter D2, that the pressure in the jet is atmospheric and that
the loss of head from point 1 to point 2 is 5 ft of water.
Given:
𝑓𝑡 2
𝒬 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐

ℎ𝐿 = 5 ft
𝒬 = 𝒬1 = 𝒬2
𝑧1 = 𝑧2
𝜗2 8𝒬2
2𝑔
= 𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷 4

𝑃2 = 0
𝑃1 = ?
by using B.E.E. (1 – 2):
𝜗1 2 𝑃1 𝜗2 2 𝑃2
𝑧1 + + = 𝑧2 + + + ℎ𝐿 ; 𝑧2 , 𝑧1 , and 𝑃2 = 0
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

8𝒬1 2 𝑃1 8𝒬2 2
4 + = + ℎ𝐿
𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷1 𝛾 𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷2 4

8 𝒬 2 𝒬1 2
𝑃1 = 𝛾 [𝜋2 𝑔 (𝐷2 4 − ) + ℎ𝐿 ]
2 𝐷1 4

2 2
𝑓𝑡3 𝑓𝑡3
𝑙𝑏𝑓 8 (5 ) (5 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑃1 = 62.4 𝑓𝑡 3 [ 𝑓𝑡 ( 4 4 − 12 4 ) + 5𝑓𝑡 ]
𝜋 2 (32.174 ) ( 𝑓𝑡) ( 𝑓𝑡)
𝑠𝑒𝑐2 12 12

𝑙𝑏 1𝑓𝑡 2
𝑃1 = 3456.12 𝑓𝑡𝑓2 × (12𝑖𝑛)

𝑃1 = 24 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Ex. 8.10
A 50-mm pipeline leads downhill from a reservoir and discharges into air. If the loss of
head between A and B is 44.2 m, compute the discharge.
Solution:
by B.E.E.:
 𝜗𝐴 2 𝑃𝐴 𝜗𝐵 2 𝑃𝐵 𝜗𝐴 2
𝑧𝐴 + + = 𝑧𝐵 + + + ℎ𝐿 ; 𝑧𝐵 , , 𝑃𝐴 , and 𝑃𝐵 = 0
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝜗2 8𝒬2
ℎ𝜗 = =
2𝑔 𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷 4

𝒬𝐵 = 𝒬
8𝒬2
𝑧𝐴 = + ℎ𝐿
𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷 4

8𝒬2
45.7𝑚 = 𝑚 50 4 + 44.2𝑚
𝜋 2 (9.8066 2 )( 𝑚)
𝑠 1000

𝒬 = 0.011 𝑚3 /𝑠

(insert Ex. 11-12)

HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE (HGL) AND ENERGY GRADE LINE (EGL)
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
Hydraulic grade line, also called hydraulic gradient and pressure gradient, is the graphical
representation of the potential head (pressure head + elevation head).
It is the line to which liquid rises in successive piezometer tubes. The line is always at a distance
(𝑝/𝛾 + 𝑧) above the datum plane.

Characteristics of HGL
• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but it may rise or fall due to change in
pressure.
• HGL is parallel to EGL for uniform pipe cross section.
• For horizontal pipes with constant cross section, the drop in pressure gradient between two
points is equivalent to the head lost between these points.

ENERGY GRADE LINE (EGL)

Energy grade line is always above the hydraulic grade line by an amount equal to the velocity
head. Thus, the distance of energy gradient above the datum plane is always (𝜗 2 /2𝑔 + 𝑝/𝛾 + 𝑧).
Energy grade line therefore is the graphical representation of the total energy of flow.

Characteristics of EGL
 • EGL slopes downward in the direction of flow and will only rise with the presence of pump.
• The vertical drop of EGL between two points is the head lost between those points.
• EGL is parallel to HGL for uniform pipe cross section.
• EGL is always above the HGL by 𝜗 2 /2𝑔 .
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.

Other important notes:

• For stationary bodies such as reservoirs or lakes, the EGL and HGL coincide with the free
surface of the liquid. The elevation of the free surface z in such cases represents both the
EGL and the HGL since the velocity is zero and the static pressure (gage) is zero.
• The mechanical energy loss due to frictional effects (conversion to thermal energy) causes
the EGL and HGL to slope downward in the direction of flow. The slope is a measure of
the head loss in the pipe. A component that generates significant frictional effects such as
a valve causes a sudden drop in both EGL and HGL at that location.
(insert images of Rise in EGL and HGL due to pump, Drop in EGL and HGL due to turbine,
Change in HGL and EGL due to flow through a nozzle, Change in EGL and HGL due to change
in diameter of pipe, Change in EGL and HGL due to change in diameter of pipe, Sub atmospheric
pressure when pipe is above HGL, and the last image example of comparison of HGL and EGL in
pipe.)
(insert Ex. 14-15)

BERNOULLI EQUATION FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

When the compressibility effects are significant and the flow cannot be assumed to be
incompressible, the Bernoulli equation is given by
𝑑𝑃 𝜗 2
∫ + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶
𝜌 2
For the isothermal expansion or compression of an ideal gas,
𝜗2
𝑅𝑇 ln 𝑃 + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶
2
𝜗12 𝜗22
𝑅1 𝑇1 ln 𝑃1 + + 𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑅2 𝑇2 ln 𝑃2 + + 𝑔𝑧2
2 2

For the isentropic flow of an ideal gas,

 𝑘 𝑃 𝜗2
( )( ) + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶
𝑘−1 𝜌 2
𝑘 𝑃1 𝜗12 𝑘 𝑃2 𝜗22
( )( ) + + 𝑔𝑧1 = ( )( ) + + 𝑔𝑧2
𝑘 − 1 𝜌1 2 𝑘 − 1 𝜌2 2
or in terms of Mach number
𝑘
𝑃1 𝑘−1 𝑘−1
= [1 + ( ) 𝑀22 ]
𝑃2 2
where state 1 is the stagnation state and state 2 is any state along the flow.