PO LYT E C H N I C U N I V E R S I TY O F T H E PH I LI PPI N E S

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the review of past literature and studies that are related to

the present study about A Case Study on the DeSed First Year College Students' Lived

Senior High School Experiences and the Relevance of SHS Strands to their Chosen

College Degrees.

K-12 Program

The K to 12 Program covers Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education (six years

of primary education, four years of Junior High School, and two years of Senior High

School [SHS]) to provide sufficient time for mastery of concepts and skills, develop lifelong

learners, and prepare graduates for tertiary education, middle-level skills development,

employment, and entrepreneurship (Official Gazette, 2013). K to 12 programs are the

latest effort of the government to elevate the educational system to the global 12-year

standard. K to 12 means one year of kindergarten and 12 years of elementary and

secondary education. It was one of President Noynoy Aquino’s campaign promises and as

such, was included in the priority list of bills of the Legislative-Executive Development

Advisory Council (SEPO Policy Brief, 2011).

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K to 12 which is known as “Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013”or “K to 12 Basic

Education Program Law” states that the graduate of basic education shall be an empowered

individual who has learned, through a program that is rooted on sound educational principles

and geared towards excellence, the foundations for learning throughout life, the competence to

engage in work and be productive, the ability to coexist in fruitful harmony with local and global

communities, the capability to engage in autonomous, creative, and critical thinking, and the

capacity and willingness to transform others and one’s self. (R.A. 10533)

Senior High School

Senior High School (SHS) refers to the last two years of the K to 12 Program, namely

Grades 11 and 12 (DepEd Primer, 2015) In Grade 11, more time of the student will be spent

studying core subjects while in Grade 12, more time of the student will be spent on internship

or immersion. Senior High School (SHS) consists of Grades 11 and 12. The program for SHS

consists of a core curriculum that prepares students for college and career pathways that

prepare students for employment or engaging in a profitable enterprise after high school. In

Grade 11, more time of the student will be spent studying core subjects while in Grade 12,

more time of the student will be spent on internship or immersion (SEAMEO&INNOTECH,

2012). The Senior High School levels which offer a wide range of subjects from which students

can choose a program leading to college or university entrance or a career in business or

industry (DepEd, 2012). Students cannot be forced to spend two more years in school, but if

they stop at Grade 10, they will only receive a JHS certificate, not a high school diploma. The

senior high school program is a broad one intended to foster the intellectual, physical,

emotional, and cultural growth and development of students. To be successful, the program

must have enough flexibility to address the interests and needs of

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all students as they transition from high school to their first post‐high school destination (Prince Edward Island, 2017).

In 2012 the Philippines launched its “K to 12” Program, a comprehensive reform of its basic

education. Through this reform, the Philippines is catching up with global standards in

secondary education and is attaching a high value to kindergarten. The structure, curricula, and

philosophy of the education system are undergoing reform and improvement. The key points of

the new policy are “preparation” for higher education, “eligibility” for entering domestic and

overseas higher educational institutions, and immediate “employability” on graduating, all

leading toward a “holistically developed Filipino”. This policy appears admirable and timely, but

it faces some pedagogical and socioeconomic problems. The author wants to point out in

particular that the policy needs to address gender problems and should be combined with

demand-side approaches in order to promote poverty alleviation and human development in

the Philippines (Okabe, 2013).

Senior High School Academic Strands

Under the present SHS model, the student can choose among four tracks, namely:

(1) Academic, (2) Technical-Vocational Livelihood, and (3) Sports, and (4) Arts and Design.

Under the Academic track are four strands, namely: General Academic Strand,

Accountancy, Business, and Management (ABM), Humanities and Social Sciences

(HUMSS), and the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM). In the SHS core

curriculum, there are 15 core subjects which will have to be taken by a student irrespective

of the track they are in. These core subjects are distributed to eight core learning areas.

Furthermore, there are 16 track subjects, seven contextualized subjects, and nine

specialization subjects which total to 31 subjects each student will have to take to earn a
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SHS diploma. The student will take these subjects in four semesters (Magno & Piosang,

2016).

According to the study of Jugar (2017) The Academic Track has the highest cohort

enrollees comprising around 68.87%, where 38.41% or 5,748 students of which are

enrolled in the STEM strand. This data explicitly indicates the trend where most students

will still opt to proceed to higher education in spite of the additional two years in Senior

High School. Nevertheless, whether these indicative numbers will fully progress to higher

education will still have to be verified.

Accountancy, Business, and Management (ABM), this strand is designed as an

introductory course in accounting and business and management where students are

trained to think logically and scientifically and are acquainted with the rudiments of

accounting, business and management concepts and principles in order to prepare them to

pursue college degrees that focus on business and industry where their contribution as

future accountants, entrepreneurs, and business leaders are vital to the progress and

development of the economy and critical to the promotion of a sustainable green business.

Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMMS), this strand covers a wide range of

disciplines that delve into the investigation and inquiry of the human conditions that uses

empirical, analytical, and critical methods of studying human behavior and societal

changes. Students pursuing college degrees on this strand will have a deeper

understanding of arts, culture, literature, politics, and society and how the complex

interplay of these facets help them appreciate individual behavior and social group and the

pressing issues corresponding them.

Science, Technology, Mathematics and Engineering (STEM), this strand will develop the

students’ ability to evaluate simple to complex societal problems and be responsive and
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active in the formulation of its solution through the application and integration of scientific,

technological, engineering, and mathematical concepts as it prepares them to pursue

college degrees that focuses on the enigma of the natural world thereby leading them to

become future scientists, technological analysts and experts, engineers, mathematicians,

programmers, and the like.

General Academic Strand (GAS), this strand is purposively designed for those

students who are still indecisive of what course or degree they want to pursue in college. A

student who finished on this strand can proceed to any college program. However, he/she

has to take some subjects not taken in Senior High but required by a particular college as

a bridging program to assess his/her preparedness in the field of study chosen.

Senior High School to Higher Education

College readiness can be defined operationally as the level of preparation a student

needs in order to enroll and succeed— without remediation—in a credit-bearing general

education course at a postsecondary institution that offers a baccalaureate degree or

transfer to a baccalaureate program. “Succeed” is defined as completing entry-level

courses at a level of understanding and proficiency that makes it possible for the student to

consider taking the next course in the sequence or the next level of course in the subject

area (Conley, 2007).

It is important to create a college readiness framework in order to share with basic

education the expectations of higher learning systems from pre-university education. If the

expectations of college education are provided, the curriculum in the K to 12 will be able to

be well aligned with the advance studies. College applicants will be better prepared for

college given the set of expectations developed in basic education. The college readiness
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framework with a set of specific competencies for different subjects allows basic education

to conform with international standards. The specific competencies indicated in the college

readiness framework provide capacities for students to be prepared for college life.

The college readiness framework details the topics and competencies that a typical high

school graduate need to have in the areas of science (biology, chemistry, physics, and earth

science), mathematics, English, Filipino, Literature, humanities, and social science. The college

readiness provides a set of standards and the specific learning competencies should be used

in developing items for assessment tools to assess college readiness. This will ensure that the

contents of the test are well aligned with college readiness standards. Given the competencies

stated in the college readiness framework, there are two major implications on assessment in

the transition from senior high school to college: (1) HEIs and schools offering grade 12 needs

to diagnose readiness based on the given competencies of the college readiness framework;

(2) Entrance exams needs to be built using the college readiness framework. The assessment

of college readiness at the end of grade 12 is viewed as an accountability of the school that

gives information whether they have produced graduates that are ready for college or advance

studies. The assessment results provide information whether students which have achieved the

competencies in high school will be able to meet the necessary skill qualifications for college.

The assessment of college readiness can be given either at the end of grade 12 or in the

college level during the freshmen year. If the assessment of the college readiness is given at

the end of grade 12, then the information serves as achievement of the students by high

school. Serving as an achievement, it provides information if the students have attained the

college readiness competencies across time. If the assessment is given at the start of college

during freshmen year, it serves as a diagnostic test on identifying students strengths and

weaknesses, what
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they know and do not know, and what students can do and cannot do so that the

curriculum in college can scaffold the necessary skills that the students are still weak at

especially in subjects such as English, science, and mathematics. Another implication of

the college readiness framework is on the contents of the entrance exam. If the entrance

exams intend to assess whether students have possessed the necessary characteristics

for college, then the contents of the entrance exam should cover the college readiness

standards on the different subject areas. It is important to include an assessment of the

college readiness standards in the entrance exam since the competencies are prerequisite

skills necessary to succeed in the general education subjects in college. The college

readiness standards in the entrance should be good predictors of the grades in English,

mathematics, and science subjects in college (Magno & Piosang, 2016).

The article released by the Commission on Higher Education stated that the K to 12

system was signed into law with the passage of the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013

(Republic Act 10533). It clearly states that the K to 12 reform is an effort not exclusive to the

Department of Education , but cuts across the whole landscape of Philippine education and

labor, making a unique impact on each sector, while at the same time requiring all these

agencies to work together to ensure a smooth transition into the new system . One of the role

of Commission on Higher Education (CHED) is career guidance and counseling (Section

9) – CHED is mandated to partner with DepEd and DOLE in career guidance and

counseling activities for high school students. Helping students choose what courses to

take in college can help them pursue careers that lead to better job.

Secondary Curriculum 2010 (UbD Framework)

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Understanding by Design® (UbD®) is a framework that offers a “planning process

and structure to guide curriculum, assessment, and instruction.” This framework has two

key ideas that are contained in the title itself: 1) focus on teaching and assessing for

understanding and learning transfer, and 2) design 8 curriculum ‘backward’ from those

ends." (Grant and McTighe 2014). It aims to help both teachers and learners in high

schools, offering teachers an approach that will help them “enhance curricular planning

which focuses on the development and deepening of understanding and transfer learning

and for learners, it will help them into understanding which makes sense when their

learning is transferred through authentic performance” (Wiggins and McTighe 2014).

Grant Wiggins in his article, “A Diploma Worth Having” discussed about the value of high

school diplomas in the 21st century education in the United States. The author here suggests

that “high school education should be changed to abolish course requirements, increase

expectations, and allow students to study subjects that represent their passions and likely their

carrier choices” (Wiggins, 2011). Wiggins also stressed in another article he wrote, “Moving to

Modern Assessments” that authenticity in learning refers “less to the particular challenge or

question and more to the realism of setting – audience, purpose, constraints, and

opportunities,” (Wiggins, 2011). He added that he also believed that “the goal is not to get good

at school and prove through assessment that you learned what was taught.” However, Wiggins

said that the challenge is not backward, but to look forward “we must determine if the student is

ready for future challenges in which they must transfer prior learning (Wiggins, 1991).

Sometimes authentic learning is defined when students passed the exams or students were

able to memorize key points in the lessons, but that is not true. A student could memorize the

whole book without learning at all. “Deeper Learning – Transfer” meant that the proof of

students’ learning authenticity is when they were able to

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“transfer” their learning by different means. It could be applying it through works or methods in

solving problems on a daily basis like counting money. It could also be when they are able to

feel for others. It could also be when students were able to have self-realization that changes

them. These are just examples, but it could be manifested in other ways, too.

Outcome-Based Education

Exploring new ways for designing tertiary education is a worldwide pursuit. There is

a need for tertiary education to provide both professional knowledge/skills and all-round

attributes to the graduates so as to enable them to face the diversified yet global demands

of the 21st century society. The attention now of different institution of higher education in

different nations are on students learning outcomes and assessment. This has received

increasing calls since 1980’s in many countries such as USA, UK and Australia (De

Guzman and Edaño, 2017).

Outcome-based education is the main thrust of the Higher Education Institutions in

the Philippines today. The OBE comes in the form of competency-based learning

standards and outcomes-based quality assurance monitoring and evaluating spelled out

under the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 46, s.

2012. (Collantes, 2014)

Outcome-based education is an approach to education in which decisions about

the curriculum are driven by the exit learning outcomes that the students should display at

the end of the course (Davis, 2003). In outcome-based education, product defines process.

Outcome-based education can be summed up as results-oriented thinking and is the

opposite of input-based education where the emphasis is on the educational process and

where we are happy to accept whatever is the result (Harden, 1999). There is a significant
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difference between outcome-based education and simply producing outcomes for an

existing curriculum. “Outcome-based,” does not mean curriculum based with outcomes

sprinkled on top. It is a transformational way of doing business in education (Spady, 1993).

The study by De Guzman and Edaño (2017) stated that the full implementation of

Outcome-Based Education (OBE) in Ramon Magsaysay Technological University (RMTU),

Zambales is a priority, hence, it necessitates a full understanding and knowledge of the

OBE by the implementers. On the result of the degree of understanding of the essence of

the OBE, it is revealed that the faculty members manifest a great extent of understanding

primarily the active participation of students in the learning activities, however, faculty

members’ perception indicate a moderate extent of understanding on the minor role played

by the educators in the teaching-learning situation and planning activities that focus around

the learners. On the result of the degree of knowledge of OBE implementation, the faculty

members reported a great extent of knowledge primarily the use of different techniques to

assess student learning, though there is a moderate extent of knowledge on curriculum

alignment and mapping and construction of Program Educational Objectives (PEOs) of the

different Colleges. The areas of the outcomes-based instruction which were proposed to

be offered as faculty development were seminars and trainings in the syllabus preparation-

OBE format, on the utilization of student-centered strategies and on curriculum mapping.

Secondary Curriculum 2010 (UbD) and K-12 Curriculum (OBE)

Curriculum changes. Curriculum develops. There is no such thing in the culture of education as

“one curriculum theory.” In fact, there is “no one curriculum theory that is better than all of the

others” (Morris and Hamm, 1976). Morris and Hamm discussed that curriculum theories have

major characteristics and the following are: first, curriculum theory has an
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ontological bias and its ultimate concern is with the “what” or “why” of any educational

enterprise. The primary concern is with neither teaching nor learning but with knowledge

itself, whether process or product knowledge; second, curriculum theory deals with

alternative intellectual structures of organizing knowledge; and third, curriculum theory

moves toward the universal theories. Current curriculum theory is “macrocosmic,” more or

less, to the “microcosmic” curriculum taught in each classroom (Morris and Hamm, 1976).

These major characteristics mentioned are true to all or evident in all curriculum theories.

Most of the time, each theory includes these mentioned characteristics. It is important to

note here that “knowledge itself” whether it refers to the “process or product” is the primary

concern of the curriculum.

Curriculum theories have structures, too. It could be logical which means that “knowledge is

systematically recognized as a whole” or that it is based within “specialized disciplines.” Here

the curriculum theory becomes the prerequisite to learning theory and the instructional theory

becomes an “implied result,” which means that the teacher transmits logically while the student

learns. Its structure could also be conceptual which is based on Jean Piaget’s descriptive

rationale of internal mental processes. The strength of this structure is the “generative quality: it

fosters hypothesizing.” Piaget believes that conceptual development is unique to each

individual of which to this I agree. Also, the curriculum structure could be empirical. This is an

activity and a job analysis popularized by Bobbitt, Morrison, and Charters during the 1920’s and

30’s. In this structure, they study the adult community to determine a curriculum and the theory

is based and is specified on the assumption that the school should “reflect the adult society.”

Lastly, the theory could also be in an existential structure which simply says, “There is no

structure at all” and “The point is there is no institutionalized structure.” Existential structure

argues that individual meaning and the

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theory itself comes from individual appropriation (Morris and Hamm, 1976). These four

mentioned structures are great each in its own way. Each has its own weakness and

strength, but to combine all of it would suggest a better structure. It is very important to

grasp these things for better understanding of the curriculum which schools adopt. In this

section I would discuss the two major educational curriculum of the recent part and

compare them to UbD®. First is the mentioned characteristics. It is important to note here

that “knowledge itself” whether it refers to the “process or product” is the primary concern

of the curriculum. Curriculum theories have structures, too. It could be logical which means

that “knowledge is systematically recognized as a whole” or that it is based within

“specialized disciplines.” Here the curriculum theory becomes the prerequisite to learning

theory and the instructional theory becomes an “implied result,” which means that the

teacher transmits logically while the student learns. Its structure could also be conceptual

which is based on Jean Piaget’s descriptive rationale of internal mental processes. The

strength of this structure is the “generative quality: it fosters hypothesizing.” Piaget believes

that conceptual development is unique to each individual of which to this I agree. Also, the

curriculum structure could be empirical. This is an activity and a job analysis popularized

by Bobbitt, Morrison, and Charters during the 1920’s and 30’s. In this structure, they study

the adult community to determine a curriculum and the theory is based and is specified on

the assumption that the school should “reflect the adult society.” Lastly, the theory could

also be in an existential structure which simply says,

“There is no structure at all” and “The point is there is no institutionalized structure.”

Existential structure argues that individual meaning and the theory itself comes from

individual appropriation (Morris and Hamm, 1976). These four mentioned structures are

great each in its own way. Each has its own weakness and strength, but to combine all of it
 PO LYT E C H N I C U N I V E R S I TY O F T H E PH I LI PPI N E S

would suggest a better structure. It is very important to grasp these things for better

understanding of the curriculum which schools adopt. In this section I would discuss the

two major educational curriculum of the recent part and compare them to UbD®. First is

the traditional education. In traditional curriculum or education, students are given grades

and rankings which are compared to each other. The content and performance

expectations are based primarily on what was taught in the past to the students of a given

age. The primary goal of traditional education was to present the knowledge and skills of

an older generation to the new generation of students, and to private students with an

environment in which to learn. This is more likely of an empirical structure. The process in

this education paid little attention (beyond the classroom teacher) to whether or not

students learn any of the material (Kamii and Dominick, 1998).

On the other hand, Outcome-Based Education (OBE) identifies the outcome as the

culminating demonstration of learning which described what the student should be able to do at

the end of the course (Spaldy, 1993). Outcome-based education is an approach to education in

which decisions about the curriculum are driven by the exit learning outcomes that the students

should display at the end of the course. Harden and his colleagues suggest that in an outcome-

based education “product defines process” (Harden RM, Crosby JR, Davis MH., 1999).

Outcome-based education here can be summed up as the opposite of input-based education

where the emphasis is on the educational process and where educators are happy to accept

whatever the result of it (Davis, 2013). OBE is still regarded as time-based. Teachers and

principals may want students to learn something, but they typically allocate a certain amount of

time to study that topic and then move on, whether or not students have mastered it. For

schools to be fully outcome-based, they must organize

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so that outcomes are fixed; and time and other resources needed to achieve the outcomes

are variable (Brandt 1994).

Issues and Concerns of SHS Program

The announcement of the K to 12 program has sparked myriad reactions not only

from those within the education sector but from the public as well. Supporters of the

program have claimed that the K to 12 program will be the answer to the basic education

woes while critics argued that it merely glosses over the more fundamental problems of the

educational system.

1. On the additional expenses incurred by parents

One of the top reasons for dropping out of school is the high cost of education. The 2009

Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES) revealed that education is not a priority among

poor households as bulk of their spending goes to food (60%). During the said year, only 1.2

percent of the family budget is spent for education. The DepEd reasoned out that in the

process of providing various tracks of specialization that cater to students’ preferences, K to 12

could actually lower dropout rates since it is partly the highly academic nature of formal

schooling that alienates students and causes them to lose interest (Educator Magazine, 2011).

Proponents also averred that K to 12 should be seen not as additional two years of schooling

but a reduction of two years in college as high school graduates will already be employable as

if they are college graduates . The additional two years could also increase their wage potential

and as such should be seen as an opportunity by poor families to raise their economic well-

being Senate of The Philippines, 2011).

2. On the effect of K to 12 on higher education institutions

Oppositions to the K to 12 plan claimed that if two years will be added to basic

education, higher education institutions (HEIs) will not have incoming college freshmen for
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two years because students will have to undergo senior high. This could have disastrous

effects on the HEIs’ financial standing. The DepEd countered that implementing K to 12

would require the cooperation of state universities and colleges (SUCs) and local

universities and colleges (LUCs) to fill up the lack of classrooms and teachers. Senior high

students could be put up in the already existing classrooms in SUCs and LUCs and college

teachers could be tapped to teach senior high. However, for private HEIs that do not offer

high school, this could be a valid concern and could lead to displacement of teachers or

worse, outright closure (Senate of The Philippines, 2011).

3. Infrastructure, Learning Facilities and Environment

Mainly, there are areas that require immediate attention with poor evaluation by

both students and teachers: Appropriate audio-visual rooms; laboratory intended for

Science experiments; learning resource center/library; adequate drinking

provision/washing facility; canteen space; ICT facility; computer facility for research; and

study areas for students. On brighter aspects of learning environment, students

acknowledged that there is a strong effort of the teachers to deliver and provide interactive

learning opportunities that is respectful and conducive to students (Acar, 2017).

Synthesis of Reviewed Literature and Studies

The review aims to evaluate the existing literature and studies, foreign and local,

about the patriotic behavior and its influence: importance on the A Case Study on the

DeSed First Year College Students' Lived Senior High School Experiences and the

Relevance of SHS Strands to their Chosen College Degrees . The following literature and

studies have similarities in the present study in:

According to Official Gazette (2013) The K to 12 Program covers Kindergarten and

12 years of basic education (six years of primary education, four years of Junior High
 PO LYT E C H N I C U N I V E R S I TY O F T H E PH I LI PPI N E S

School, and two years of Senior High School [SHS]) to provide sufficient time for mastery

of concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners, and prepare graduates for tertiary

education, middle-level skills development, employment, and entrepreneurship.

As stated by DepEd Primer (2015), Senior High School (SHS) refers to the last two

years of the K to 12 Program, namely Grades 11 and 12 () .In Grade 11, more time of the

student will be spent studying core subjects while in Grade 12, more time of the student

will be spent on internship or immersion. Senior High School (SHS) consists of Grades 11

and 12.

As studied by SEAMEO&INNOTECH (2012), The program for SHS consists of a

core curriculum that prepares students for college and career pathways that prepare

students for employment or engaging in a profitable enterprise after high school. In Grade

11, more time of the student will be spent studying core subjects while in Grade 12, more

time of the student will be spent on internship or immersion.

As stated by indicated by DepEd (2012) the Senior High School levels which offer a

wide range of subjects from which students can choose a program leading to college or

university entrance or a career in business or industry.

As eloquently stated by Magno and Piosang (2016), it is important to create a college

readiness framework in order to share with basic education the expectations of higher learning

systems from pre-university education. If the expectations of college education are provided,

the curriculum in the K to 12 will be able to be well aligned with the advance studies. College

applicants will be better prepared for college given the set of expectations developed in basic

education. The college readiness framework with a set of specific competencies for different

subjects allows basic education to conform to international

 PO LYT E C H N I C U N I V E R S I TY O F T H E PH I LI PPI N E S

standards. The specific competencies indicated in the college readiness framework

provide capacities for students to be prepared for college life.

The college readiness framework details the topics and competencies that a

typical high school graduate need to have in the areas of science (biology, chemistry,

physics, earth science), mathematics, English, Filipino, Literature, humanities, and social

science. The college readiness provides a set of standards and the specific learning

competencies should be used in developing items for assessment tools to assess college

readiness.

Based on De Guzman and Edaño (2017), exploring new ways for designing tertiary

education is a worldwide pursuit. There is a need for tertiary education to provide both

professional knowledge/skills and all-round attributes to the graduates so as to enable

them to face the diversified yet global demands of the 21st century society. The attention

now of different institution of higher education in different nations are on students learning

outcomes and assessment.

Davis (2003) stated that, Outcome-based education is an approach to education in

which decisions about the curriculum are driven by the exit learning outcomes that the

students should display at the end of the course.