Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

A Plant Design Report

Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Engineering

Cagayan State University – Carig Campus

In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering

Crissalie Mariez M. De Vera

Miriam A. Gammad

Jinky B. Mammattong

Rizza P. Pingad

May 2017
 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

May 2017

ENGR. CAESAR POBRE LLAPITAN

Instructor

Chemical Engineering Department

Cagayan State University

Dear Engr. Llapitan:

We are herewith submitting our report entitled “Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from

Seawater” in partial fulfillment for the requirement of Plant Design course. The main objective

of this report is to present a complete design for the production of iodized salt from seawater.

The design report includes process flow diagrams, material and energy balances, pipes and

instrumentation and control diagrams which are drawn and presented using Edraw, detailed design

calculations and specifications of main process equipment and its auxiliary parts and estimation of

costs which include equipment cost, fixed costs, operating costs and others due to its importance

in the market study of the said report.

We hope that this report will merit your favorable approval.

Very truly yours,

Crissallie Mariez M. De Vera

Miriam A. Gammad

Jinky B. Mammattong

Rizza P. Pingad
 CERTIFICATION

This Project Design hereto entitled “Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater”,

prepared and submitted by Crissallie Mariez M. De Vera, Miriam A. Gammad, Jinky B.

Mammattong, & Rizza P. Pingad in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course Plant

Design, has been examined and is recommended for acceptance and approval.

ENGR. CAESAR P. LLAPITAN

Instructor

APPROVAL

This Project Design is hereby approved and accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the course Plant Design.

ENGR. MONICO B. TENEDOR

Department Chairman
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With deepest gratitude and appreciation, we humbly extend our thank you to the people who,

with all they can, helped and supported us in making this project design possible.

To Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan, for sharing us his wisdom and expertise during the course of

this design project, for his constant guidance and for his necessary corrections and suggestion for

the improvement of this report.

To our lovely parents, for their endless words of encouragement that keeps us from going on,

for their unconditional love and support that they have been giving us all throughout.

To our dearest friends and classmates, in whom we conceive our frustrations regarding this

project design wherein at the same way, together we muster our courage to continue and finish

this project design, for the rush hours, the brainstorming and nerve-wracking days and for the

bitter and sweet memories that is somewhat worth it.

Above all, to our Almighty God who always guides, protects and lights our way in everything

that we do and He who never fails to boost our self-esteem when everything seems to be falling

apart. For the provision and wisdom, he has bestowed upon us that keeps us in performing

whatever task assigned to each one of us and for keeping our love ones safe. And we are thankful

and glad and feel completely secure. Without Him we are nothing.

i
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Salt is a basic commodity in human existence, it has a wide application for household and

industries. Addition of iodized salts in human and animal consumption has an advantage in

combatting iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) which is one of the world’s most important

nutritional deficiencies, and produces a spectrum of disorders. The industry aims to produce

100,000 kg iodized salt/day that will operate 6 days a week for 7 months. The modified process

includes the use of a solar saline pond to produce the solar salt, which is re-crystallized in a vacuum

plant using vacuum-evaporation crystallization. The most appropriate area is in Dasol Bay,

Pangasinan which occupies the whole coastline of Dasol and on its west is the South China Sea.

The total capital investment for this report is 42,364,748.7 PHP and it takes 1 year and 2

months to recover the cost of investment. The economic viability of the plant This was based on

the assessment of the capacity and condition of the plant section. A careful design decision for the

calculation of the material and energy balance and process equipment specifications were made

based on the on rule-of-thumb from different studies and authors. From carrying out sufficient

engineering principles and calculations, logical and effective costs were established. The produced

iodized salt will be sold in 40 kg distributed as 70% in wholesale (770.00 PHP per sack) and 30%

in retail (19.75 PHP per kg).

Since a complete environmental assessment of the plant in compliance with the standards set

by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). The waste generated is a

sludge that is minimal and have no adverse effects on the environment. Hence, the design is

profitable, will help in contributing taxes set by the government and does not degrade the

environment which is a major concern in a plant.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

Front Page

Letter of Transmittal

Certification

Approval

Acknowledgement i

Executive Summary ii

Table of Contents iii

List of Tables viii

List of Figures x

Chapter I Introduction 1

A. Product Information 1

B. Properties of Product 2

1. Raw Salt 2

2. Iodized Salt 2

C. Process Selection 2

1. Survey of Methods used in the Industrial Production of Salts 2

a) Mining of Rock Salt from Underground and Surface Deposits 2

b) Vacuum Salt 3

(1) Multiple-effect Process 4

(2) Mechanical Vapor Recompression (MVR) Process 4

(3) Re-crystallization Process 5

2. Modification of Process for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater 6

D. Site Selection 9

1. Development of Possible Location Cases 9

iii
 a) Pangasinan 9

(1) Comparative Factors 11

(a) Raw Material Supply 11

(b) Availability of Labor 11

(c) Transport 12

(d) Utilities 12

(e) Telecommunication 12

E. Site Layout 13

F. Plant Layout 16

Chapter II Market Study 17

A. Demand 17

1. Local Demand 17

a) Type of Consumers and Type of Market 19

2. World Salt Demand 20

B. Supply 21

1. Total Salt Importation 22

C. Price 23

1. Tariff Protection and Tax 24

2. Projected Price 27

D. Marketing Program 27

1. Marketing Program and Practices of Competitors 27

2. Proposed Marketing Program 28

a) Product 28

b) Price 28

c) Place 28

d) Promotions 28

iv
 3. Channels of Distribution 29

E. Projected Sales Quantity 39

Chapter III Technical Study 31

A. Process Description and Detailed Flowsheets 31

1. Process Description 31

2. Block Flow Diagram 35

3. Input-Output Structure Flow Diagram 37

4. Qualitative Block Flow Diagram 39

5. Quantitative Block Flow Diagram 41

6. Process Flow Diagram 42

B. Material and Energy Balance 44

1. Material Balance 44

2. Energy Balance 46

C. Process Equipment 47

1. Mixer (M-101) 50

2. Clarifier (R-101) 52

3. Forced Circulation Evaporator (EC-101, EC-102, EC-103& EC-104) 53

4. Heat Exchangers (H-101, H-102, H-103, & H-104) 55

5. Condenser (C-101) 56

6. Boiler (B-101) 57

7. Centrifuge (FC-101 &FC-102) 58

8. Dryer (D-101) 59

9. Air Heater (H-105) 61

10. Blower (F-101) 62

11. Tanks 63

a) Pure Brine Tank (T-101) 63

v
 b) Salt Holding Tank (T-102) 64

c) Ionization Tank (T-103) 65

D. Piping and Instrumentation 66

1. The P and I Diagram 67

2. Valve Selection 69

3. Pumps 70

a) Pump-101, Pump-102, & Pump-103 70

b) Pump-104, Pump-105, Pump-106, & Pump-107 72

c) Pump-108 74

d) Pump-109 76

e) Pump-110 76

4. Pipe Size Selection 78

5. Control and Instrumentation 79

a) Design Objectives 79

b) Selection of Appropriate Control Strategy 79

c) Individual Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Equipment 83

(1) Mixer 83

(2) Clarifier and Pure Brine Tank 84

(3) Boiler 85

(4) Evaporative Crystallizer 86

(5) Centrifuge and Iodine Dozing 87

(6) Dryer 89

Chapter IV Costing and Project Evaluation 90

A. Estimation of Equipment Cost 90

1. Forced Circulation Evaporator Cost 90

B. Estimation of Capital Investment 95

vi
 C. Estimation of Total Product Cost 99

D. Feasibility Study 104

1. Profit and Loss Statement 104

E. Test of Profitability and Capital Investment 104

Chapter V Safety, Health and Environment 106

A. Safety and Loss Prevention 106

1. Company Policy 106

a) Responsibilities of Employer 106

b) Responsibilities of Supervisors 106

c) Responsibilities of Workers 107

2. Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Evaluation of Storage Tanks 108

a) Pure Brine Tank (T-101) 109

b) Salt Slurry Tank (T-102) 111

c) Uniodized Wet Salt Tank 113

B. Environmental Constraints and Analysis 115

C. Material and Safety Data Sheet 117

D. Waste Disposal 120

References 122

Appendix A Material Balance Calculations 127

Appendix B Energy Balance Calculations 139

Appendix C Equipment Design Calculations 149

Appendix D Organizational Chart 183

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1. Population Census of Pangasinan 11

Table 1.2. Trade and Investment 12

Table 1.3. Road Network 12

Table 1.4. Power 12

Table 1.5. Water Supply 12

Table 1.6. Telecommunication Facilities 12

Table 2.1. Estimated per capita sodium intakes based on National Surveys-Philippines 18

Table 2.2. Total Salt Importation 23

Table 2.3. Price of Local Iodized Salt 24

Table 2.4. Price of Imported Iodized Salt 24

Table 2.5. Purity requirements 25

Table 2.6. Iodine levels 26

Table 3.1. Summary of Material Balance 44

Table 3.2. Summary of Energy Balance 46

Table 3.3. Process Equipment Summary 47

Table 3.4. Operating Conditions for Mixer 50

Table 3.5. Operating Conditions for Quadruple system 53

Table 3.6. Operating Parameters for Dryer Design 59

Table 3.7. Valve used in the Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater 69

Table 3.8. Classification of process variable in each equipment in the production of 80

iodized salt from seawater

Table 4.1. Summary of Equipment Costs 94

Table 4.2. Direct Cost 95

Table 4.3. Indirect Cost 96

Table 4.4. Summary of Fixed Capital Costs 97

viii
Table 4.5. Annual Value of Products 99

Table 4.6. Estimation of raw material cost annually 99

Table 4.7. Summary of the Wages of Employees 100

Table 4.8. Annual operating labor cost 101

Table 4.9. Utility Cost 101

Table 4.10. Annual Depreciation using MACRS 102

Table 4.11. Summary of Total Product Cost 103

Table 4.12. Profit and Loss Statement 104

Table 4.13. Summary of Capital Investment and Profitability Analysis 105

Table 5.1. HAZOP evaluation of pure brine tank 109

Table 5.2. HAZOP evaluation of salt slurry tank 111

Table 5.3. HAZOP evaluation of wet salts (uniodized) tank 113

Table 5.4. Environmental Laws and Policies 115

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1. Processes for Salt Production from Seawater 7

Figure 1.2. Vacuum Salt Refinery System 8

Figure 1.2. Plant Layout of Industrial Production of Iodized Salt 16

Figure 2.1. Philippines-Consumption of Iodized Salt in % households 18

Figure 2.2. Sources of Salt in 1990 with an Annual Requirement of 338,000 MT of Salts 19

Figure 2.3. Sources of Salt in 2009 with an Annual Requirement of 590,000 MT of Salts 19

Figure 2.4. Major Countries in Salt Production Worldwide from 2011 to 2016 22

(in 1,000 metric tons)

Figure 2.5. Local vs. Imported Salt 23

Figure 2.7. Channels of Distribution of Iodized Salt 29

Figure 3.1. Feed Preparation Block Diagram 31

Figure 3.2. Brine Composition as function of density. Value for CaSO4 concentration 32

are multiplied by factor of ten

Figure 3.3. Reactor Block Diagram 32

Figure 3.4. Separator Feed Preparation Block Diagram 33

Figure 3.5. Separator Block Diagram 34

Figure 3.6. Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater 36

Figure 3.7. Input-Output Process Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized salt 38

from Seawater

Figure 3.8. Qualitative Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt 40

from Seawater

Figure 3.9. Quantitative Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt 41

from Seawater

Figure 3.10. Process Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from 43

x
 Seawater

Figure 3.11. Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt 67

from Seawater

Figure 3.12. Process Legend for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater 68

Figure 3.13. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Mixer 83

Figure 3.14. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Clarifier and Pure brine tank 84

Figure 3.15. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Boiler 85

Figure 3.16. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Evaporative Crystallizer 86

Figure 3.17. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Centrifuge and Iodine Dozing 87

Figure 3.18. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Dryer 89

Figure 5.1. Pure Brine Tank (T-101) 108

Figure 5.2. Salt Slurry Tank (T-102) 108

Figure 5.3. Uniodized Wet Salt Tank 108

Figure 5.4. Product and Waste Generated 121

xi
 Chapter I

Introduction

A. Product Information

Salt is basic to daily human existence. The actual consumption for human food is about 15

million tons per year. Salt for food is the most ‘taken for granted’ commodity. It is available from

many sources in many qualities as table, cooking, and industrial salt for food production and is

also one of the most essential basic materials of modern industries. More than 90% of the 200

million tons of NaCl consumed per year all over the world are for industrial use. Furthermore, salt

enjoys unique advantages as a vehicle for micronutrient fortification in most parts of the world in

terms of universal access, uniformity of consumption, and low cost of fortification. Thus,

eliminating iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) is now considered "within grasp”. Iodine deficiency

is one of the world’s most important nutritional deficiencies, and produces a spectrum of

disorders—impaired cognitive development and function, hypothyroidism, congenital

abnormalities, cretinism, and endemic goiter—known as IDD. The prevention of IDD is possible

with the addition of iodine to the diet. Of the various methods used to add iodine to the diet,

fortification of salt with iodine for human and animal consumption has been recommended and

is implemented worldwide. Iodine may be added to salt as iodides or iodate.

Salt is dissolved in the oceans with 3 percent by weight amounting to a quantity of 4.1016 tons

only, thus being an inexhaustible source. Additionally, enormous common salt deposits emerged

from the evaporation of sea water millions of years ago. Common salt supply is affected by mining

or leaching these deposits or, at climatically favorable points, by recovery of salt from sea water by

means of solar evaporation. Quality of salt produced in that way does however no longer meet

today’s demands. Purity, whiteness, crystal habit, crystal size distribution and free flowing behavior

are quality criterions for the different usages of salt. Such qualities can be met only by processing

the crude salt in mechanical or thermal refining plants.

1
B. Properties of the Product

1. Raw Salt

Sodium chloride, NaCl, having a molecular weight of 58.443, is a colorless salt with good

solubility in water. Chemically pure NaCl crystallizes from aqueous solutions in well-formed cubes,

which under the influence of surface tension often grow together into funnel-shaped, hollow,

square-based pyramids. In the presence of impurities, octahedral or dodecahedra are sometimes

formed.

2. Iodized Salt

Iodine is an element or substance needed by the body to function properly. The recommended

minimum daily requirement is 150 µg. An iodine particle the size of a pinhead is enough to satisfy

a person’s nutritional requirement for one month. The chemicals commonly used for salt

iodination are potassium iodate and potassium iodide. Potassium iodate (KIO3) is recommended

for use in countries where salt is often moist. Potassium iodide (KI) was introduced in countries

where the salt is pure and the climate is temperate.

C. Process Selection

1. Survey of Methods used in the Industrial Production of Salts

a) Mining of Rock Salt from Underground and Surface Deposits

According to Westphal et. al., (2012), rock salt has been mined in Europe for 3000 years. A

salt deposit near ground level in the Eastern Alps was developed by tunneling and worked by

excavation around 1000 B.C. Salt-bearing regions are revealed by the presence of surface springs

of saline water, and these were the areas where the possibility of mining was always investigated

by sinking shafts. The main precondition for success is the presence of dry overlying rock, and it

was this circumstance that enabled the first German salt mine to be opened in 1825 near

Schwäbisch Hall. In other parts of Europe, salt was mined long before this e.g., in Poland before

1000 A.D. and in England since the 1600s.

2
 The purity of the salt mined from rock salt deposits is between 90 and 99% NaCl, and

sometimes higher. The other minerals present in the rock salt are mainly clay and anhydrite, often

intimately intergrown. Rock salt and potassium chloride have the same marine origin, often

occurring together in a single deposit, and have essentially the same mechanical strength properties.

Hence, the development and mining of rock salt deposits is similar to that of potash mineral

deposits.

The most widely used and most economic process today is solution mining. A combination of

dry and wet mining for production of brine is employed in alpine salt deposits. In a few cases,

subsurface solution mining is also carried out at depths of 100-140 m. The work-face dissolution

process, in which dissolution is carried out in chamber like tunnel sections, is no longer used. The

rock salt, which may be present in a pure state (e.g., geologically undisturbed crystalline salt

deposits) or in a mixed mineral in finely divided form (e.g., in alpine salt deposits), is dissolved by

the action of fresh water on the rock formation and converted to a concentrated salt solution

(brine with an NaCl content of 312 g/L or 27%).

In all mining processes, the brine is produced in underground excavations made by

conventional mining or solution mining. The extraction processes result information of chambers.

Between the chambers in which the brine is produced and extracted, pillars of considerable size

are left behind to maintain stability of the rock.

b) Vacuum Salt

The term ‘‘vacuum salt’’ is used for crystalline salt that is obtained from saturated brine in

evaporative crystallizers. Synonyms for vacuum salt are ‘‘evaporated salt’’ and ‘‘vacuum pan salt’’.

The feed for salt crystallization plants can be saturated brine or rock salt and solar salt Vacuum

salt is normally produced in closed evaporators by dehydrating brine with heat alone or in

combination with a vacuum, with recovery of most of the energy. In spite of the term ‘‘vacuum

salt’’, neither ‘‘vacuum’’ nor ‘‘pressure’’ is a characteristic factor for salt crystallization. The basic

processes for vacuum salt production are brine purification, evaporation, and crystallization. Three

3
salt crystallization processes are in use: Multiple-effect process, Mechanical Vapor Recompression

(MVR) process and Re-crystallization process.

(1) Multiple-effect Process

The multiple-effect evaporation process is classical process for the production of vacuum salt.

Several evaporators are connected in series. The boiling point of the brine is reduced in each

evaporator stage by ca. 12-20°C by decreasing the pressure above the brine from unit to unit with

the aid of a vacuum pump. The first effect is heated by live steam, and the following stages are

heated by the vapors of the upstream unit. The vapor of the last stage enters a cooling water system

(loss stage). The brine feed is preheated with condensate from the evaporators. The consumption

of live steam can be reduced by decreasing the number of effects. In salt plants the number of

effects used varies between two and six.

Today, four- or five-stage evaporator installations with production capacities of up to 150 t/h

of vacuum salt are usual. The largest evaporator lines, which use the multiple-effect principle, can

be found in The Netherlands. The salt factory at Harlingen has a design capacity of 1.2x106 t/a of

vacuum salt (Krenn, 1998).

(2) Mechanical Vapor Recompression (MVR) Process

An MVR plant works like an open heat pump (Carnot process) in which the vapors are

recompressed up to the pressure level of the heating steam. Vapor-recompression forced-

circulation evaporators consist of a crystallizer with one or several heating loops, a compressor, a

vapor scrubber, and a preheating system. Feed brine enters the crystallizer vessel where salt is

precipitated. Vapor is withdrawn, scrubbed, and compressed for reuse in the heater. Crystallized

salt is removed from the elutriation leg as slurry.

Recompression evaporators are more energy-efficient than multiple-effect evaporators but

require more expensive electrical power for energy input. The compressor can be a radial turbo

type compressor or industrial blowers connected in series. The development of single- stage

compressors has significantly reduced cost (Winkler, 2006).

4
 The recompression system is widely used where cheap electrical energy is available. A thermo-

compression plant with a steam ejector instead of a mechanical thermo-compressor involves less

capital expense but higher energy costs. The heat pump in salt works is one of the oldest

applications of heat recovery. In Austria, Bavaria, Slovakia, and Switzerland the entire salt

production is based on MVR technology. The world’s largest two single-stage sodium chloride

MVR crystallizers each with an annual salt capacity of 820 000 t are installed in Plaquemine,

Louisiana at the Shintech chlor-alkali electrolysis plant (HPD Selected to Supply the Second Salt

Production and Caustic Facility for Shintech Inc. on U.S. Gulf Coast, 2009).

Hybrid systems are also used with multistage and vapor-recompression evaporators. 75,76In

combined methods high-pressure steam is passed through backpressure turbines, and the exhaust

steam heats a multistage evaporation plant. The mechanical power is available for compressing the

vapors. A large hybrid plant at Varangeville/France consists of a first, single unit operated by

compression while a second unit operates in five-stage evaporation (Guibert & Viard, 1978). This

plant has a yield of 600 000 t/a, with the following brine boiling temperatures: MVR 116, 1st stage

124, 2nd stage 105, 3rd stage 86, 4th stage 69, 5th stage 49°C.

(3) Re-crystallization process

The re-crystallization process was first introduced in the salt industry in 1951 by International

Sal as the Richards process and by Salins du Midi as the Pompe a Sel process (International Salt

Company, 1951). It starts with rock or solar salt as feed input and ends up with vacuum salt. In

principle cold and hot dissolution of the solid salt is possible. The re-crystallization process is

similar to flash-evaporation desalination of seawater or a multi-flash evaporation plant.

In the preferred hot-dissolution process the undersaturated recirculation brine becomes

saturated with solid salt at about 108°C and is fed downstream to several flash crystallizers working

at different pressures. Supersaturation is achieved in the vacuum crystallizers by simultaneous

evaporation of water and adiabatic cooling of the brine feed, and consequently crystallization of

salt starts. The purge from the last crystallizer is pumped to preheater columns, where the cold

5
saturated brine is mixed with the hot vapors coming from the evaporators. Finally, the output

from the columns is undersaturated brine at nearly 100 °C which goes back to the saturators.

Process heat losses are compensated by means of booster heaters built into the hot brine

recirculation pipeline. The heat content of the vapor from the last evaporator is lost. Another

thermal concept uses the vapors from the last evaporator by mechanical vapor recompression up

to the pressure of the heating system.

The re-crystallization process is well proven to convert low-quality rock and solar salts to

ultrapure vacuum salt, even for use in manufacturing pharmaceuticals. This technology is used in

Algeria, Bangladesh, Germany, Greece, Iran, and Turkey. The capacities reach up to maximum

260 000 t/a, whereby the number of flash evaporators is between three and seven.

2. Modification of Process for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

Modification of process involves vacuum salt (discussed in section 1.3.1 of this chapter) based

on seawater as raw material. Philippines is a solar salt producer because of its climate and

topography, the process includes the use of a solar saline pond to produce the solar salt, which is

re-crystallized in a vacuum plant using vacuum-evaporation crystallization. Modification of the

process was also based from Figure 1.1 Processes for salt production from seawater (Westphal,

G., et. al., 2012) and Figure 1.2. Vacuum Refinery System.

See Chapter III for process description of the modified process.

6
 Seawater

Concentrated
Seawater
Solar Multi-Stage Flash Electrolysis Reverse Osmosis
Evaporation (MSF)

Crude Saturated Brine Drinking Brine Brine

Salt (15-20 % NaCl) (9 % NaCl)
Concentrated
seawater

Washing Evaporation/ Brine Falling Film

Re-crystallizer
Plant crystallization Evaporator
(MVR, multiple-effect)

Sea Evaporated Salt Evaporated Salt

Salt

Figure 1.1. Processes for Salt Production from Seawater (Westphal et. al., 2012)

7
 Crude Salt

Addition of water/seawater

Saturated Brine

Chemical Treatment

Filter

Evaporative Crystallizer

Thickener

Centrifuge

Ion Dosing

Fluid Bed Dryer

Anti-Caking Dosing

Storage

Figure 1.2. Vacuum Salt Refinery System

8
D. Site Selection

Climatic and topographical factors have to be taken into consideration prior to the selection

of the most appropriate site for an iodized salt production. This selection depends on other

parameters than climatology or pedology: wide flat surface areas, as impervious as possible, sea

water uncontaminated by dilution or pollution are the major factors which govern brine

concentration and evaporation as well as salt crystallization.

1. Development of Possible Location Cases

According to Philippines Chamber of Salt Producers (PCSP) Pangasinan, Bulacan, Mindoro

Occidental, Iloilo and Cagayan de Oro are the areas in which salt is manufactured specifically solar

salt.

a) Pangasinan

(Google Earth, 2017)

9
 Pangasinan derived its name from the word “panag asinan”, which means “where salt is made”,

owing to the rich and fine salt beds which were the prior source of livelihood of the province’s

coastal towns.

Entry Points:

From Manila: via Rosales, via Bayambang or via Mangatarem

From Zambales: via Infanta

From Nueva Ecija: via Umingan or via Rosales

From Baguio City: via Sison or via San Fabian

National Transport Carriers:

Victory Liner, Five Star, Fermina Express, Dagupan Bus, De Leon Express and Santrans,

Fariñas, Genesis, Partas, Viron

Geography:

Pangasinan territory covers a land area of 536,818 hectares which constitutes almost one-half

(41.8 %) of the total land area of the region and 1.8 % of the total Philippine area. It is bounded

in the north by Lingayen Gulf, La Union and Benguet, in the north-east, by Nueva Vizcaya, in the

east, by Nueva Ecija and Tarlac in the south and Zambales and China Sea in the west (Pangasinan,

2017).

Land Classification in Hectares (DENR, PAGASA as cited in Pangasinan, 2017)

Alienable and Disposable Land - 406,395 (75.70%)

Forestland - 130,423 (24.30%)

Climate (DENR, PAGASA as cited in Pangasinan, 2017)

Average annual rain fall (mm) 182.3

Season Wet and Dry

10
(1) Comparative factors

(a) Raw Material Supply

Seawater is the principal raw material used in salt production. Salt and other elements are

naturally present in seawater which is very important in the salt production. According to the

topographical aspect of Dasol Pangasinan, Dasol Bay occupies the whole coastline of Dasol and

the South China Sea is located on its west. Thus, seawater will be collected from the Dasol bay.

(b) Availability of Labor

Pangasinan contributes a substantial share to the regional economy or GRDP. The annual

economic performance or output of the province averaged 60–70% of the regional total. Its

employment shares to the region accounts 52–54% of the regional total and contributes a total

family income of PHP 53 B in the 2000 Family Income & Expenditure Survey (FIES). This is

more than the combined incomes of La Union, Ilocos Norte, and Ilocos Sur. The service sector,

fueled by trade, was also the biggest employment provider in the region with a 46% share in 2007.

This was followed by agriculture, fishery and forestry contributing 41%; and the industry sector at

13%.

The population of Pangasinan in the 2015 census was 2,956,726 people, with a density of 540

inhabitants per square kilometer or 1,400 inhabitants per square mile.

Table 1.1. Population Census of Pangasinan (Philippine Statistics Authority)

Year Pop. ±% p.a.
1903 442,521 —
1918 565,922 +1.65%
1939 742,475 +1.30%
1948 920,491 +2.42%
1960 1,124,144 +1.68%
1970 1,386,143 +2.11%
1975 1,520,085 +1.87%
1980 1,636,057 +1.48%
1990 2,020,273 +2.13%
1995 2,178,412 +1.42%
2000 2,434,086 +2.41%
2007 2,645,395 +1.15%
2010 2,779,862 +1.82%
2015 2,956,726 +1.18%

11
 Table 1.2. Trade and Investment (DTI as of 2010)
Investments Inflows (Php) 1,590,311,604.34
Export generated (US$) 901,289.27
Registered Establishments by Sector 7,262
Manufacturing 437
Personal Services 2,932
Industrial Services 246
Trading 3,647

(c) Transport

Table 1.3. Road Network

Lengths (km) Paved (km) Unpaved (km)
National 623.74 623.541 0.199
Provincial 725.0525 659.2945 65.758
Municipal (2009) 533.462 398.644 134.817
Barangay (2009) 5,517.04 1,780.39 3,736.65
Total 7,399.29 3,461.87 3,937.42

(d) Utilities

Table 1.4. Power (DPWH, PEO, MPDC, NIA, PANELCO 1 & 3, DECORP, CENPELCO,
LUELCO as of 2009)
Municipality Served (%) 100
Barangay Served (%) 100
Household Served (%) 82

Table 1.5. Water Supply* (As of 2009)

Household with Safe Water Sources (%) 92.62
Household with Unsafe Water Sources (%) 7.47
*LSS Survey covers 46 (96%) cities/municipalities and 1,312 (97%) barangays only

(e) Telecommunication

Table 1.6. Telecommunication Facilities (NTC, Digitel, PLDT, PIA, Philpost, TelOf,
MPDC/CPDC, LTO As of 2009)
Number of existing telephone lines equipped/installed
114,244
(PLDT, Digitel)
Telephone Density (Telephone/100 Persons) 4.22
Number Of Telegraph Stations (Public) 19

12
 Cities/Municipalities Served By Telegraph Service (%) 40
Postal Office/Stations 51
Cities/Municipalities Served by Mail Service (%) 100
Postal Density 1:53, 075
Number of Letter Carriers 107
Letter Carrier to Population Ratio 1:25, 298
Number of Internet Cafes 645
Number of Internet Service Providers (ISP) 16
Cable Television Stations 21
Number of Radio Stations(AM/FM) 21
Number of Local Newspapers 21
Number of Different Types And Classification Of Motor
184,743
Vehicle Registered

E. Site Layout

Dasol is a third class municipality in the province of Pangasinan, Philippines and is popular

for its production of commercial salts. Dasol Bay occupies the whole coastline of Dasol and where

the town gets its saltwater.

Dasol is a small town in western Pangasinan, situated in a plateau. It is bounded on the north

by the municipalities of Burgos and Mabini, the mineral-rich Zambales mountains in the east, the

municipality of Infanta on the south, and the vast South China Sea on the west. It has an area of

about 230 square kilometers.

13
(Google Earth, 2017)

(Google Earth, 2017)

14
(Google Earth, 2017)

(Google Earth, 2017)

15
F. Plant Layout

600mm

600mm
600mm 100575.3mm

FOR TRUCKS, TRAILER AND CARGO CARS ONLY

20100.2mm

TRUCKS, TRAILER AND CARGO CARS PARKING AREA ONLY

17692.2mm

IODIZED SALT
WAREHOUSE AND

12066.8mm
PACKAGING
10700mm 8437.5mm
5750mm
4750mm

3755.6mm
1500mm

ADMINISTRATIVE AND FINANCE DEPARTMENT

1650mm
EMPLOYERS LOCKER PARKING AREA

5658.2mm
EMPLOYEES PARKING AREA

5250mm

5291.8mm
1400mm

CANTEEN GUARD HOUSE

3092.2mm
ONLY

925mm

3500mm
CONFERENCE ROOM

16500mm COMFORT

1800mm

1650mm
2100mm
600mm
ROOM
3499.6mm

2750mm
1750mm

2950mm
2749.7mm

HR 3000.4mm
1500mm

DEPT
5802.9mm

LIME AND SODA ASH STORAGE ROOM 1052.7mm

5749.3mm

EMPLOYEES GATE
50733.6mm
8000mm
SLUDGE DEPOSITORY
WASTE WATER TREATMENT AREA
33570.3mm

9225.8mm
700mm

1800mm
24500mm

PROCESS AREA

CLINIC

POWER HOUSE/ BOILER QUALITY ASSURANCE

13302mm

13250.1mm
DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT GREENHOUSE
PUMP HOUSE
9000mm

COMFORT ROOM

700mm
1038.3mm
47500mm
9000mm

600mm
99700mm

Figure 1.3. Plant Layout of Industrial Production of Iodized Salt

16
 Chapter II

Market Study

Salt is existent in all animal and vegetable life and is coeval with life itself. Virtually every person

in the world has some direct or indirect contact with salt daily. People routinely add salt to their

food as a flavor enhancer. According to UNICEF Philippines country representative Tomoo

Hozumi, salt is almost the only commodity which everyone consumes in more or less the same

amount everyday throughout life regardless of socioeconomic status and gender, nationality, ethnic

or cultural differences.

Sodium chloride is an essential constituent of the body fluids and is responsible for a number

of vital functions in the body. Salt is used as a medium in supply of iodine to the body that is used

for formation of thyroxin an essential hormone. Thus, iodizing salt for human consumption is a

modern trend.

A. Demand

1. Local Demand

As a prime commodity, salt has a great demand. Aside from being used for food, it is a vital

component of industrial products such as steel, fabric, paper and even bullets. It is also a main

ingredient in manufacturing Filipino foods such as dried fish, fish sauce and shrimp paste.

Figure 2.1 shows the percentage of household that use edible salt fortified with iodine. As

mentioned above the demand for table salt/iodized salt is related with human consumption. The

Philippines’ National Nutrition Surveys reported mean one-day per capita sodium intakes based

on household food weighing, rather than age- and sex-specific intakes. Consumption figures given

in per capita averages assume equal shares for household members including infants3-6 and do

not show existing variations in intake among different groups.

Data from the nutrition surveys of 1978, 1987, 1993, 2003 and 2008 showed that discretionary

(ie, salt added during cooking or at the table) use of salt declined over the years. Still, the 2008 data

17
suggest that levels of intake exceeded the recommended amount and that more than half of

ingested sodium was accounted for by discretionary use of salt see Table 2.1.

Figure 2.1. Philippines-Consumption of Iodized Salt in % households (World Development

Indicator, 2016)

Table 2.1. Estimated per capita sodium intakes based on National Surveys-Philippines

Mean per capita sodium intake (g/day)

Discretionary intake (salt added
National Nutrition Survey year from
which data was taken at the table or during Total intake
cooking)
2008 1.57 2.29
2003 1.57 NA
1993 1.97 NA
1987 2.36 NA
1982 4.63 NA
1978 2.36

18
 Figure 2.2. Sources of Salt in 1990 with an Annual Requirement of 338,000 MT of Salts
(Retrieved from http://www.map-
abcdf.com.ph/documents/presentations/Agribusiness/Agricultural%20Activities%20and%20Se
rvices/06%20Philippine%20Salt%20Industry.pdf)

Figure 2.3. Sources of Salt in 2009 with an Annual Requirement of 590,000 MT of Salts
Retrieved from http://www.map-
abcdf.com.ph/documents/presentations/Agribusiness/Agricultural%20Activities%20and%2
0Services/06%20Philippine%20Salt%20Industry.pdf

a) Type of Consumers and Type of Market

Salt is produced for human consumption, food processing, industrial use and animal

consumption. Salt for human consumption are known to salt producers as commercial salt since

this is the one that is available in the market and usually bought by consumers in retail packs either

through “takal” or as repacked.

19
 In the “takal” retail system, salt is displayed in open heap where salt is only repacked in plastic

bag upon purchase of customers. Salt used for food processing, is salt used for processing of food

such as fish sauce (“patis”), fish or shrimp paste (“bagoong”), canned or cured meats, ice or ice

cream. Salt used for tanning or curing leather was classified as industrial salt. Salt used for animal

consumption are those salt mixed with animal feeds.

About 91% 346 salt producers produced salt for human/commercial (salt sold at the market),

75% produced salt for food processing and 27% produced salt for animal consumption. Only 7%

of the respondents reportedly produce salt for industrial use. In the IRR of ASIN Law, only

industrial salt, salt meant for treatment, processing and/or manufacturing of non-food products,

are exempted from salt iodization.

2. World Salt Demand

Consumption can vary significantly from one year to another, since demand in one of the

largest uses, deicing, is dependent on winter conditions, mostly in the industrialized countries of

the Northern Hemisphere. During the forecast period to 2020, salt consumption is expected to

grow 1.9 % annually to 335 million metric tons valued at $14.1 billion driven by increasing demand

from the chemical industry, as well as expected increasing demand from industrial, food, and feed

markets (World Salt, 2016).

The global market of salt in 2010 was estimated to decrease by 3.6% from that of 2009. Global

demand for salt will rise 2.9% annually through 2015 to the size of 327 million metric tons. Solar

evaporation is the most popular method of producing salt, accounting for 38% of 2010 industry

shipments. It is the most economical method of producing salt in areas with favorable weather

conditions, including a number of nations in the Africa/Mideast, Asia/ Pacific, and Central and

South America regions. Salt production is forecast to grow fastest in the Asia/Pacific and

Africa/Mideast regions, and as a result solar evaporation will account for an increasing share of

global salt output through 2015. Rock salt and brine production will also post moderate increases

20
through 2015. The table salt production industry is expected to remain largely unchanged over the

next five years 2011 (Salt Industry Market Research Reports, Analysis & Trends, n.d.)

According to IBIS World, due to the staple-nature of table salt, the industry was one of the

few to escape the recession unharmed as consumers and food processors maintained demand for

salt. Over the period to 2013, revenue growth was expected to increase by an annualized rate of

0.1% and operator profit margins are expected to remain healthy. However, industry revenue

dipped 2.8% in 2010 and 7.6% in 2011, largely due to a drop in the price of salt. In 2013 the

industry is expected to earn revenue of $598.7 million, a 2.1% increase on 2012. The table salt

production industry experienced growth in the five years to 2013, despite revenue volatility in 2010

and 2011 (Salt Industry Market Research Reports, Analysis & Trends, n.d.)

B. Supply

According to Nutrition Center of the Philippines December 2010 salt survey, salt importers,

traders and producers are located in Metro Manila, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Bulacan,

Pangasinan, Occidental Mindoro, Batangas, Iloilo, Guimaras, Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental,

Cebu, Misamis Oriental, Davao, General Santos City and Zamboanga and there are 384 salt

producers. Most salt producers use solar evaporation to produce coarse salt. Salt producers from

Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte, La Union and one-third of producers from Pangasinan use the cooking

method to produce fine salt.

From the 346 respondents, 9.5% produced salt not exceeding 2 MT (subsistence producers),

72% produced salt ranging from more than 2 MT to 300 MT (small-scale producers), 17.3%

produced salt ranging from more than 300 MT to 2,000 MT (medium-scale producers) and 1.2%

produced salt exceeding 2,000 MT (large-scale producers).

21
 According to the United States Geological survey Philippines ranked 35th place which

contribute 0.26% of world production.

Figure 2.4. Major Countries in Salt Production Worldwide from 2011 to 2016 (in 1,000 metric
tons) (Statistica, 2016)

Salt production typically starts in the month of October and ends in May as the country

approaches the rainy season. In 2014, the Philippines produced 1,016 metric tons of salt. (Bollen,

2014)

1. Total Salt Importation

The production of quality salt in the Philippines is a crucial component in achieving successful

salt iodization in the country. While some groups have called for the importation of salt as a

solution in combating iodine deficiency and to sustain the demand of iodized salt in the country,

the government must control the quantity of salt imports because it would lead to destabilization

of the economic livelihood of salt producing communities in the country.

22
 Table 2.2 shows the total salt imports of the country while figure 2.5 shows the

competitiveness of Domestic salt.

Table 2.2. Total Salt Importation (Bureau of Export Trade Promotion, DTI)

Year Quantity in kilos

2006 380,648,510
2007 614,906,890
2009 492,924,844
2009 436,008,998

Figure 2.5. Local vs. Imported Salt (Philippine Chamber of Salt Producers)

C. Price

The production of salt in the Philippines contributes to 20% of the country’s salt supply.

Despite the large production of local salt producers, these are often replaced by imports. Locally

produced salts are very vulnerable to the climate. In addition, local producers do not have the

capacity to further process their raw salt.

The major traders in the Philippines include, Salinas Corporation, Artemis Salt Corporation,

and Arvin International Marketing, Inc. These traders produced salt locally and also import mostly

their salt products. These large traders dominate the market and dictate the price of salt as the local

23
producers are dependent on them for financing and trading of their salt. The majority of the

producers are small and medium scale, production capacity is highly fragmented and salt quality is

an issue, particularly moisture. Moisture makes iodine unstable resulting in inconsistent quality

iodized salt. Most producers do not have the financial capacity to make salt farm production more

efficient or to invest in machines and storage facilities to be able to supply market requirements

for volume and quality (TAMACO, 2017).

The first locally produced iodized salt is the Fidel Iodized Salt by Salinas Corporation. It was

started in 1993 and is the first locally-produced iodized salt endorsed by the Department of Health.

It was made in response to RA 8172 on the Act of promoting Salt Iodization Nationwide or the

ASIN LAW, and the desire of the corporation to help the government fight the iodine deficiency

among the Filipinos. (Salinas Corporation, 2017)

Table 2.3. Price of Local Iodized Salt

Brand Price/kg
Fidel
 Coarse 21.25
 Refined 25.75
 Free-flowing 32.75
Marco Polo 21.5
McCornick 25.75
RAM 19.75
Royal Choice 16.75
TJ 15.5

A sack of iodized salt (40 kg) costs Php 400 to Php 520 at retail price (Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations, 2006).

Table 2.4. Price of Imported Iodized Salt

Product name Quantity Tax-free price With Tax (Php)
Master Chef Rock 1 sack (250g x 48) USD Php USD Php
Iodized Salt 4.56 229.62 5.69 286.40

24
 The price of the imported iodized salt is much than the local iodized salt however in a very

small difference. Hence, local producers/suppliers are forced to meet their price. These results,

however to lesser profit.

1. Tariff Protection and Tax

As stated in the ASIN Law iodized salt is considered a basic necessity of Filipinos. The

Republic Act No. 8172 known as ASIN Law (An Act for Salt Iodization Nationwide) envisions to

protect and promote the health of the people, to maintain an effective food regulatory system and

to provide the entire population especially women and children with proper nutrition. For this

purpose, the State shall promote the nutritional fortification of food and combat micronutrient

malnutrition as a priority health program for the nation (Food and Drug Authority). Hence the

importation of iodized salt is not prohibited.

The importation of iodized salt however must comply with the following as stated under Rule

IV of the Revised Implementing Rules and Regulations of Republic Act No. 8172 "An Act

Promoting Salt Iodization Nationwide and for Related Purposes” (1996):

SECTION 1. The BFAD of DOH hereby prescribes the following standards for iodizing salt

in the Philippines.

COMPOSITION AND STANDARDS

Table 2.5. Purity requirements

Identification positive for Sodium and Chloride
Assay, min 97% (dry basis)
Moisture, max 4% for refined salt , 8% for unrefined salt
Calcium & Magnesium max 2%
Arsenic, max 1.0mg/kg
Cadmium, max 0.5 mg/kg
Lead, max 2.0 mg/kg
Mercury, max 0.2mg/kg

The salt may contain natural secondary products which may include calcium, potassium and

magnesium compounds.

25
 Table 2.6. Iodine levels
Source Type of container/package
Locally produced salt Bulk ( >2kgs ) Retail (≤2 kgs)
Production site 70-150 mg/kg 60-100 mg/kg
Retail site 50-100 mg/kg 40-100 mg/kg
Imported salt 70-150 mg/kg 60-100 mg/kg
SECTION 6. Importation of industrial salt shall be in bulk, never in bags or sacks. Imported

salt in bulk shall be released to the importers' warehouse for iodization, if it is to be sold for human

or animal consumption, and shall be inspected by BFAD after iodization, otherwise it cannot be

sold or distributed until iodized. Importers of salt shall submit to BFAD, prior to the arrival of

shipment, a non-negotiable copy of Bill of Lading, Commercial Invoice and packing list, if any. In

all cases, BFAD shall endeavor that the above transactions are not delayed. No imported salt shall

be released from BOC unless BFAD issues clearance.

SECTION 7. Only iodized salt shall be imported in bags or sacks, subject to inspection by

BFAD upon arrival. If iodine level is below Philippine standards, the importer shall iodize it to

conform to Philippine standards.

The tax on the production, sale or consumption of a commodity in the Philippines or called

excise tax applies on goods manufactured or produced in the Philippines for domestic sale or

consumption or for any other disposition and on goods imported. It has two types:

 Specific Tax – refers to the excise tax imposed which is based on weight or volume capacity

or any other physical unit of measurement

 Ad Valorem Tax – refers to the excise tax which is based on selling price or other specified

value of the goods/articles

From which, salt is categorized under all mineral and mineral products (non-metallic), quarry

resources which has a tax rate of two percent (2%) based on the actual market value, in the case

of those locally-extracted or produced; and, in the case of importation or the value used by the

Bureau of Customs in determining tariff and customs duties, net of Excise Tax and Value-Added

Tax. (Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR)).

26
 Under Revenue Memorandum 14-2014 which has a subject of “Guidelines and Procedures for

the Processing and Issuance of an Electronic Authority to Release Imported Goods (Eatrig) For

Excise Tax Purposes” it was indicated that - In case of salt, certification that the imported salt is

extracted from sea water duly authenticated by the Philippine embassy at the country of origin to

qualify exemption from excise tax

(Retrieved from ftp://ftp.bir.gov.ph/webadmin1/pdf/84389RMO%20No%2014-2014.pdf).

This implies that the price of imported iodized salt will remain low and can continue to go lower.

2. Projected Price

The aim of this industry is to contribute to the supply of iodized salt in the country at a lower

price which will lessen the need for importation. It also desires to acquire all raw salt from the

local producers if possible and contribute to the local supply of iodized salt in the country.

Therefore, it must be at a lower price than the imported iodized salts.

From Table 2.3 the cost of locally produced iodized salt ranges from Php15/kg to Php33/kg

depending on the brand while the imported iodized salt costs Php23/kg and up.

The target production of this industry is 100,000 kg/day (40 MT annually). The projected price

will be Php19.75/kg and Php770/sack (40 kg). The industry will start with the marketing strategy

of selling 70% of the production in bulk and the remaining will be retailed.

D. Marketing Program

1. Marketing Program and Practices of Competitors

Due to large demand of salt in many applications, the number of the salt industry grew larger.

When the demand and supply of iodized salt are stable, the prices of the salt are usually stable.

However, salt producers are focusing on the export strategies and price increase caused by the

weather conditions that delays the production. As stated by the law, iodized salt is a prime

commodity and that the Act for Salt Iodization Nationwide (ASIN) Law (RA 8172) was

implemented to eliminate the micronutrient malnutrition in the country especially Iodine

Deficiency Disorder. Major competitors promote the quality of their products by complying with

27
the standards set by the ASIN Law and the price of reflects on the competitiveness of the market.

The iodized salt is transported in different locations for home and industrial purposes.

2. Proposed Marketing Program

The marketing strategies and practices within the Salt Industry consists four variables, the

price, promotion, place and product (Marketing Strategy | Marketing Mix: product, price, place &

promotion | Entrreprenuer's Toolkit).

a. Product

Iodine and sodium can be found in fruits and vegetables. However, the amounts of these may

not be always enough. Therefore, iodized salt can help to maintain a healthy balance in the body

(10 Benefits of Using Iodized Salt, n.d.). The misconception about the iodized salt is more

expensive than the raw salt, however, the difference is minimal and your body benefits its

advantages. The target product is a white and clean iodized salt that meets the standards of the

consumers. The consumers depend on the product’s affordability, storability and availability.

b. Price

The aim in setting the price of the iodized salt is to keep the price competition to competitors

in order to increase the sales with the aid of promotional strategies and maintain the 100,000

kg/day production. It is important to take note the effects of price increase or reduction, in both

cases the producer and consumer seeks good value for money.

c. Place

The salt warehouse is covered with roof to ensure the quality of the product and to avoid

contaminants. It is located in the plant (Dasol, Pangasinan) where trucks are allowed to enter for

transportation purposes in distributing the products. The iodised salt are applied in human or

household consumption, food manufacturing plants, animal feed manufacturers, and fish canning

industries (A Survey of Salt Importers, Producers and Traders in the Philippines: An Evaluation

of Internal and External Quality Assurance and Control, 2010)

d. Promotions

28
 Today’s technology became an advantage in marketing products in every industry. Newsletters

via e-mails or internet are the fastest and accessible way to promote the product, by placing

advertisements in magazines or by media partners in radio and television. Community-based

partnership is also an option that serves as information to the public about the Iodine Deficiency

Disorder (IDD) in hospitals and stores.

3. Channels of Distribution

Prior to selling the product, the packaging is in brand new woven polypropylene sacks for 40

kg or packed in transparent polyethylene bag for 1 kg. The packaging label includes the

manufacture’s name, address and manufacturing date. Within the country, the refined iodized salt’s

destination is sold by wholesale and is assumed to be distributed in small-scale businesses in nearby

provinces. The salt is also sold in different industry that uses refined iodized salt in their materials.

REFINED
IODIZED SALT

Wholesaler

1 kg per pack 40 kgs per pack Industries

(Sold as wholesale min. 40)

Small Scale Business

(Super Market, Shops)

Consumers

Figure 2.7. Channels of Distribution of Iodized Salt

E. Projected Sales Quantity

Based on the demand and supply study of salt in the Philippines, it shows that iodized salt

industries in the Philippines alone cannot meet the increasing demand of salt. Some industries still

need to import iodized salt from other countries especially on rainy season just to meet the demand

29
especially on the campaign against iodine deficiency. During the forecast period to 2020, salt

consumption is expected to grow 1.9 % annually to 335 million metric tons valued at $14.1 billion

driven by increasing demand from the chemical industry, as well as expected increasing demand

from industrial, food, and feed markets (World Salt, 2016) and according to the United States

Geological survey Philippines ranked 35th place which contribute 0.26% of world production.

This salt company will help in meeting the increasing demand of salt without importing in

other countries and could also help in combating iodine deficiency.

The price of the iodized salt in the Philippines is varying depending on the locality. But the

average price is ranging from 16.00 to 25.00 (Php) per kg.

The projected sales quantity will now depend on the demand, supply, price and marketing

strategies. This salt industry has a target production of 100,000 kg salt/day (100 tons/day). This

plant will operate 6 days a week in 7 months (hot season). Therefore, annually, the projected supply

of iodized salt for this company is 16,800,000 kg (16,800 tons/year). But there is a chance that

small percentage of it will not be sold because of competency with other salt industries. Therefore,

marketing strategies are very important. Based on the marketing strategies of the company, we can

say that 100% of the product can be sold. Based on selling strategy, the product will be sold by

wholesale (70%) and retail (30%). Wholesale will be per sack, containing 40 kg, and retail will be

per kg, therefore there are 294,000 sacks and 5,040,000 kg of iodized salt to be sold. Using a price

of 19.75 per kg and 770.00 per sack, the projected sales for these 16,800,000 kg of iodized salt is

325,920,000.00 a year.

30
 Chapter III

TECHNICAL STUDY

A. Process Description and Detailed Flowsheets

1. Process Description

Seawater Crude salt Brine

Solar Evaporation Mixer

Figure 3.1. Feed Preparation Block Diagram

The water of the seas and oceans contains all the known elements, most of them present in

small amounts. It contains significant amount of magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca) and

other important seawater based process being the production of magnesium compound. Sodium

chloride is the most important compound in terms of concentration, averaging 28g/L.

The salinity (grams of salt per kilogram of seawater) of ocean and seawater varies with location

and depth. The average salinity is 3.5%, corresponding to a relative density of 1.026.

The salt mixture in seawater has the typical following composition: 77 wt % NaCl, 10 wt %

MgCl2, 6 wt % MgSO4, and 3.9 wt % CaSO4and 2 wt % KCl.

After being pumped from the sea, the seawater passes through the salt field from pond to

pond. As it passes through the ponds, the NaCl concentration in the seawater rises from 28 g/L

to roughly 260 g/L, corresponding to an increase in relative density from 1.026 to 1.215. At this

point, the brine begins to deposit its salt. Most of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and calcium

sulfate (CaSO4.2H2O) has already crystallized before this point, while the magnesium salts continue

to become concentrated without crystallizing, (See Figure 3.2).

31
 Figure 3.2. Brine Composition as function of density. Value for CaSO4 concentration are
multiplied by factor of ten

Empirical Baume (°Be) is a scale use to measure the concentration of brines. According to that

scale the seawater concentration is 3.5 °Be. The crystallization of CaCO3 begins at 4.6 °Be and that

of CaSO4 at 13.2 °Be. NaCl crystallizes at 25.7 °Be, followed by the more soluble Mg salts at 30

°Be. By the time the relative density of the brine reaches 1.215 g/L, when NaCl crystals star to

form. Salt is harvested from crystallizing ponds as mixture of salt crystals and mother liquor

(bitterns) containing soluble impurities in high concentrations.

In Mexico a unique process for refining salt was developed. By re-dissolving high-quality solar

salt and using a ‘‘salting out’’ process to precipitate out trace amounts of calcium, magnesium, and

sulfate, it is possible to produce a solar sea salt exceeding 99% purity.

NaOH Soda ash (Na2CO3)

Brine Pure
REACTOR

Mg(OH)2 CaCO
3

Figure 3.3. Reactor Block Diagram

32
 Brine purification is an important step in the production of sodium chloride. The most

common and most problematic impurities in crude salt are the sulfates, chlorides, and, to some

extent, the carbonates of calcium and magnesium, as well as the triple salt polyhalite (K2SO4. 2

CaSO4. MgSO4 .2 H2O). The principal impurities of crude brine are therefore calcium, magnesium

and sulfate ions. Magnesium and calcium ion must be removed from the crude brine to avoid scale

formation and also impurities such as hydroscopic magnesium in solid sodium chloride.

Traditional brine purification is performed in the Schweizerhalle process named after a Swiss

saline. First is the addition of calcium hydroxide to precipitate magnesium ions as magnesium

hydroxide.

MgSO 4  Ca OH2  Mg OH2  CaSO4 

Na 2 SO4  Ca OH2  2NaOH  CaSO4 

Second is the addition of soda ash to precipitate the remaining calcium ions as calcium

carbonate. The crystallization of calcium carbonate can also be achieved by purging the alkaline

brine with carbon dioxide, easily available in the form of combustion gas, which contains about

10-14vol% carbon dioxide.

2NaOH  CO 2  CaSO4  Na 2 SO4  H 2O 

Sulfate is not removed completely from the crude brine during this purification process. Salt

is obtained from the purified brine by evaporation.

Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor

Second Fourth
First Effect Third Effect
Effect Effect
Evaporative Evaporative
Evaporative Evaporative
Crystallizer Crystallizer
Crystallizer Crystallizer

Salt Slurry

Pure Brine
Figure 3.4. Separator Feed Preparation Block Diagram

33
 Parallel feed multiple effect evaporators involve the adding of fresh pure feed and withdrawal

of concentrated product from each effect. The vapor from each effect is still used to heat the next

effect. This method of operation is mainly used when the feed is almost saturated and solid crystals

are the product, as in evaporation of brine to make salt.

The dynamic model for the evaporative crystallization process considers the following

assumptions:

 The mass holdup of each crystallizer does not vary with time

 The composition of solid phase is homogeneous in each effect

 There are no heat losses to the neighborhood

 The boiling point elevation of the solution is considered

The clear treated saturated brine is fed into a quadruple effect evaporator system consisting of

an evaporator, a tube bundle heat exchanger and a circulation pump. First, the brine is heated, to

force evaporation in the upper part of the crystallizers, exceeding the saturation point in the brine

and resulting in crystal formation. To control the heat during crystal formation more precisely, the

brine contained in each crystallization stage is circulated by a pump. Brine is heated is heated in

the exterior heat exchanger. The first crystallization is heated by live steam, while the second, third

and fourth crystallizations are heated by the vapors from the previous stage. The live steam

condensate from the heater of the first stage returns to the boiler house.

Iodine Dosing

Salt Slurry
Centrifuge Dryer

Filtrate (recycled Iodized salt

back to mixer)
Figure 3.5. Separator Block Diagram

34
 The centrifuge forces out the water by spinning the solution, resulting to about 4% moisture

salt crystals. Iodine is added while the salt crystals travel from the centrifuge to the dryer, where it

will achieve a composition of 98% sodium chloride, 0.002-0.004% iodine and the rest as moisture.

2. Block Flow Diagram

Figure 3.6.shows the block flow diagram of the production of iodized salt from seawater.

35
 Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor

First Effect Second Effect Third Effect Fourth Effect

Evaporative Evaporative Evaporative Evaporative Iodine
Crystallizer Crystallizer Crystallizer Crystallizer Dosing

Salt
Centrifuge Dryer

Filtrate
Pure Brine
Iodized salt

NaOH Soda ash

(Na2CO3)

Raw
Seawater Solar salt Pure
Mixer Clarifier Brine
Evaporation

Mg(OH)2 CaCO3

Figure 3.6. Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

36
3. Input-Output Structure Flow Diagram

Figure 3.7. shows the input-output structure flow diagram of the production of iodized salt

from seawater. Process feed streams entering from the left and the process product streams leaving

to the right. Other auxiliary streams shown on PFD, such as utility streams which are necessary

for operations are not part of the basic input-output structure.

37
 INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Crude salt
Brine
Seawater Mixer

Brine Mg(OH)2
Lime Clarifier
CaCO3
Soda Ash
Pure Brine

Salt
First Effect Evaporative
Crystallizer

Second Effect Salt

Evaporative Crystallizer

Third Effect Evaporative Salt

Crystallizer

Salt
Fourth Effect
Evaporative Crystallizer

Filtrate
Centrifuge
Salt
Salt

Dryer
Salt Iodized

Figure 3.7. Input-Output Process Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized salt from

Seawater

38
4. Qualitative Block Flow Diagram

Figure 3.8. shows the qualitative block flow diagram for the production of iodized salt from

seawater. The diagram indicates the operating conditions such as temperature and pressure of

equipment during the operation.

At first step, seawater is put into solar ponds to remove some water through solar evaporation.

The temperature can range from 20oC to 45oC. The mixer and the clarifier operates at normal

conditions, pressure of 1 atm and temperature of 25oC. According to literatures, brine solution

starts to crystallize beyond when the temperature is above 25oC. The salt is crystallized through

quadruple effect evaporation. The pressures in the first, second, third and fourth effect are 1atm,

0.5 atm, 0.2 atm and 0.07 atm respectively. The temperatures from the first effect to the fourth

effect are 100oC, 81.67oC, 60.37oC and 39.26oC respectively. The decreasing of the pressures unit

by unit is for the purpose of decreasing the boiling point of the brine solution. Therefore, the

temperatures are also decreased unit by unit.

The centrifuge operates at normal conditions, a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 25 oC.

The last step for this process is the removal of excess moisture through heating air. The

temperature of the heating air is 93oC which is also the temperature of the dryer.

These thermodynamics conditions were carefully chosen based on literatures.

39
 Vapor
Vapor Vapor Vapor

First Effect Second Effect Third Effect Fourth Effect

Evaporative Evaporative Evaporative Evaporative
Crystallizer Crystallizer Crystallizer Crystallizer
1 atm, Tsat=100°C 0.5 atm, Tsat=81.67°C 0.2 atm, Tsat=60.37°C 1 atm, Tsat=39.26°C

Salt Slurry

Pure Brine Iodine

Dosing

Soda ash Centrifuge

NaOH (Na2CO3) 1atm, 25°C Dryer
1atm,
93°C
Solar Raw salt Mixer
Seawater 1atm, 25°C Clarifier
Evaporation 1atm, 25°C
3.5 % by weight
salinity

CaCO3 Iodized salt

Mg(OH)2 0.02 % moisture
Filtrate
Ts2=60°C
Figure 3.8. Qualitative Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

40
 5. Quantitative Block Flow Diagram

Figure 3.9. shows the quantitative block flow diagram for the production of iodized salt from seawater. It shows the quantities of material required

for the process operation.

373,338.477 kg
vapor vapor vapor vapor/day

Steam
202.325 kPa
First Second Third Fourth
Evaporative Evaporative Evaporative Evaporative
Crystallizer Crystallizer Crystallizer Crystallizer
120, 001.6629 120, 001.6629 0.5 atm, 120, 001.6629 120, 001.6629
1 atm, 0.2 atm, 0.07 atm,
L Pure Brine L Pure Brine L Pure Brine L Pure Brine
Tsat = 100 °C Tsat = 81.67°C Tsat = 60.37°C Tsat = 39.26 °C

26, 667.0362 kg 26, 667.0362 kg 26, 667.0362 kg 26, 667.0362 kg

salt slurry salt slurry salt slurry salt slurry

106,668.1484 kg salt
slurry

2, 875.6247 kg 828.1339 kg
Na2CO3 NaOH
50,000 kg
53, 334.0742 kg Filter wet salt
salt slurry
Centrifuge
277, 627.2636 95, 615.2779 479, 910. 8006 480, 006.6516
L seawater Solar kg raw salt L Brine L Pure Brine 100,000 kg 100,000 kg
Mixer Clarifier Dryer
Evaporation dry salt Iodised Salt
3.5 wt% NaCl
53, 334.0742 kg Filter
6, 668.1484 L salt slurry Centrifuge 50,000 kg
recycled brine wet salt

SLUDGE 6, 668.1484 L
2, 999.6336 kg CaCO3 ↓& recycled brine
603.6796 kg Mg(OH)2 ↓

Figure 3.9. Quantitative Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

41
6. Process Flow Diagram

Figure 3.10. shows an overview of the process flow diagram for the production of iodized salt

from seawater. The diagram also indicates operating variables, such as mass flow, temperature and

pressures which are tabulated at various points in the system.

42
 M-101 B-101 R-101 T-101 EC-101 EC-102 TK-102 EC-103 EC-104 C-101 T-102 A-101 F-101 H-101 FC-101 D-101 T-103 TK-101
Mixer Steam boiler Clarifier Pure brine Force circulation Force circulation Condensate Force circulation Force circulation Condenser Salt slurry tank Air filter Blower Air heater Filter centrifuge Dryer Recycled brine KIO3 solution
tank evaporator I evaporator II tank evaporator III evaporator IV tank tank
FC-102
Filter centrifuge

2875.6247 kg Na2Co3
828.1339 kg NaOH

C-101
1 1
377,627.2336 25 25
seawater 1 atm
479,91.806 479,91.806 0.5 atm 0.2 atm 0.07 atm
1 1
25 100°C 81.67°C 60.37°C 39.26°C
95,615.2579 3 4
480,006.6516
raw salt
2 M-101 R-101 5 1
P-101 25
T-101
53,334.742
FC-101
H-101 H-102 H-103 H-104
131,235.3 kg 12
steam /day
1
25
53,334.742 1
FC-102 1
25 25
6 7 8 9 13 TK-101
6,668.1484 6,668.1484
120,001.6 120,001.6 120,001.6 120,001.6
629 P-104 629 P-105 629 P-106 629 P-107 1 14 16
P-108 25
100,000
70.325 T-103
P-102 P-103
106,668.1484 106,668.1484 15
addition of KIO3

1940.6mm
120 11
10 through drip
220,472.7477 feeding
1
T-102 25
100,000

iodized salt 17

1
60
100,000

18

1
93
217,889.995 D-101

P-109

H-105
F-101
A-101

TK-102
B-101

KEY

Pressure ( atm)

Temperature (°C)

Figure 3.10. Process Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater Mass flow (kg/day)

43
B. Material and Energy Balance

1. Material Balance

Table 3.1. Summary of Material Balance

Process Mass in Mass out

Description Description
Equipment (kg/day) ( kg/day)
Water
2,723,150.43
Seawater(l) 2,818,765.688 Evaporated(g)
Evaporation Pond 95,615.2579
Raw salt(s)

TOTAL 2,818,765.688 TOTAL 2,818,765.688

Raw salt(s) 95,615.2579

Seawater(l) 377,627.2636 Brine(l) 479,910.8006

Mixer
Recycled Brine(l) 6668.1484

TOTAL 479,910.8006 TOTAL 479,910.8006

Brine(l) 479,910.8006 CaCO3 ↓(s) 2,999.6336

Na2CO3(s) 2875.6247 Mg(OH)2↓(s) 603.6796

Clarifier
NaOH(s) 828.1339 Pure Brine(l) 480,026.6516

TOTAL 483,614.5592 TOTAL 483,614.9688

First Effect
Pure Brine(l) 120,001.6629 Salt Slurry(aq) 26,667.0362
Evaporative

Crystallizer TOTAL 120,001.6629 TOTAL 26,667.0362

Second Effect
Pure Brine(l) 120,001.6629 Salt Slurry(aq) 26,667.0362
Evaporative

Crystallizer TOTAL 120,001.6629 TOTAL 26,667.0362

Pure Brine(l) 120,001.6629 Salt Slurry(aq) 26,667.0362

44
 Third Effect

Evaporative TOTAL 120,001.6629 TOTAL 26,667.0362

Crystallizer

Salt Slurry(aq)
Fourth Effect 26,667.0362
Pure Brine(l) 120,001.6629 Water
Evaporative 373,334.477
Evaporated(g)
Crystallizer
TOTAL 120,001.6629 TOTAL 400,005.513

Wet Salt(s) 100,000.00

Salt Slurry(aq) 106,668.1484
Filter Centrifuge Filtrate(l) 4668.1484

TOTAL 106,668.1484 TOTAL 106,668.1484

Wet Salt(s) 100,000.00 Dried Salt(s) 100,000.00

Dryer Air(g) 217,903.41 Air(g) 217,903.41

TOTAL 317,903.41 TOTAL 317,903.41

OVERALL
4,686,869.258 4,686,869.258
TOTAL

End of Table 3.1

45
2. Energy Balance

Table 3.2. Summary of Energy Balance

Energy Required Energy Released

Equipment
(W) (W)

Clarifier Brine 8.7387 8.7387

Heat Exchanger Brine 351,567.27

Steam 351,567.27

Dryer Wet salt 366,387.68

Dry salt 366,387.68

1st Effect Evaporative

3,342,419.42 3,342,419.42
Crystallizer

2nd Effect Evaporative

2,867,897.99 2,867,897.99
Crystallizer

3rd Effect Evaporative

5,657,555.07 5,657,555.07
Crystallizer

4th Effect Evaporative

8,365,623.83 8,365,623.83
Crystallizer

TOTAL 20,951,460 20,951,460

46
C. Process Equipment

Table 3.3. Process Equipment Summary

Process Equipment Operating No. Type/ Function

Equipme Code Conditions of Description
nt Unit
1 Mixer M-101 1 atm, 25°C 1 Pitched-blade (45o) Use to mix the

turbine recycled brine,

raw salt and

seawater to

produce 20%

brine solution

2 Clarifier R-101 1 atm, 25°C 1 Cylindrical Tank Use to remove

with Conical magnesium,

Bottom calcium and

sulfide ions.

3 Heat H-101, 4 Shell-and-tube Use to increase

Exchanger H-102, heat exchanger the

s H-103, & temperature of

H-104 the brine to the

desired

temperature

needed for the

evaporation

4 Forced- EC-101, 214.441 KPa 4 Forced Circulation Responsible

Circula EC-102, (5% extra of Evaporator for the

tion EC-103 the

47
 Evapor & EC- maximum crystallization

ator 104 working of brine

pressure)

5 Condenser C-101 1 Horizontal shell- Use to

and-tube condense the

condenser aqueous vapor

from the

evaporator to

its liquid state

(H2O)l

6 Boiler B-101 1 Type D Industrial Responsible

Boiler for generating

steam

7 Centrifuge FC-101,& 2 Pusher Centrifuge Use to remove

FC-102 excess water

from the salt

crystals

8 Dryer D-101 1atm, 1 Fluidized Bed Use to achieve

93°C Dryer the necessary

moisture of the

salt

9 Blower F-101 1 A centrifugal Use to supply

blower with blades the air needed

in radial direction in the dryer

48
 10 Air Heater H-105 1 Shell-and-tube Use to increase

heat exchanger the

temperature of

the air to the

desired

temperature

needed for

drying

11 Pure Brine T-101 1 atm, 25°C 1 Cylindrical closed Use as a

Tank vessel storage vessel

for the pure

brine

12 Salt T-102 1 Use to hold

Holding salt before

Tank ionization

13 Ionization T-103 1 Continuous Spray Responsible

Tank Salt Iodization for the

Mixing Tank ionization of

salt

14 KIO3 TK-101 1 Cylindrical closed Use as a

Solution vessel container for

Tank the KIO3

solution for

iodization

process

End of Table 3.3

49
1. Mixer (M-101)

The mixing tank induces a uniform concentration for the brine solution to be processed. A

pitched-blade (45o) turbine impeller is used in this system in consideration for the very large

production rate of the mixing tank.

Operating conditions:

Table 3.4. Operating Conditions for Mixer

Parameters Values

Input

1. Recycled Brine Flow Rate 6,668.1484 kg/ day

2. Raw Salt Flow Rate 95,615.2575 kg/day

3. Raw Salt Concentration 0.99

4. Seawater Flow Rate 377,627.2636 L/day

5. Seawater Concentration 0.035

Output

1. Brine Flow Rate 479,910.6645 kg/day

2. Brine Concentration 0.2

50
 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment Name: Mixer Operation: Continuous

Equipment Code: M-101 Function: Mixing recycled brine, raw salt and

seawater

to produce 20% brine solution

Impeller Type: Pitched-blade (45o) turbine Number of Unit: 1

Technical Detail

Operating Pressure: 1 atm

Operating Temperature: 25oC

Tube Details

Material of Construction of tubes: Stainless

steel 317L

Tube nominal diameter: 5/4-in

Scheduled number: 80

Number of tubes required, Nt: 234

Actual area required by the tubes: 0.3518 m2

Total area of tube sheet: 0.8069 m2

Tube sheet diameter: 1.01 m

Mixer Tank Details

Material of Construction of Mixer Tank: Low carbon steel

Mixer Tank Diameter: 5.194 m

Mixer Tank Area: 21.91 m2

Mixer Tank Height: 5.194 m

51
2. Clarifier (R-101)

The objective of this clarifier is to remove the remaining residues, calcium, and magnesium

and sulfate ions, from the brine solution. This is achieved by pouring sodium carbonate and

sodium hydroxide which reacts with the impurities removed as magnesium hydroxide and calcium

carbonate.

A cylindrical clarifier with conical bottom is used in this design.

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment Name: Clarifier Operation: Continuous

Equipment Code: R-101 Function: Removes magnesium, calcium and

sulfide ions.

Description/Type: Cylindrical Tank with Number of Unit: 1

Conical Bottom

Technical Detail

Operating Pressure: 1 atm

Operating Temperature: 25oC

Clarifier Tank Details

Material of Construction of Mixer Tank: Low Carbon Steel

Diameter: 3.94 m

Area: 12.19 m2

Height: 3.28 m

Clarifier Loading

Surface Overflow Rate: 1142.933 L/h m Detention Time: 2.87 hr.

Weir Overflow Rate: 1125.01 L/h m

Solids Loading Rate: 12.66 kg/h m2

52
3. Forced Circulation Evaporator (EC-101, EC-102, EC-103& EC-104)

The system selected is a quadruple effect evaporator system used for concentration of brine

solutions. Forced circulation evaporator is used for this system with parallel flow sequence. In

parallel feeding, there is no transfer of liquid from one effect to another effect. It is used primarily

when the feed is saturated and the product is solid containing slurry. This is most common in

crystallizing evaporators. Operating parameters for this system are mentioned below in table 3.4.

Table 3.5. Operating Conditions for Quadruple system

Parameters Value

1 Total number of effects 4

2 Feed flow rate 120,001.6629 kg/day/effect

3 Fresh brine solution concentration 0.2

4 Salt slurry concentration 0.9

5 Salt slurry rate 53,334.0724 kg/day/effect

6 Steam temperature 120°C

7 Feed temperature 25°C

53
 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment Name: Evaporative Crystallizer Operation: Continuous

Equipment Code: EC-101 ,EC-102, EC-103& Function: responsible for the crystallization

EC-104 of brine

Type/Description: Forced Circulation Number of Unit: 4

evaporator

Technical Detail

Steam temperature: 120°C Heating surface area: 118 m2

Steam pressure: 202.325 KPa Retention time: 2.26 h

Mechanical Design

Design Pressure: 214.441 KPa (5% extra of the maximum working pressure)

Tube Details

Material of Construction of tubes: Stainless steel 317L

Tube nominal diameter: 5/4-in

Scheduled number: 80

Number of tubes required, Nt: 234

Actual area required by the tubes: 0.3518 m2

Total area of tube sheet: 0.8069 m2

Tube sheet diameter: 1.01 m

Evaporator Drum Details

Material of Construction of Evaporator Drum: Low carbon steel

Evaporator drum diameter: 2.557 m

Evaporator drum area: 5.137 m2

Evaporator Drum height: 3.03 m

54
4. Heat Exchangers (H-101, H-102, H-103, & H-104)

Aqueous salt solution (120,001.629 kg/day) will be heated from 25°C to 100°C by a steam

having an inlet temperature of 120°C to 55°C. Published fouling factors should be used. Design a

shell and tube heat exchanger for this application.

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name: Heat Exchanger Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: H-101, H-102, H- Function: to increase the temperature of the brine to

103 & H-104 the desired temperature needed for evaporation

Description: Shell-and-tube heat Number of Units: 4

exchanger

Technical Detail

Type: 1-8 Shell-and-tube heat Fluid arrangement: Counter-current flow

exchanger

Heat transfer area: 24.8814 m2 Tube layout: 1.25 square pitch , Fixed tube plate

Number of tubes: 31 25% cut segmental baffle

Material of Construction: Stainless

Steel 317L

55
5. Condenser (C-101)

The condenser is a horizontal condenser designed to condense (15,555.601 kg vapor/ hr ) at

120°C. The coolant used is water which is supplied in the tube side at an inlet temperature of 20°C

and leaves at an outlet temperature of 35°C.

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment Name: Condenser Operation: Continuous

Equipment Code: C-101 Function: use to condense the aqueous vapor

from the evaporator to its liquid state

(H2O liquid)

Type: Horizontal shell and tube condenser Number of Unit: 1

Technical Detail

Working Pressure: 1 atm

Design Pressure: 1 atm

Mechanical Design

Shell side Tube side

Fluid: Aqueous vapor Fluid: Water (2,393,661.851 kg/day)

Inlet temperature: 120°C Inlet temperature: 20°C

Outlet temperature: 120°C Outlet temperature: 35°C

Number of shell: 1 Number of tubes: 31

Number of passes: 2 Outside diameter: 0.03175 m

Internal Diameter: 889 mm Length: 4.88 m

Allowable stress: 93.1632 Mpa Pitch: 39.69 mm (square)

Material of Construction: Stainless Steel

Allowable stress: 0.09807 Mpa

56
6. Boiler (B-101)

Boiler-101 is a closed-vessel and in which steam is generated under pressure that is greater

than atmospheric pressure. Steam generated is 220,472.7477 kg steam / day having a pressure of

202.325kPa. The boiler system comprises of a feed water system, steam system and fuel system.

The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam

demand. The steam system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is

directed through a piping system to the point of use. Steam pressure is regulated using valves and

checked with steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel

to generate the necessary heat (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011).

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name: Boiler Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: B-101 Function: Responsible for generating

steam

Type/Description: Industrial boiler Number of Unit: 1

Technical Detail

Steam generated: 202,472.7477 kg steam/day Steam pressure: 202.325 kPa

Steam/water circulation: Natural circulation

Tube layout: Fired tube boiler ( Flue of hot gas is Boiler Layout: Type D

flowing inside the tubes while water is contained

inside the shell)

57
7. Centrifuge (FC-101 &FC-102)

The 106 668.1484 kg of salt slurry is to be filtered through a continuous filtering centrifuge. It

was decided to use two centrifuges to filter this amount of salt slurry. Therefore 53, 334.072 of salt

slurry will enter each centrifuge. There are different centrifuges in industry depending on its

application. In filtering centrifuges, the basis of selection is the particle size of the product.

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name : Salt Slurry Centrifuge Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: FC-101 &FC-102 Function: Remove excess water from the

salt crystals

Type/Description: Pusher Centrifuge

Technical Detail

Capacity: 0.017 m2 Number of units: 2

Mechanical Design

D=0.5556 m

rb=2.58x10-3 m

G= 6827.77 m/s2

Vt= 91 m/s

Ω= 1546 r/min

58
8. Dryer (D-101)

The dryer is designed according to the following parameters listed in Table 3.6.

Table 3.6. Operating Parameters for Dryer Design

Parameters Values

Input

Salt Mass Flow Rate, Ls 100,000 kg/day

Air Mass Flow Rate, G 217,899.9005 kg/day

Initial Moisture, x1 0.04 kg total moisture/kg dry salt

Salt Temperature, Ts1 25°C

Heating Air Temperature, TG1 93°C

Humidity of heating air, H1 0.015 kg H2O/kg dry salt

Output

Salt Mass Flow Rate, Ls 100,000 kg/day

Air Mass Flow Rate, G 217,899.9005 kg/day

Final Moisture, x2 0.002 kg total moisture/kg dry salt

Salt Temperature, Ts2 60°C

Heating Air Temperature, TG2 38°C

Humidity of heating air, H2 0.032 kg H2O/kg dry salt

59
 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name: Dryer Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: D-101 Function: Responsible for removing the

moisture of salt

Type/Description: Fluidized bed dryer Number of Units: 1

Technical Detail

Temperature : 1=93°C

Pressure: 1 atm

Mechanical Design

Material of construction: Mild Steel

Fluidized bed height: 2 m

Dryer vessel height: 3.28 m

Dryer vessel diameter: 7.51 m

60
9. Air Heater (H-105)

217,899.9005 kg dry air per day will be heated from 30°C to 93°C by a steam having an Heater

inlet temperature of 120°C to 55°C. Published fouling factors should be used. Design a shell and

tube heat exchanger for this application.

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name: Air Heater Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: H- Function: to increase the temperature of the air to the desired

temperature needed for drying

Description: Shell-and-tube Number of Units: 1

heat exchanger

Technical Detail

Type: 2-4 Shell-and-tube heat Fluid arrangement: Counter-current flow

exchanger

Heat transfer area: 270.51 m2 Tube layout: 1.25 square pitch , Fixed tube plate

Number of tubes: 904 25% cut segmental baffle

Material of Construction:

Stainless Steel 317L

61
10. Blower (F-101)

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name: Blower Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: F-101 Function: Used to supply air needed in the

dryer

Type/Description: A centrifugal blower with Number of Units: 1

blades in radial direction

Technical Detail

Blower Head: 2.64 m

Discharge Power: 862.9 KW Shaft Power : 1232.71 KW

Mechanical Design

Number of blade : 5

Blade diameter : 0.45m Blade width: 0.04m

Inlet velocity: 4115.45 m/s Discharge velocity: 96873.76 m/s

Rotational speed: 4111450 rpm Efficiency = 70%

62
11. Tanks

a) Pure Brine Tank (T-101)

The pure brine tank serves as the storage tank for the purified brine to be processed in the

evaporative crystallizers. It gives the advantage for the pure brine to reach its equilibrium

temperature which is measured prior to entering the evaporative crystallizers.

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment Name: Pure Brine Tank Operation: Continuous

Equipment Code: T-101 Function: Storage vessel for the pure brine

Number of Unit: 1

Technical Detail

Operating Pressure: 1 atm

Operating Temperature: 25oC

Pure Brine Tank Details

Material of Construction of Pure Brine Tank: Low carbon steel

Mixer Tank Diameter: 5.195 m

Mixer Tank Height: 5.194 m

63
b) Salt Holding Tank (T-102)

The wet salt is needs to be stored into a storage vessel ready for ionization. The wet salt enters

kg
the storage vessel at a rate of 100,000day.

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name : Salt Holding Tank Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: T-102 Function: Holds salt before ionization

Type/Description: Cylindrical closed vessel

Technical Detail:

Capacity: 8.333 m2 Number of unit: 1

Mechanical Design

Height: 4.5 m

Diameter: 4.524 m

Material of Construction: Stainless Steel

64
c) Ionization Tank (T-103)

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name : Salt Ionization tank Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: T-103 Function: Responsible for ionization of

salt

Type/Description: Continuous Spray Salt Iodization

Mixing Tank

Technical Detail

Capacity: 0.0694 m2 Number of unit: 1

Mechanical Design:

Height: 0.309 m

Diameter: 0.927 m

Material of Construction: Stainless Steel

65
D. Piping and Instrumentation

Process engineers are often responsible for the operation of chemical processes. As these

processes become larger scale and/or more complex, the role of process automation becomes

more and more important.

Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise

control of process variable is important in many process applications. Common process variables

include pressure, flow, level, temperature, density, pH (acidity or alkalinity), liquid interface (the

relative amounts of different liquids that are combined in a vessel), mass and conductivity. Small

changes in a process can have a large impact on the end result. Variations in proportions,

temperature, flow, turbulence, and many other factors must be carefully and consistently

controlled to produce the desired end product with a minimum of raw materials and energy.

Many different instruments and devices may or may not be used in control loops (e.g.,

transmitters, sensors, controllers, valves, pumps), but the three tasks of measurement, comparison,

and adjustment are always present.

For the control and instrumentation design for industrial production of iodized salt from

seawater, Figure 3.11, shows the overall process instrumentation using ISA symbology. Control

loops such as pressure control loops, flow control loops (a flow sensor, a transmitter, a controller,

and a valve or pump are used), level control loops, temperature control loops, and multi-variable

loops/advanced control loops (e.g., feed forward control, cascade control and selective control)

are used. Control loops can be fairly complex. The strategies used to hold a process at set point is

not always simple, and the interaction of numerous set points in an overall process control plan

can be subtle and complex.

66
1. The P and I diagram

T-101 EC-101 EC-102 TK-102 EC-103 EC-104 T-103 TK-101

M-101 R-101 B-101 Pure brine Force circulation Force circulation Condensate Force circulation Force circulation C-101 T-102 A-101 F-101 H-101 FC-101 FC-102 D-101 Recycled brine KIO3 solution
Mixer Clarifier Steam boiler tank evaporator I evaporator II tank evaporator III evaporator IV Condenser Salt slurry tank Air filter Blower Air heater Filter centrifuge Filter centrifuge Dryer tank tank

Lime and soda ash

LI LI
LI
seawater FV-101 LC
LC
1 LC
2 3
4 5
raw salt FV-102 FV-103 FV-104
M-101 P-101
R-101 T-101

TT TC TC TC
CaCO3(s) FV-114
Mg(OH)2(s)

TC LT LT LT LT

LC FC FT LC FC FT LC FC FT LC FC FT
FV-105

FT LI
FV-107 FV-109 FV-111 FV-113
FC
6 7 8 9 FC-101
FT

FT

FT

FT
12
FV-118 FT
FC

FC

FC

FC
FV-106 FV-108 FV-110 FV-112 FC
FT
FC-102
13 FC TK-101
P-103
P-102 FV-117
FV-119
P-107
P-104 P-105 P-106 14 17
P-108 FV-120
LT

FC FT LC
T-103
16
15 addition of KIO3
10 11 through drip

FC
FV-121 feeding
FV-115 FV-116

FT
FV-126 T-102
FV-123 FV-124 FV-125

Wet iodized salt

Fuel
LX LI
FV-128 TT
F LT FC
TC Iodized Salt

18
FFC FV-129
B-101 FV-122 D-101
H-101
F
F-101
A-101
FV-127
Combustion air
P-109
TK-102

P-110

Figure 3.11. Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

67
 VALVE SYMBOLS INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS

FC Flow Controller LI Level Indicator TC Temperature Controller

Control Valve Gate Valve FT LT Level Transmitter TT Temperature Transmitter

Flow Transmitter
LINE SYMBOLS F Flow Sensor LC Level Controller
Major Process
Minor Process FFC Flow Fraction LX Constant head reservoir
(Ratio) Controller
Future Equipment

EQUIPMENT SYMBOLS

Pump Air
Blower
Heater

Condenser
Heat Exchanger

Air Filter
Conveyor Filter Centrifuge

Mixer Pure Brine Iodine Dosing Tank Steam Boiler

Tank

Force Circulation Condensate

Evaporator Tank

Clarifier Salt Slurry Tank Dryer Recycle Brine Tank

Figure 3.12. Process Legend for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

68
2. Valve Selection

Control valves play a major role in the everyday effort to increase process plant profitability

and conserve energy. Proper selection of these valves can have a significant financial impact on

the overall cost of a project and how well the process can be controlled (Bishop et al., 2002).

Thus, this section provides the general characteristics of each type of valve that match up with

the design requirements (temperature, pressure, flow control characteristics and piping connection

requirements) of the plant.

Table 3.7. Valve used in the Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater
Type of Valve Used Role Characteristics
Globe valve It is recognized that rotary valves Good sealing characteristics, can
would not be a good fit for the be used in frequent
seawater application with open/closing service, quick
cavitation, noise and vibration change of trim without
problems. Instead globe valve is removing valve from line, high
used capacity, low noise trim
available, smooth control thus it
is recommended for flow
regulation.
Ball Valve For handling salt slurries Most suitable for handling
slurries, similar properties to gate
valves, lightweight compact
design, high capacity, good range
ability, tight shut off
Diaphragm recommended for water- almost no leakage, process liquid
treatment service is isolated from valve stream,
self-cleaning
Gate valve used when the fluid contains no pressure loss across the valve
suspended solid face

69
3. Pumps

a. Pump-101, Pump-102, & Pump-103

These pumps (Pump-101, Pump-102, & Pump-103) are devices responsible for the transfer of

purified brine from the pure brine tank (T-101) to the evaporator system (EC-101, EC-102, EC-

103 & EC-104). From the material balance (See Chapter III), the brine that is pump to the

evaporative crystallizer is 480,006.6516 kg pure brine/day. The density of the brine is 1000 kg/m3.

Design Calculations:

According to the heuristics for pumps by Timmerhaus,

1.67 flow  ΔP
Power of pumping =
ε
Given:

Mass flow rate of pure brine , m pure brine = 480,006.6516 kg pure brine /day
kg
ρ brine = 1000
m3

ρ  mv pure brine

kg 1 day
480,006.6516 
m day 24 hr m3
v   20.0003
ρ kg hr
1000 3
m

Based from Sulzer centrifugal pump handbook, vertical centrifugal pumps, single stage, single

suction are commonly used for brine pumps.

From Figure 10.24 of Perry’s Chemical Engineers handbook, 8th edition, head of liquid at

v=20.0003 m3/hr (88.0683 gal/min) is 300 ft (91.44 m).

Calculating pump power consumption

kg m m3 1 hr
Power  ρgQH  1000 3  9.8 2  20.0003   91.44 m  4.98 KW
m s hr 3600s

70
 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name: Pump Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: P-101, P-102, & P-103 Function: Responsible for the transfer

of purified brine from the pure

brine tank (T-101) to the

evaporator system (EC-101, EC-

102, EC-103 & EC-104)

Type/Description: Centrifugal pump single suction, Number of Units: 3

single stage

Technical Detail

Capacity: 20.0003 m3/hr

Total Head: 91.44 m

Power : 4.98 KW

71
b. Pump-104, Pump-105, Pump-106, & Pump-107

Pumps (Pump-104, Pump-105, Pump-106, & Pump-107) are devices responsible for the

transfer of salt slurry from evaporator system (EC-101, EC-102, EC-103, & EC-104) to salt slurry

tank (T-102). From the material balance (See Section 3.2.1), the salt slurry that is pump from the

evaporative crystallizer is 26,667.0371 kg salt slurry/day. The density of the salt slurry is 2400.1

kg/m3 (calculated density).

Design Calculations:

According to the heuristics for pumps by Timmerhaus,

1.67 flow  ΔP
Power of pumping =
ε

Given:

Mass flow rate of pure brine , m pure brine = 26,667.0371 kg slurry /day
kg
ρ brine = 2400.1
m3

ρ = (mv )saltslurry

kg 1 day
26,667.0371 ×
m day 24 hr m3
v= = = 0.463
ρ kg hr
2400.1 3
m

Based from Machinery’s handbook, 29th edition Retrieved from

http://www.engineersedge.com/pumps/slurry_pumps_12849.htm, slurry pumps are best used to

process fluids that contain corrosive solids and usually used in cement, steel, salt and agricultural

processing plants. Slurry centrifugal pumps are usually single stage, end suction configuration, and

lined with rubber to protect against wear. In some cases, these liners can be adjusted while the

pump is running and this allows operations run 24-hours a day.

From Figure 10.24 of Perry’s Chemical Engineers handbook, 8th edition, head of liquid at

v=0.463 m3/hr (48.9247 gal/min) is 300 ft (91.44 m).

72
Calculating pump power consumption

kg m m3 1 hr
Power  ρgQH  2400.1 3  9.8 2  0.463   91.44 m  0.277KW
m s hr 3600s

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name: Pump Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: Pump-104, Pump-105, Pump- Function: Responsible for the transfer of

106, & Pump-107 salt slurry from evaporator system

(EC-101, EC-102, EC-103 & EC-104)

to salt slurry tank (T-102)

Type/Description: Slurry centrifugal pump, single Number of Units: 4

stage, end suction configuration and lined with

adjustable rubber

Technical Detail

Capacity: 0.463 m3/hr

Total Head: 91.44 m

Power : 0.277 KW

73
c. Pump-108

This pump is responsible for transferring the salt slurry from the storage to the centrifuges.

The salt slurry is pumped at a rate of 106,668.1484 kg salt slurry/day. The density of the salt slurry

is 2400.1 kg/m3 (calculated density).

Design Calculations:

According to the heuristics for pumps by Timmerhaus,

1.67 flow  ΔP
Power of pumping =
ε
Given:

Mass flow rate of pure brine , m purebrine =106,668.1484 kg slurry /day

kg
ρ brine = 2400.1 3
m

ρ = mv salt slurry

kg 1 day
106,668.1484 ×
m day 24 hr m3
v= = = 1.85
ρ kg hr
2400.1 3
m

Based from Machinery’s handbook, 29th edition Retrieved from

http://www.engineersedge.com/pumps/slurry_pumps_12849.htm, slurry pumps are best used to

process fluids that contain corrosive solids and usually used in cement, steel, salt and agricultural

processing plants. Slurry centrifugal pumps are usually single stage, end suction configuration, and

lined with rubber to protect against wear. In some cases, these liners can be adjusted while the

pump is running and this allows operations run 24-hours a day.

From Figure 10.24 of Perry’s Chemical Engineers handbook, 8th edition, head of liquid at

v=1.85 m3/hr (8.15gal/min) is 300 ft (91.44 m).

Calculating pump power consumption

kg m m3 1 hr
Power  ρgQH  2400.1 3  9.8 2  1.85   91.44 m  1.105KW
m s hr 3600s

74
 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name: Pump Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: Pump-108 Function: Responsible for the

transferring the salt slurry from salt

slurry tank (T-102) to the centrifuges

Type/Description: Slurry centrifugal pump, Number of Units: 1

single stage, end suction configuration and

lined with adjustable rubber

Technical Detail

Capacity: 1.85 m3/hr

Total Head: 91.44 m

Power : 1.105 KW

75
d. Pump-109

This pump is responsible for transferring the condensed water from the condenser to the

condensate tank. According to Timmerhaus, 5th edition Chapter 12, double-suction, single-stage

pumps used for general water supply, circulation service and chemical service with noncorrosive

liquids. Thus, from centrifugal pumps, double-suction single stage pump will be used.

e. Pump-110

This pump is responsible for transporting the recycled brine from the recycled brine tank (T-

103) back to mixer (M-101). The recycled brine is pumped at a rate 6668.1484kg/day. The density

of the brine is 1000.0 kg/m3.

Design Calculations:

According to the heuristics for pumps by Timmerhaus,

1.67 (flow ) ΔP
Power of pumping =
ε
Given:

Mass flow rate of recycled brine , m recycled brine = 6668.1484kg /day

kg
ρ brine = 1000.0
m3

ρ = (mv )recycled brine

kg 1 day
6668.1484 ×
m day 24 hr m3
v= = = 0.2778
ρ kg hr
1000.0 3
m

Based from Sulzer centrifugal pump handbook, vertical centrifugal pumps, single stage, single

suction are commonly used for brine pumps.

Calculating pump power consumption

kg m m3 1 hr
Power  ρgQH  1000.0 3
 9.8 2
 0.2778   91.44 m  0.0691 KW
m s hr 3600s

76
 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

General Detail

Equipment name: Pump Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: Pump-110 Function: Responsible for transporting the

recycled brine from the recycled brine

tank (T-103) back to mixer (M-101)

Type/Description: Centrifugal pump single Number of Units: 1

suction, single stage

Technical Detail

Capacity: 0.2778 m3/hr

Total Head: 91.44 m

Power :0.0691 KW

77
4. Pipe Size Selection

Pipelines are designed to deliver fluid at the required head and flow rate in a cost effective

manner. An increase in conduit diameter leads to increase in annual capital costs, and decrease in

operating costs. The head losses in piping installations include the energy or head required to

overcome resistance of the pipeline and fitting in the pumping system. Friction exists on both the

discharge and suction sides of a pump and energy loss in pipe flow depends on the fluid velocity,

density, viscosity, and conduit dimension. In selecting pipe size for different applications, small

pipe may require a lower initial investment but the head loss due to friction is greater and this

increases the energy cost. A larger pipe will save more in energy cost than the additional

investment. Thus, an optimum pipe diameter must exist

Several rules of thumbs from the Chemical Engineering Rule of Thumb are considered in

 D  ft
designing the pipe sizes. Liquid lines should be sized for a velocity of  5   and a pressure
 3s

 D  ft
drop of 2 psi of pipe at pump discharges. At the pump suction, size for  1.3   and a
100 ft  6s

pressure drop of 4 psi of pipe (D is pipe diameter in inches). Steam or gas lines can be sized for
100 ft

ft
20D and pressure drops of 0.5 psi of pipe. Limits on superheated, dry steam or line should
s 100 ft

be 61 m/s (200 ft/s) and a pressure drop of 0.1 bar or 0.5 psi 0.1 bar/100 m or 0.5 psi/100 ft of
100 m 100 ft

pipe. Limits on saturated steam lines should be 37 m/s (120 ft/s) to avoid erosion (Chemical

Engineering Rules of Thumb). Pipe Schedule Number is approximately 1000 P ,where P is the
S

internal pressure rating in psig and S is the allowable working stress of the material in psi (Schedule

40 is the most common).

78
5. Control and Instrumentation

a) Design Objectives

1. Keep the plant running

To keep the production of iodized salt plant running, engineers must have to make sure that

the equipment is functioning, that the pumps, valves and motors are operating, that the

instruments are calibrated and maintained and that the signals are properly communicated to the

control system. Such as the control of flow rates, levels and temperature.

2. Satisfy the product requirement

It is not sufficient to keep the physical parameters correct. Other variables that are directly

related to the product quality have to be controlled. It involves manipulating variables of different

unit processes.

3. Minimize the cost

The ultimate goal at this level is to optimize the unit process operation. This is done by

elaborating the control scheme of each of the unit processes. All of this depends on suitable

sensors and instruments, which is further discussed below.

4. Integrate the plant operation

The ultimate purpose of this is to satisfy the product requirement at minimum cost. By

coordinating several processes, it is possible to decrease the impact of disturbances to the plant.

b) Selection of Appropriate Control Strategy

The main purpose of these control systems is to maintain important process characteristics at

desired targets. Different control loops and strategies were chosen to formulate the control

systems. For each unit process, controlled variables, manipulated and disturbance variable are

summarized in Table 3.8.

79
 Table 3.8. Classification of process variable in each equipment in the production of iodized salt from seawater
Equipment Code Control objectives Operating Conditions Controlled Variable Manipulated Variable Disturbance variable

Flowrate of leaving
Flowrate of entering mixture because the
Mixer M-101 Liquid Level mixture (raw salt, regulation is determined
seawater, recycled brine) by the another system
(clarifier)

To maintain the height It is a continuous process, Flowrate of leaving

within certain bounds. that there is continuous purified brine because
This is done to avoid flow in and flow out. Each Flowrate of entering the regulation is
Clarifier R-101 overflowing and equipment operates at Mixture Level
mixture from the mixer determined by the
problems with the flow specific pressure and another system
of production when the temperature ( see Figure (purified tank)
height is too high and 3.10)
Flowrate of leaving
too low respectively.
purified brine because
Flowrate of entering
Purified it is controlled by the
T-101 Purified Brine Level purified brine from
tank another system
clarifier
(evaporative
crystallizer)

80
Continuation of Table 3.8
Equipment Code Control objectives Operating Conditions Controlled Variable Manipulated Variable Disturbance variable
To regulate the water in the
boiler drum. This aims to
bring up to level at boiler
start-up and maintain the
level at constant stean load.
A dramatic decrease in the Flowrate of entering
drum level may uncover It is a continuous feed water from the
Flow rate of the leaving
boiler tubes and an increase process, that there is Drum Level condensate tank
Boiler B-101 steam
may interfere with the continuous flow in and (cooled water from the
process of separating flow out. Each condenser)
moisture from steam equipment operates at
within the drum, thus specific pressure and
reducing boiler efficiency temperature ( see Figure
and carrying moisture into 3.10).
the process.

To avoid creating an Combustion

Flow rate of entering
explosion inside the (Temperature of heat Entering air composition
fuel and air
combustion chamber transfer fluid)

81
 Equipment Code Control objectives Operating Conditions Controlled Variable Manipulated Variable Disturbance variable

To maintain the height

within certain bounds.
This is done to avoid
It is a continuous
overflowing and
process, that there is Flowrate of entering Flowrate of the leaving
Iodine Dozing tank T-103 problems with the Iodine level
continuous flow in and iodine solution iodine solution
flow of production
flow out. Each
when the height is too
equipment operates at
high and too low
specific pressure and
respectively.
temperature ( see figure
To maintain the 3.10)
Moisture and Flowrate and
moisture content of
Dyer D-101 temperature of wet Temperature of Temperature of air
the dry salt at a desired
and dry salt entering heated air
level (0.2% moisture)
Inlet moisture content
Feed rate (flowrate of
wet salt)
End of Table 3.5

82
c) Individual Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Equipments

(1) Mixer

LI

seawater
LC

raw salt M-101

Figure 3.13. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Mixer

Raw salt is harvested from crystallizing ponds as mixture of salt crystals and mother liquor

containing soluble impurities in high concentrations requiring it to be purified. Prior to

clarification, the raw salt is mixed with the seawater and recycled brine from the centrifuge lowering

its concentration. This solution is then pumped to the clarification tank.

The liquid level in the tank is controlled by manipulating the flow rate of the mixture and is

acted upon by the control valve to avoid overflowing. The liquid level indicator serves as the sensor

and placed to monitor the height of the mixture inside the tank. The level indicator transmits the

measured height to the level controller. The level controller in turn compares this measured height

to the desired liquid level in the tank (set point) and sends a signal to the valve. This valve thus,

adjusts the flow rate out to maintain the set point (desired height

83
(2) Clarifier and Pure Brine Tank

Lime and soda ash

LI
LI
LC
LC
Brine Pure Brine

P-101
R-101 T-101

CaCO3(s)
Mg(OH)2(s)
Figure 3.14. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Clarifier and Pure brine tank

The principal impurities of crude brine are calcium, magnesium and sulfate ions. These degrade

the sodium chloride quality therefore requiring them to be removed. Calcium hydroxide is added

to precipitate magnesium ions as magnesium hydroxide while soda ash causes the remaining

calcium to precipitate as calcium carbonate. Sulfate however is not yet removed in this process.

The brine is pumped from the mixing tank is treated in the clarifying unit. The liquid level in

the unit is controlled by the first valve. The resulting clarified solution is then stored in a tank. The

pure brine tank supplies the pure brine to the evaporative crystallizer. For the brine level to be

controlled the outflow rate should be manipulated. The purpose of the level controller is to avoid

overflow in the equipment.

84
(3) Boiler

TC

Steam
LX
Fuel
F LT FC

Feed water
FFC
B-101
F
Combustion air

Figure 3.15. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Boiler

For the control and instrumentation of boiler, it is important to keep in mind that the air-to-

fuel ratio in the combustion zone is important because these directly impacts fuel combustion

efficiency and environmental emissions.

In figure 4, ratio control strategy is implemented. The combustion air feed rate is adjusted by

a flow fraction (ratio) controller to maintain a desired air/fuel ratio. Drum level is also controlled.

The boiler drum is where water and steam are separated. Controlling its level is critical – if the

level becomes too low, the boiler can run dry resulting in mechanical damage of the drum and

boiler piping. If the level becomes too high, water can be carried over into the steam pipe work,

possibly damaging downstream equipment. The boiler feed water pump push water through the

control valve into the boiler drum. The water level in the drum is measured with a pressure and

temperature-compensated level transmitter. The drum level controller compares the drum level

measurement to the set point and modulates the feed water control valves to keep the water level

in the drum as close to set point as possible.

85
(4) Evaporative Crystallizer

TT TC TC TC Condensate to condensate tank

TC LT LT LT LT

Pure brine
LC FC FT LC FC FT LC FC FT LC FC FT
FT

FT

FT

FT
FC

FC

FC

FC
P-103
P-102
P-107
P-104 P-105 P-106

FC FT

Salt slurry

T-102

Figure 3.16. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Evaporative Crystallizer

The system is mainly consisting of a forced-circulation evaporator, a pump and the steam

heater. The feed pure brine is mixed with a high volumetric flow rate of recycling liquor and is

pumped into the heat exchanger heated by steam. The liquid passes the evaporator where the liquid

and the vapor are separated.

The current control strategy of the forced-circulation system is accomplished by using multi-

loop cascade SISO controllers. The evaporator liquid level (h) is controlled by the discharge slurry

flow, where the valve opening is adjusted for the discharge slurry flow. The temperature of the

steam is also controlled by manipulating the flow rate of the entering steam. Temperature

controllers, temperature transmitter, level indicator, level controller, level transmitter, flow

controller and flow transmitter are installed to satisfy this control strategy.

86
 (5) Centrifuge and Iodine Dozing

FT LI

FC
FC-101

FT

FC
FT
FC-102
FC TK-101

LT
LC
1975mm
T-103
addition of KIO3
1940.6mm

through drip
FC

feeding
FT

T-102

iodized salt
Figure 3.17. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Centrifuge and Iodine Dozing

The objective of the control system of the two centrifuges is to control its inlet flowrate.

Therefore, both the systems will use a flow control loop, which is an example of a feedback control

loop. In the flow control loop, a flow sensor, a transmitter, a controller and a valve will be used.

A feedback loop measures the process variable, i.e. the flowrate, and sends the measurement

to a flowrate controller for comparison to the setpoint. If the flowrate is not at setpoint, control

action is taken to return the flowrate to setpoint. The flowrate transmitter will measure the flowrate

of the fluid, and if necessary, opens or closes the flow rate valve to adjust the fluid’s flowrate.

Similarly, the tank which contains the wet slurry and tank for ion dosing will use a feedback

loop system, a level control loop system. The objective of this control system is to avoid the

overflowing of the tank.

The level of the tanks will depend on the flow rate of the outflow. A feedback loop measures

the level of the tank and sends the measurement to a level controller to compare it with the set

87
point. If it is not at setpoint, control action is taken to return the level to setpoint. The level

transmitter will measure the level of the tank. The final control element is the valve which is

connected on the outflows of each tank. If necessary, these valves will be opened or closed to

adjust the tanks’ level.

88
(6) Dryer

Wet iodized salt

TT

TC
Iodized Salt

D-101

H-101
F-101
A-101

Figure 3.18. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Dryer

A resistance temperature detector (RTD) sensor and transmitter are installed in the dryer

vessel. The sensor’s resistance property changes in response to the temperature changes. As the

air flow rate affects the temperature, the transmitter is set to produce a value of resistance (signal)

when the temperature is measured from the dry salt. This signal serves as an input to the valve and

adjusts the valve by opening or closing the air supplied in order to obtain the desired temperature

for the dryer vessel. The dry salts temperature is the controlled variable and the flow rate of the

air supplied is manipulated variable.

89
 Chapter IV

COSTING AND PROJECT EVALUATION

A. Estimation of Equipment Cost

Cost estimation of some of the equipment is based on the cost estimated at Matches (2014)

and using the Chemical Engineering Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2014 (CE index = 704.6).

Forced circulation evaporators and heat exchangers cost was estimated using correlating equations

in terms of appropriate key characteristics of the equipment such as ft2 (heating surface area),

materials of construction, temperature, pressure, flow rate.

Material of Construction is a major factor in the price of equipment so that multipliers for

prices relative to carbon steel or other standard materials are given. Usually only the parts in contact

with process substances need be of special construction, so that, in general, the multipliers are not

always as great as they are for vessels that are made entirely of special materials. Thus, when the

tube side of a heat exchanger is special and the shell is carbon steel, the multiplier will vary with

the amount of tube surface, as shown in the cost estimation calculations. Calculations of some

equipment cost will be seen in the appendix.

Summary of the equipment costs will be presented in Table 4.1.

1. Forced-Circulation Evaporator Cost Estimate Calculation

Evaporators (IFP: Chemical Engineers Handbook, p.11.42)

Forced Circulation:


C = f m exp 5.9785 - 0.6056ln A + 0.0851lnA 2  price in $

150  A  8000 ft 2 heat surface

Forced-Circulation Evaporators
Construction Material: Shell/Tube fm
Steel/Copper 1.00
Monel/Cupronickel 1.35
Nickel/Nickel 1.80

90
Solution:

From Chapter III Section C-3. Forced Circulation Evaporator (EC-101, EC-102, EC-103&

EC-104) the following data can be deduced:

Given:

Heating surface area = 118 m2=1270.1105 ft2

Materials of construction:

Stainless Steel 317L


C = f m exp 5.9785 - 0.6056ln A + 0.0851lnA 2 
Therefore,

f m =1.00 ; A = 1270.1105ft2 (satisfiesthe above constraints)


C = 1.00exp 5.9785 - 0.6056ln 1270.1105+ 0.0851ln 1270.11052 
C = $ 402.2466
$ 402.2466is its cost in 1984

From the given cost index in 1984 (Vatavuk, 2002) and the cost index in 2014 (ChE Cost Index,

2014), the cost indexes are 344.0 and 704.6 respectively.

cost index in 2014

cost of evaporator in 2014  cost of evaporator in 1984 , equation based in
cost index in 1984

Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook 8th edition, 9-13.

Thus,

704.6
cost of evaporator in 2014  $402.2466 100  ( )
344.0
cost of evaporator in 2014= $ 82,390.3937

For heat exchanger installed in the evaporator:

Shell and Tube:

C  f d f m f p C b price in $
 
C b  exp 8.821 - 0.30863lnA   0.0681ln A 2 , 150 A  12,000 ft 2

Type fd
Fixed-head exp [- 1.1156 + 0.0906 (ln A)]

91
 Kettle reboiler 1.35
U-tube exp [- 0.9816 + 0.0803 (ln A)]

Pressure Range fp
100-300 0.7771+ 0.04981(ln A)
300-600 1.0305 + 0.07140 (ln A)
600-900 1.1400 + 0.12088 (ln A)

Materials g1 g2
Stainless steel 316 0.8603 0.23296
Stainless steel 304 0.8193 0.15984
Stainless steel 347 0.6116 0.22186
Nickel 200 1.5092 0.60859
Nickel 400 1.2989 0.43377
Inconel 600 1.2040 0.50764
Incology 825 1.1854 0.49706
Titanium 1.5420 0.42913
Hastelloy 0.1549 0.51774

f m = g1 + g 2 (ln A)

Solution:

From Chapter III Section C-4. Heat Exchangers (H-101, H-102, H-103, & H-104), the

following data can be deduced:

Given:

Heat transfer area= 24.8814 m2 = 267.8146 ft2

Number of units= 4

Tube layout = Fixed tube plate

Materials of construction = Stainless steel 317L/Stainless steel 316

Thus,

Shell and Tube:

C  f d f m f p C b price in $
 
C b  exp 8.821 - 0.30863lnA   0.0681ln A 2 , 150 A  12,000 ft 2

92
Since A=267.8146 ft2, which satisfies the constraint, the formula can therefore be used in

computing its cost,

Cb = exp [8.821 - 0.30863 ln (267.8146) + 0.0681(ln 267.8146)2 ]

Cb = 10136.3925

And since it fixed-head, fd = exp [- 1.1156 + 0.0906 (ln A)]

f d = exp [- 1.1156 + 0.0906 (ln 267.8146)]

f d = 0.5438

And since the pressure ranges from 100-300 psig, f p = 0.7771 + 0.04981 (ln A )

f p = 0.7771+ 0.04981(ln A )

= 0.7771+ 0.04981(ln 267.8146)

fp = 1.0495

Lastly since the material used is stainless steel 316, g1=0.8603 and g2=0.23296

f m = g1 + g 2 (ln A)

f m = 0.8603 + 0.23296 (ln 267.8146)

f m = 2.1626

Therefore, cost of shell and tube heat exchanger is

C = 0.5438 (1.0495)(2.1626)(10136.3925)

C = $ 12510.6900

From the given cost index in 1984 (Vatavuk, 2002) and the cost index in 2014 (ChE Cost

Index, 2014), the cost indexes are 344.0 and 704.6 respectively.

cos t index in 2014

cos t of evaporator in 2014  cos t of evaporator in 1984 , equation based in
cos t index in 1984

Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook 8th edition, 9-13.

Therefore,

93
 704.6
cost of shell and tube heat exchnager in 2014= $ 12510.6900  ( )
344.0
cost o f shell and tube heat exchnager in 2014= $25,625.0935

Cost of One Forced-Circulation Evaporator

Cost of one forced-circulation evaporator= cost of heat exchanger + cost of evaporator

Cost of one forced-circulation evaporator= $ 25,625.0935+ $82,390.3937=$ 109,015.4872

Table 4.1. Summary of Equipment Costs

Equipment Cost/Unit ($) Unit Cost ($)

Mixer 14,900.00 1 14,900.00

Clarifier 24,270.00 1 24,270.00

Forced-Circulation Evaporative 109,015.49 4 436,061.95

crystallizer

Condenser 57,400.00 1 57,400.00

Boiler 326,900.00 1 326,900.00

Filter Centrifuge 47,000.00 1 47,000.00

Dryer 51,900.00 1 51,900.00

Air Heater 40,300.00 1 40,300.00

Blower 16,800.00 1 16,800.00

Pure Brine Tank 34,500.00 1 34,500.00

Salt Holding Tank 23,600.00 1 23,600.00

Salt Ionization Tank 4,300.00 1 4,300.00

KIO3 solution Tank 31,600.00 1 31,600.00

Pump-101, Pump-102, & Pump-103 4,400.00 3 13,200.00

Pump-104, Pump-105, Pump-106, & 4,000.00 4 16,000.00

Pump-107

94
 Pump-108 5,100.00 1 5,100.00

Pump-109 3,900.00 1 3,900.00

Pump-110 4,100.00 1 4,100.00

TOTAL PURCHASED 26 1,151,831.95

EQUIPMENT COST

B. Estimation of Capital Investment

Total capital investment (TCI) is the sum of the fixed-capital investment (FCI) and the

working capital (WC). That is, TCI = FCI+WC

Estimation of Fixed-Capital Investment

According to Peters & Timmerhaus, fixed-capital investment (FCI) is the capital needed

to supply the required manufacturing and plant facilities. FCI may be further subdivided into direct

cost (manufacturing fixed-capital investment) and indirect cost (non-manufacturing fixed-capital

investment).

Table 4.2 summarizes the estimated cost of the different components under direct cost.

Table 4.2. Direct Cost

Checking
Normalized
Estimated %
percentage Allowable Range
Cost Calculated
of FCI, %
Purchased 15-40 % of fixed capital
57407304.39 23.91304348 23.91304348
Equipment investment
Purchased
25-55% of the purchased
Equipment 22614998.7 9.420289855 39.39393939
equipment cost
Installation
Instrumentati
8-50% of the purchased
on And 17396152.84 7.246376812 30.3030303
equipment cost
Controls
10-40% of the purchased
Piping 15656537.56 6.52173913 27.27272727
equipment cost
Electrical 10-80% of the purchased
13916922.28 5.797101449 24.24242424
System equipment cost
10-70% of the purchased
Buildings 24354613.98 10.14492754 42.42424242
equipment cost

95
 Yard
Improvement 6958461.138 2.898550725 12.12121212
s
40-100% of the purchased
Service
17396152.84 7.246376812 equipment cost 30.3030303
Facilities
4-8% of the purchased
Land 3479230.569 1.449275362 6.060606061
equipment cost
Total Direct
179180374.3 74.63768116
Cost , ($)

Table 4.3. Indirect Cost

Estimated Normalized Allowable Range %
Cost percentage of Calculated
FCI, %
Engineering 20875383.41 8.695652174 5-30% of direct cost 11.65048544
and
Supervision
Constructio 15656537.56 6.52173913 6.52173913
n Expenses 10-20% of fixed capital
Legal 5218845.853 2.173913043 investment 2.173913043
Expenses
Contractor's 5218845.853 2.173913043 1-3% of fixed capital 2.173913043
Fee investment
Contingency 13916922.28 5.797101449 5-15% of fixed capital 5.797101449
investment
Total 60886534.96 25.36231884
Indirect
Cost , ($)

Table 4.3 summarizes the estimated cost of the different components under indirect cost.

Table 4.4 summarizes the total capital investment. The table includes the allowable percentage

range of each component as well as their selected percentages. Selected percentages were based on

different estimation costs of each, and if it is within the allowable range, estimated costs are said

to be acceptable. Cost estimations were done by different computations and different

adjustments/trial and errors using Excel. And the final fixed capital investment is shown in the

table.

96
 Table 4.4. Summary of Fixed Capital Costs

Components Range of Selected Normalized Estimated cost

FCI , % percentage of percentage of
FCI,% FCI
Direct Costs

Purchased Equipment 15-40 33 0.239130435 57407304.39

Purchased Equipment 6-14 13 0.094202899 22614998.7

Installation
Instrumentation And 2-12 10 0.072463768 17396152.84
Controls
Piping 4-17 9 0.065217391 15656537.56
Electrical System 2-10 8 0.057971014 13916922.28
Buildings 2-18 14 0.101449275 24354613.98
Yard Improvements 2-5 4 0.028985507 6958461.138

Service Facilities 8-30 10 0.072463768 17396152.84

Land 1-2 2 0.014492754 3479230.569

Indirect Costs

Engineering And 4-20 12 0.086956522 20875383.41

Supervision
Construction Expenses 4-17 9 0.065217391 15656537.56
Legal Expenses 1-3 3 0.02173913 5218845.853
Contractor's Fee 2-6 3 0.02173913 5218845.853

Contingency 5-15 8 0.057971014 13916922.28

Total Fixed Capital 138 1 240066909.3
Investment , in Peso

For checking, direct cost should be within the range of 65-85% of FCI and indirect cost should

be within the range of 15-35% of FCI.

For direct cost;

Total direct cost = Purchased Equipment + Purchased Equipment Installation  Piping

 Instrument ation and Control Electrical System  Buildings
 Yard Improvemen ts  Service Facilities  land

97
  57,407,304.39  22,614,998.7  15,656,537.5617,396,152.84
 13,916,922.28  24,354,613.98  6,958,461.138  17,396,152.84  3,479,230.569
 179,180,374.3
 179,180,374.3 
% direct cost    x100
 240,066,909.3 
 74.64%; within the range

For indirect cost;

Total Indirect Cost  Engineering and supervision  construction expences

 legal expences  contractor' s fee  contingency
 20,875,383.41  15,656,537.56  5,218,845.853
 5,218,845.853  13,916,922.28
 60,886,534.96 
% Indirect cost   x100
 240,066,909.3 
 25.36%; within the range

Estimation of Working Capital

The working capital is the capital needed for the operation of the plant. This consist of the

total amount of money invested in (1) raw materials and supplies carried in stock; (2) finished

products in stock and semi-finished products in the process of being manufactured; (3) accounts

receivable; (4) cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expenses, such as salaries,

wages, and raw material purchases; (5) accounts payable and (6) taxes payable (Peters &

Timmerhaus, et. al.).

In most industries, working capital is from 10-20% of the total capital investment. For this

study, working capital is considered to be 15%. Thus,

TCI  FCI  WC
TCI  FCI  0.15TCI
TCI  0.15TCI  FCI
0.85TCI  FCI
0.85TCI  240,066,909.3
TCI  282,431,658
WC  42,364,748.7

98
C. Estimation of Total Product Cost

The total product cost is composed of the total of all costs of operating the plant, selling the

products, recovering the capital investment, and contributing to corporate functions such as

management and research and development (Peters & Timmerhaus, et. al.). In general, it is divided

into two categories: (1) manufacturing costs and (2) general expenses.

Manufacturing costs consist of the variables production cost, fixed charges and plant overhead

costs.

General expenses consist of administrative expenses, distribution and marketing and research

and development expenses.

Overall production cost = manufacturing cost + general expenses

Manufacturing Cost:

Table 4.5 shows the total annual value of products.

Table 4.5. Annual Value of Products

Products, Co-products and By-products
Name of Material Price, Annual Annual value of
$/kg Amount product, $/y
kg/y

Retail :Iodized salt per kilogram 0.40 5040000.000 1997992.08

Whole sale: 40 kg Iodized salt per sack 15.46 294000.000 4543946.40
Total annual value of products = 6541938.48

Table 4.6. Estimation of raw material cost annually

Raw Materials
Name of Material Price, $/kg Annual Amount, Annual raw materials
million kg/y cost, million $/y

NA2CO3 0.12 0.483 0.06

NaOH 0.33 0.139 0.05
KIO3 20.00 0.420 8.40
0.00

99
 0.00
0.00
Total annual cost of raw materials = 8.50

The estimation of wages was based on the National Wages and Productivity Commission

under the Department of Labor and Employment which indicates the minimum wages of each

region. The wage of each employee was estimated based on the minimum wage set by DOLE. The

number of employees per shift was estimated based on the heaviness of work. (Department of

Labor and Employment: National Wages and Productivity Commission, 2017). The basis of

computation of their annual wages is 7 months. Table 4.7 shows the salaries and wages of

employees. The organizational chart is found in Appendix D

Table 4.7. Summary of the Wages of Employees

Labor Costs
Operation Labor Cost
Employees Shift per Number of Salary rate Annual Salary
day employees (per month)
per shift
Production Head 1 1 30 000.00 180 000.00
Operating Head Engineers 2 5 25 000.00 1 500 000.00
Operators 3 7 15 000.00 1 890 000.00
Technicians 2 1 12 000.00 144 000.00
HSE General Manager 1 1 20 000.00 120 000.00
Safety Officers 2 2 18 000.00 432 000.00
4 266 000.00
Marketing Labor Cost
General Manager 1 1 25 000.00 150 000.00
Market Analyst 1 1 20 000.00 120 000.00
Sales Manager 1 1 20 000.00 120 000.00
Advertising Manager 1 1 20 000.00 120 000.00
Other employees 1 5 15 000.00 450 000.00
960 000.00
Finance Labor Cost
Chief Accountant 1 1 30 000.00 180 000.00
Budget Analyst 1 1 22 000.00 132 000.00
Financial Accountant 1 1 22 000.00 132 000.00
Purchasing Manager 1 1 22 000.00 132 000.00
Other Employees 1 3 18 000.00 324 000.00
900 000.00
Administration Labor Cost
Head Managers 1 3 22 000.00 396 000.00

100
Managers under Human 1 3 20 000.00 360 000.00
Resources
Other Employees under Human 1 5 13 000.00 390 000.00
Resources
Research Analyst 1 1 18 000.00 108 000.00
Laboratory Technician 1 1 15 000.00 90 000.00
Inspector 1 1 13 000.00 78 000.00
Other Employees under 1 2 12 000.00 144 000.00
Research and Development
Warehouse Supervisor 1 1 15 000.00 90 000.00
Utility Operator 1 1 15 000.00 90 000.00
Handymen 1 4 10 000.00 240 000.00
Nurse 1 1 10 000.00 60 000.00
Guard 3 2 8 000.00 288 000.00
Janitor 1 2 5 000.00 60 000.00
2 394 000.00
Total 8 520 000.00

Table 4.8. Annual operating labor cost

Number of Shifts Operator rate, $/h # Annual operating
operators per per labor cost, million
shift* day** $/y

6 3 33.67 1.770
th
*See Tables 6-13 and Fig. 6-9 Peter’s et al., 2003, 5 edition
**Rule of thumb = 3 for continuous process.
#
To obtain current,(latest local ENR skilled labor index)/6067 = 1

Table 4.9. Utility Cost

Total Utility Cost = 2.030 million $/y
Sent to sheet 'Annual TPC'
Utility Default Annual Default Annual
cost units utility units of utility cost,
unit cost
Default

requirement, utility million $/y

in requirement
appropriate
units
Air, compressed
Process air 0.45 $/100m3 # 100 m3#/y
Instrument air 0.90 $/100m3 # 217903 100 m3#/y 0.196
Electricity

101
 Purchased, U.S. 0.045 $/kWh 1800000 kWh/y 0.081
average
Self-generated 0.05 $/kWh kWh/y
Fuel
Coal 1.66 $/GJ GJ/y
Fuel oil 3.30 $/GJ GJ/y
Natural gas 3.00 $/GJ 360000 GJ/y 1.080
Manufactured gas 12.00 $/GJ GJ/y
Refrigeration, to temperature
15 oC 4.00 $/GJ GJ/y
5 °C 5.00 $/GJ GJ/y
o
-20 C 8.00 $/GJ GJ/y
o
-50 C 14.00 $/GJ GJ/y
Steam, saturated
3550 kPa 8.00 $/1000 kg 1000 kg/y
790 kPa 6.00 $/1000 kg 40000 1000 kg/y 0.240
Exhaust (150 kPa) 2.00 $/1000 kg 1000 kg/y
Waste water
Disposal 0.53 $/m3 m3/y
Treatment 0.53 $/m3 40000 m3/y 0.021
Waste disposal
Hazardous 145.00 $/1000 kg 1000 kg/y
Non-hazardous 36.00 $/1000 kg 1000 kg/y
Water
Cooling 0.08 $/ m3 2500000 m3/y 0.200
Process
General 0.53 $/m3 400000 m3/y 0.212
Distilled 0.90 $/m3 m3/y
#
measured at 101.3 kPa and 15°C.

Depreciation rates are very important in determining the amount of income tax. The

method used to compute the depreciation is the Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System or

the MARCS method. According to Perry’s Handbook, 8th edition, food and beverages have a

recovery period of 3 years which where iodized salt belongs. Using a service life of 4 years, the

following table presents the annual depreciation.

Table 4.10. Annual Depreciation using MACRS

Year Unadjusted Depreciation Depreciation Adjusted
Basis, Php rate , % Deduction, Php Basis, Php
1 236587678.7 33.33 78854673.31 157733005.4

102
 2 236587678.7 44.45 105163223.2 52569782.2

3 236587678.7 14.81 35038635.21 17531146.99

4 236587678.7 7.41 17531146.99 0

Total Depreciation 236587678.7

Average 59146919.67
Depreciation/Year

103
 Table 4.11. Summary of Total Product Cost
Estimation of total product cost
Cost Items Selected Range/ Normalized, % Allowable Range, % Cost Estimate, Cost Estimate based
calculated range PHP/Year on Normalized
,% Percentage, PHP
/Year
I. Manufacturing Cost 724193127.7 159430902.2
A. Direct Production Cost about 60% of total product cost
Raw Materials 564.6919023 61.04386236 10-80% of total product cost 423470000 45777607.74
Operating Labor 77.72817949 8.402508113 10-20% of total product cost 58289400.00 6301153.065
Utilities 134.8617131 14.57871066 10-20% of the total product cost 101134600 10932769.85
Direct Supervisory And 10.00 10.00 10-20% of operating labor 5828940 630115.3065
Clerical Labor
Maintenance And Repairs 6 6 2-10% of fixed capital investments 14404014.56 14404014.56
Operating Supplies 11 11 10-20% of maintenance cost 1584441.601 1584441.601
Laboratory Charges 12 12 10-20% of operating labor 6994728 756138.3678
Patent And Royalties 5 0.540505912 0-6% of total product cost 3749566.784 405332.6031
B. Fixed Charges
Depreciation 59146919.67 59146919.67
Local Taxes 1 1-4% of fixed capital investments 2400669.093 2400669.093
Insurance 1 0.4-1% of fixed capital investment 2400669.093 2400669.093
Financing Interest 4 0-10% of the total capital investment 11043077.83 11043077.83
C. Plant Overhead Cost 45 4.864553211 5-15% of total product cost 33746101.06 3647993.428
II. General Expenses 10.56985975 15-25% of the total product cost 7926479.004
Administrative Costs 35.7774665 3.867586434 2-5% of the total product cost 26830000 2900354.725
Distribution And Selling Cost 18 1.945821284 2-20% of the total product cost 1459197.371 1459197.371
Research And Development 44 4.756452028 about 5% of the total product cost 3566926.907 3566926.907
Total Production Cost 756049252 167357381.2
Total Product Cost 925.0592614 100 74991335.68

104
D. Feasibility Study

Financial analysis

This portion gauges the plant’s profitability, liquidity, cash flow solvency and growth over time.

1. Profit and Loss Statement

Profit and loss statement (P&L) is a financial statement that summarizes the revenues, costs

and expenses incurred during a specific period of time, usually a fiscal quarter or year. These

records provide information about a company's ability – or lack thereof – to generate profit by

increasing revenue, reducing costs, or both. The P&L statement is also referred to as "statement

of profit and loss", "income statement," "statement of operations," "statement of financial results,"

and "income and expense statement" (Investopedia, 2014). Table 4.12 shows the profit and loss

statement of the company during the fiscal year.

Table 4.12. Profit and Loss Statement

PROFIT AND LOSS STATEMENT
REVENUE
Annual Sales 325,919,375.1
Cost of Goods Sold 55,454,788.68
Gross Margin 270,464,586.4
ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL EXPENSES
Administrative Cost 2,900,354.725
Maintenance and Repairs 14,404,014.56
Wages and Salaries 2,394,000.00
Depreciation 59,146,919.67
Utilities 10,932,769.85
Distribution and marketing costs 1,459,197.371
Others 91,237,256.18
Total Expenses 167,357,381.2
NET PROFIT
Net Profit before Taxes 158,562,618.8
Taxes 3,171,252.376
Net Profit after Taxes 155,391,366.4

E. Test of Profitability and Capital Investment

These financial tools evaluate the justification for investing in the plant, shows the operational

performance and efficiency of the plant. Table 4.13 shows the summary of capital investment and

profitability analysis of the plant.

105
Gross Income

Gross Income  Projected Sales - Total Production Cost

 325,919,375.1 - 167,357,381.2
 158,561,993.9

Annual Net Profit

Annual Net Profit  Gross Income - Tax Rates

 158,561,993.9  0.029(158,561,993.9 )
 155,390,754

Rate of Return

 Anunual Net PRofit 

Rate of Return   x100
 Fixed Capital Invest 
 155,390,754 
 x100
 240,066,909.3 
 64.728%

 Fixed Capital Investment 

Payback Period   
 Net Annual Profit  Annual Depreciation 
240,066,909.3

155,390,754  59,146,919.67
 1.12 years

Thus, it takes 1 year and 2 months to recover the cost of an investment.

Table 4.13. Summary of Capital Investment and Profitability Analysis

Projected Sales 325919375.1
Total Production Cost 167357381.2
Formula
Gross Income Projected Sales - Total Production Cost 158561993.9
Local Tax Rate 0.02
Annual Net Profit Gross Income -Tax Rates 155390754
Fixed Capital Investment 240066909.3
Rate Of Return (
Annual Net Profit
)x100 64.7281%
Fixed Capital Investment

Depreciation 59146919.67
Payback Period Fixed Capital Investment 1.118996516
Net Annual Profit  Annual Depreciation

106
 Chapter V

Safety, Health and Environment

A. Safety and Loss Prevention

One of the most important responsibilities in the operation of this plant is to always hold on

safety of the workers and the environment. The production and safety goes hand in hand and that

a safe working environment leads to improved production. To do this, effort must be placed on

safety by every employee at this facility.

1. Company policy

The best way to control workers’ compensation costs is to prevent injuries in the workplace.

Fewer injuries mean no lost time, increased productivity and no costly workers’ compensation

claims to manage. Ensuring safe operation will also ensure efficient operation.

a) Responsibilities of Employer

1. Prepare and/or review at least annually a written company Health and Safety policy.

2. Assign the necessary resources and support to the Health and Safety representative to make

programs effective in accordance with the Health and Safety Act.

3. Supply such items as protective glasses, hearing protection, and fall arrest equipment.

4. Promote safe work practices in order to ensure the protection of worker Health and Safety.

5. Meet all legal requirements for investigating and reporting critical injuries, accidents and

occurrences.

b) Responsibilities of Supervisors

1. Ensure that all workers comply with the protective devices, measures, and procedures required

by the Occupation Health and Safety Act.

2. Ensure that all workers use or wear the equipment, protective devices and clothing as required

by the employer and by the requirements of the Occupation Health and Safety Act.

3. Provide orientation for the new crew members.

4. Support and enforce safety programs.

107
5. Identify specific site hazards and instruct workers in proper work practices and update

instructions as required.

6. Ensure all workers work in a manner that doesn’t endanger themselves or their co- workers or

company clients.

7. Report health and safety concerns to Health and Safety representative and/or employer.

8. Assist in the investigations of accidents and take corrective action.

9. Accompany inspectors during site visits.

10. Inspect safety equipment, tools and sites at least weekly.

11. Ensure housekeeping is done on a daily basis.

12. Initiate emergency response plans when necessary.

c) Responsibilities of Workers

1. Supply and wear at all times a CSA certified hard hat and CSA certified grade 1 footwear as

prescribed in Occupation Health and Safety Act.

2. Work in compliance with the company Health and Safety policy as well as regulations set forth

by the Occupation Health and Safety Act.

3. Report hazards and unsafe working conditions to supervisors and assist if requested in taking

corrective action.

4. Assist in site clean-up on a daily basis

5. Work in a manner that will not endanger themselves, their co-workers or clients of the

company.

6. If necessary the worker may exercise their “right to refuse” or to “stop work” if the worker

believes that the condition of the workplace or equipment may endanger himself, herself or

another worker.

7. Must never engage in pranks, rough-housing, feat of strength contests, or boisterous conduct.

8. Communicate to the site supervision about any concerns regarding Health and Safety.

9. Assist in emergency response procedures.

108
10. Wear appropriate protection at all times where there is risk of injury.

2. Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Evaluation of Storage Tanks

Figure 5.1. Pure Brine Tank (T-101)

Figure 5.2. Salt Slurry Tank (T-102)

Figure 5.3. Uniodized Wet Salt Tank

109
a) Pure Brine Tank (T-101)
Table 5.1. HAZOP evaluation of pure brine tank
Equipment Deviation Consequences of
reference from What event could this deviation on Additional Process
and operating cause this deviation? item of implications of indications Notes and questions
operating conditions equipment under this
conditions consideration consequence
Storage Level

tank Less 1. Tank runs dry Pump cavitates Damage to pump LI-101 Can pure brine react or explode

T-101 LC-101 if overheated in pump?

2. Rupture discharge line Pure brine released LI-101 Estimate release quantity.

LC-101

3. FV-104 open or Pure brine released LI-101 Consider FV-104 protection

broken Pure brine released L1-101 What external events can cause

4. Tank rapture rapture?

More Tank overfills Pure brine LI-101 Consider second high-level

5. Unload too much released shutoff.

from Tank overfills LI-101

the clarifier Pure brine

110
No 6. Reverse flow from released Consider check valve in pump

Process discharge line.

Same as less Consider second shutdown on

feed lines

Composition

Other than 7. Wrong reagent/liquid Possible reaction Possible tank Consider sampling before

rupture unloading.

As well as 8. Impurity in reagent If volatile, possible Are other materials delivered in

overpressure the reactor?

Possible problem in What are possible impurities?

the evaporator

111
b) Salt Slurry Tank (T-102)
Table 5.2. HAZOP evaluation of salt slurry tank
Consequences of
Equipment Deviation
this deviation on
reference from Additional
What event could item of equipment Process
and operating implications of
cause this deviation? under indications Notes and questions
operating conditions this consequence
consideration
conditions
Storage tank Level

T-103 Less 1. Tank runs dry Pump cavitates Damage to pump LT-103 Can pure brine react or

LC-103 explode if overheated in

2. Rupture discharge Wet salts released LI-103 pump?

line LC-103 Estimate release quantity.

Wet salts released FC-120

3. FV-120 open or Wet salts released LC-103 Consider FV-104 protection

broken What external events can cause

4. FV-119 Tank overfills Wet salts released LI-103 rapture?

More malfunctioned Consider second high-level

Tank overfills Wet salts released LI-103 shutoff.

5. Tank rapture

112
 Consider check valve in pump

No 6. Unload too much discharge line.

from Consider second shutdown on

the clarifier feed lines

7. Reverse flow from

Process

Same as less

Composition

Other than 8. Wrong reagent/liquid Possible reaction Possible tank Consider sampling before

rupture unloading.

As well as 9. Impurity in reagent If volatile, possible Are other materials delivered

overpressure in the centrifuge?

Possible problem in What are possible impurities?

the iodized salt

storage tank.

113
c) Uniodized Wet Salt Tank
Table 5.3. HAZOP evaluation of wet salts (uniodized) tank
Equipment Deviation Consequences of
reference from What event could cause this deviation on Additional Process
and operating this deviation? item of equipment implications of indications Notes and questions
operating conditions under consideration this consequence
conditions
Storage tank Level

T-103 Less 1. Tank runs dry Pump cavitates Damage to pump LT-103 Can pure brine react or explode

LC-103 if overheated in pump?

2. Rupture discharge line Wet salts released LI-103 Estimate release quantity.

LC-103

3. FV-120 open or Wet salts released FC-120 Consider FV-104 protection

broken Wet salts released LC-103 What external events can cause

4. FV-119 malfunctioned rapture?

Tank overfills Wet salts released LI-103 Consider second high-level

More 5. Tank rapture shutoff.

Tank overfills Wet salts released LI-103

6. Unload too much from Consider check valve in pump

the clarifier discharge line.

114
No 7. Reverse flow from Consider second shutdown on

Process feed lines

Same as less

Composition

Other than 8. Wrong reagent/liquid Possible reaction Possible tank Consider sampling before

rupture unloading.

As well as 9. Impurity in reagent If volatile, possible Are other materials delivered in

overpressure the centrifuge?

Possible problem in What are possible impurities?

the iodized salt

storage tank.

115
B. Environmental Constraints and Analysis

Sodium chloride is not classified as dangerous to the environment and the manufacture of salt

does not require registration under the Environmental Protection Act Integrated Pollution and

Control Regulations (Environmental Impact). There is no specific law that covers the

environmental limitations of the salt industry in the Philippines. However, there are national laws

that are relevant in the protection of the environment during the production of iodized salt. List

of the laws and its description is shown in Table 5.4 (Environmental Laws and Policies; Philippine

and International Laws on Marine Wildlife Protection).

Table 5.4. Environmental Laws and Policies

Policies & Legislation Description

Defines the procedures in the retention of areas within certain

DENR Administrative
distances along the banks of rivers, streams, and shore of seas,
Order No. 97-05
lakes and oceans for environmental protection.

Covers the implementation of a systematic, comprehensive and

ecological solid waste management program ensuring the

Republic Act 9003 (2000)
protection of public health and environment.
– Ecological Waste

Management Act
Considered in the salt industry because of the wastes produced and

proper disposal should be observed.

Recognizes the responsibility of the local government units to deal

with air pollutants that causes environmental problems.

Republic Act 8749 (1999) -

Clean Air Act The process uses boilers to produce steam for evaporative

crystallizers and air heater although the vapor is recycled into

a condensate, clean air act should be followed.

116
Presidential Decree 984
Provides guidelines for prevention, abatement and control of
(1976) – Pollution
pollution of water, air and land.
Control

Presidential Decree 1152 Prescribes management guidelines aimed to protect and improve

(1996) - The Philippine the quality of Philippine water resources through improvement

Environment Code of the quality of the Philippine water resource.

Republic Act 9275 (2004) - Aims to protect the country’s water bodies from pollution from

The Philippine Clean land-based sources (industries and commercial establishments,

Water Act agriculture and community/household activities).

117
C. Material and Safety Data Sheet

Section 1
Product identification
Product name: Iodized Salt
Identified use: Food additive
Restrictions on use: N/A
Section 2
Hazardous Components
It is not classified as hazardous substance or mixture. But slightly hazardous for usual
industrial or commercial handling. See section 5 for further details.
Section 3
Physical Data
Physical state: Solid
Appearance: White, translucent crystals
Odor: Essentially odourless
Section 4
Fire and Explosion Hazard Data
a. Fire extinguishing media
 Suitable extinguishing media
- Use extinguishing measures that are appropriate to local circumstances and the surrounding
environment. Most probably CO2, Dry Powder or Foam type Extinguishers. Do not use
direct water jet on burning material.
 Unsuitable extinguishing media
- No limitations of extinguishing agents are given for substance/mixture.
b. Special fire-fighting procedures
 Wear self-contained breathing apparatus. Prevent skin contact by keeping a safe distance or
by wearing suitable protective clothing.
 Avoid vapour inhalation.
 Keep away from sources of ignition.
 Closed containers may build up pressure when exposed to heat therefore it should be cooled
with water spray.
 Suppress (knock down) gases/vapours/mists with a water spray jet. Prevent fire
extinguishing water from contaminating surface water or the ground water system.
 Do not smoke.
c. Unusual fire and explosion hazards
 Fire hazard includes the emission of toxic fumes when it is heated to decomposition.
Explosion hazard includes the formation of explosive nitrogen trichloride through the
electrolysis of sodium chloride in the presence of nitrogenous compounds to produce
chlorine. Nitrogen trichloride is potentially explosive when reacts with dichloromaleic
anhydride + urea.
d. Toxic gases produced
 Ambient fire may liberate hazardous vapours.
 Fire may cause evolution of: Hydrogen chloride gas, chlorine gas and oxides of sodium.
Section 5
Health and Hazard Data
a. Effects of overexposure
 Eyes. May cause irritation.
 Skin. May cause irritation.

118
 Inhalation. Dusts of this product may cause irritation of the nose, throat, and respiratory
tract.
 Ingestion. May cause stomach distress, nausea or vomiting.
b. Target organs
 Eyes. Skin. Respiratory system
c. Medical conditions generally aggravated by exposure
 Symptoms of overexposure may be headache, dizziness, tiredness, nausea and vomiting. It
may also include redness, edema, drying, defatting and cracking of the skin.
d. Emergency and first aid procedures
 Eye Contact. Remove contact lenses if any. Rinse immediately with plenty of water for at
least 15 minutes. Consult a doctor if irritation persists.
 Skin Contact. Take off immediately all contaminated clothes. Wash thoroughly with soap
and water. If irritation persists, consult a doctor.
 Ingestion. Do not induce vomiting. Never give anything by mouth if victim is unconscious,
or is convulsing. But if conscious, make him drink water (two glasses at most). Consult a
doctor IMMEDIATELY.
 Inhalation. If inhaled, stay away from the exposure site and breathe fresh air. Drink water
if necessary. If symptoms persist, consult a doctor.
Section 6
Reactivity Data
 It presents no significant reactivity hazards, by itself or in contact with water.
 It is reactive with oxidizing agents, strong acids, alkali metals, lithium, and bromine
trifluoride.
 Under wet conditions, it can corrode many common metals, particularly iron, aluminium
and zinc.
Section 7
Spill and Disposal Procedures
a. Steps to be followed in the event of a spill or discharge
- Remove all potential ignition sources.
- Cover with an inert or non-combustible inorganic absorbent material.
- Use appropriate tools to collect material for proper disposal without raising dust.
- Put the spilled solid in a convenient waste disposal container.
- Finish cleaning by spreading water on the contaminated surface
b. Disposal procedure
- Dispose according to local and regional authority requirements.
Section 8
Protective Equipment
Personal protective equipment
Eye protection: Safety glasses with side shields are recommended to prevent eye contact.
Use chemical safety goggles when there is potential for eye contact. Contact lenses should
not be worn when working with this material.
Skin protection: Gloves and protective clothing made from rubber or plastic should be
impervious under conditions of use. Prior to use, user should confirm impermeability.
Respiratory protection: A NIOSH/MSHA-approved air-purifying respirator equipped with
dust, mist, and fume cartridges for concentrations up to 100mg/m3 particulate. An air
supplied respirator is suggested, if concentrations are higher or unknown.
If while wearing a respiratory protection, you can smell, taste, or otherwise detect any unusual,
or in the case of a full face piece respirator, you experience eye irritation, leave the area
immediately. Check to make sure the respirator to face seal is still good. If it is, replace

119
 the filter, cartridge, or canister. If the seal is no longer good, you may need a new
respirator.
Other personal protective equipment: Wear regular clothing. The use of coveralls is
recommended. Locate safety shower and eyewash station close to chemical handling area.
Take all precautions to avoid personal contact.
General hygiene considerations: Handle in accordance with good industrial hygiene and
safety practice. When using do not eat or drink. Wash hands before breaks and
immediately after handling the product.

Section 9
Storage and Handling Procedures
a. Special precautions
 Storage Precautions
- Keep containers tightly closed. Store them in a cool, dry and well-ventilated area, away from
heat sources and protected from light. Keep air contact to a minimum.
- Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents and acids.
- Keep away from ignition sources and naked flames. Take precautions to avoid static
discharges in working area.
 Handling Precautions
- Observe label precautions.
- Keep locked up. Do not ingest. Do not breathe dust. Avoid contact with eyes. Wear suitable
protective clothing. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or
the label.
- Apply good manufacturing practice & industrial hygiene practices, ensuring proper
ventilation. Observe good personal hygiene, and do not eat, drink or smoke whilst handling.
- Change contaminated clothing. Wash hands after working with substance.

Section 10
Transportation Data and Other Information
a. Domestic
- Not classified as dangerous by means of transport regulations.
b. International
- Not classified as dangerous by means of transport regulations.

120
D. Waste Disposal

Material and energy are required in order to generate salt as a product but it also produces

waste streams. To examine the environmental impacts, there is a need of analysing the life cycle of

the salt industry from the extraction and processing of the resources, over production and further

processing, distribution and transport, use and consumption to recycling and disposal—have to

be assessed with regard to all relevant material and energy flows (Finkbeiner, M. et. al., 2010). The

goal is to quantify the environmental impacts from solar evaporation to salt manufacturing plant

and this includes the waste management option for the wastes obtained. The system boundary is

showed in the figure and the object of the study (functional unit) is the production of 100,000 kg

of salt. Sea water is pumped from the ocean through an intake to large ponds where energy in the

form of sunshine and wind goes to work and evaporation begins. Solar salt production process

requires a wide area for evaporation. It disrupts some of the natural habitat of living organisms in

the area as it involves the construction of interconnected ponds for evaporation. Clear cutting of

mangroves for salt production are made and it poses a threat to the conservation of mangrove

ecosystems. In addition to deforestation, salt pans are responsible for elevating local soil salinity

and for producing a hypersaline runoff that may impair mangrove growth and regeneration

(Wolchok, L., 2006). However, it does not involve chemical treatments and hazardous processes.

In fact, it requires a balance ecosystem for optimal operation. Thus, the process depends mainly

on the natural environment. In addition solar salt production provides a new habitat for some

birds. Birds can use the constructed dikes for nesting and smaller ones find more shallow waters,

comparing with the case of one big lake, where they can feed (Korovessis & Lekkas, 1999).

In the chemical industry, salt is mostly dissolved together with the impurities in water or brine.

Prior to feeding to the process, the brine is purified. Failure to purify the brine may have

serious, even lethal consequences (Sedivy, 2009).

121
 NaOH
Na2CO3
KIO3
Chemicals
Manufacture

Figure 5.4. Product and Waste Generated

The waste generated in the salt production process is consist of magnesium hydroxide

[Mg(OH)2] and calcium carbonate [CaCO3], which are the by-products in the purification of the

salt brine. From the material and energy balance of the clarifier, the generation of the sludge is

603.6796 kg Mg(OH)2 and 2,999.6336 kg CaCO3 per day production. The waste materials of salt

production have no adverse effects on the environment, as the only wastes produced are bitterns

and salt sludge. These come from the sea and can safely be returned to the sea, although the salt

sludge is sometimes used in fertilizer instead (Patt, R. et.al., 2002; The Salt Recovery Process).

122
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127
 Appendix A

Material Balance Calculations

The plant has a production rate of 100,000 kg/day

A.1. Material Balance around Dryer

TG1, H1 TG2, H2
Dryer
LS, TS1, x1 1 atm, 93oC LS, TS2, x2

Where:

LS = rate of salt (kg dry salt/day)

x = free moisture (kg moisture/kg dry salt)

H = humidity of heating air (kg H2O/ kg dry air)

T = temperature

Given:

LS = 100,000 kg dry salt/ day

x2 = 0.2% mixture (based on literature) = 0.002 kg total moisture/ kg dry salt

Assumptions:

x1 = 4% moisture = 0.04 kg total moisture/ kg dry salt

TS1 = 25OC

TS2 = 60OC

TG1 = 93OC

TG2 = 38OC

Required:

G (mass velocity of heating air); H2 (humidity of outlet air)

Degrees of freedom of analysis:

NU = no. of unknowns

NE = no. of independent equations

128
Where:

NU = 2

NE = 2 (there are 3 equations, but only 2 are independent)

DOF  NU  NE  2  2  0  exactly specified,solution exists

Solution:

Heat capacity of NaCl = 0.85 KJ/ kg. K

From given temperature of 93OC; H1 = 0.015 kg H2O/ kg dry air from psychrometric

chart.

Overall Material Balance:

 kg H 2O  kg dry salt  kg total moisture 

G 0.015   100,00  0.04 
 kg dry air  day  kg dry salt 
kg dry salt  kg total moisture 
GH 2  100,000  0.002 
day  kg dry salt 

0.015G  4,000  GH 2  200 (1)

GH1 + L s x1 = GH 2 + L s x1

Heat balance: Datum of T0 = 0oC (convenient temperature) is selected.

From steam tables: λ0 = 2501 KJ/kg

For entering air: HG’1 = enthalpy of the air

H G '1 = C S (TG1 - TO ) + H1λ O

C S = Humid heat = 1.005+ 1.88H
H G '1 = (1.005+ 1.88H1 )(TG1 - T0 ) + H1λ 0
H G '1 = 1.005+ 1.88H1 93o C + 0.0152501
H G '1 = 133.6026kJ kg dry air

For exit air:

H G ' 2 = CS TG2 + T0  + H 2 λ 0
H G ' 2 = 1.005+ 1.88H2 TG2 - T0  + H 2 λ 0
H G ' 2 = 1.005+ 1.88H2 38o C+ H 2 2501
H G ' 2 = 38.19+ 2572H2 2 

129
For Entering Wet Salts:

H S '1 = C PS TS1 - T0  + x1C PA TS1 - T0 

C PS = 0.85KJ kg • K
C PA = 4.187KJ kg • K
H S '1 = 0.85KJ kg • K 25o C - 0 + 0.044.187 KJ kg • K 25o C - 0 
H S '1 = 25.437KJ kg dry salt
H S ' 2 = C PS TS2 - T0  + x1C PA TS2 - T0 
H S ' 2 = 0.85KJ kg • K 60o C - 0 + 0.0024.187KJ kg • K 60o C - 0 
H S ' 2 = 51.5024 KJ kg dry salt

Assume Q = 0; no heat loss from the surrounding

GHG '1+LS HS '1 = GHG ' 2 +LS HS ' 2

From Equation 2:

H G ' 2 = 38.19+ 2572.44H2

G133.6026 T kg dry air + 100,000 kg dry salt day  25.437 KJ kg dry salt =
G38.19+ 2572.44H2  + 100,000 kg dry salt day 51.5024KJ kg dry salt

133.6026G+ 2543700 KJ day = 38.18G+ 2572.44GH2 + 5150240 KJ day

95.4126G- 2572.44GH2 = 2606540 KJ day (3)

Solving Equations 1&3:

95.4126G 2572.443800+ 0.015G = 2606540

58.286 G =12381812 (4)

G = 217899.9005 kg dry air day

H2 = 0.032 kg H2O kg dry air

From equation 2:

H G ' 2 = 38.19+ 2572.44H2

H G ' 2 = 38.19+ 2572.44(0.032)

H G ' 2 = 120.5081KJ kg dry air

130
A.2. Material Balance around Filter Centrifuge

W(salt slurry) X (wet salt)

Filter Centrifuge
90 % 1 atm, 25oC 96 %

solid
Y (filtrate)
200 ppm solid

Since production rate = 100,000 kg dry salt/day and filter centrifuge is a batch process,

50,000 kg of wet salt per batch is produced.

Let:

X = kg of wet salts; Y = kg of filtrate; W = kg of salt slurry

Given:

X = 50,000 kg of wet salts, Xx = 0.96

Xy = 0.04

Wx = 0.9

Yx = 0.002

Required:

W = kg of salt slurry

Y = kg of filtrate

Degrees of freedom:

NU = 2 unknowns (kg of salt slurry, kg filtrate)

NU = 2 independent equations

DOF = 2-2 = 0  solution exist

Material balance:

W = X + Y = 50,000+ Y (5)

Solid balance:

0.9W = 0.96(50,000)+ 0.002Y (6)

131
Equating 5 & 6:

W = 53,334.07424 kg of salt slurry day

Y = 3,334.0742 kg of filtrate day

Solids in filtrate = solids per batch

Solids in filtrate = 200 1 × 106 3334.0742

Solids in filtrate = 0.667 kg of solids day batch

A.3. Material Balance around Evaporative Crystallizer (Parallel-feed Forced- Circulation

Evaporator)
mv4, Tv4

mv1, Tv1 mv2, Tv2 mv3, Tv3

Live steam
from boiler
II II IIIIII IVIV
ms1, Ts1 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm
Tsat =
1atm Tsat= Tsat =
1atm 1atm
Tsat =
o
100 Co 81.67oC 60.37oC 39.26 o
Tsat= 100 C Tsat= Tsat= C
mf mf mf mf
xf xf xf xf
20% salt sol’n

mp, xp mp, xp mp, xp mp, xp

90% 90% 90% 90%

Based from the previous calculations to produce 50,000 kg of wet salt/day you’ll need

53,334.0724 kg of salt slurry. Therefore, to produce 100,000 kg/ day of wet salt there must be

106,668.1448 kg of salt slurry.

A.3.1. Material balance in first effect:

Given:

mp = 106,668.1448 kg of salt slurry/day

xp = 0.9

xf = 0.2

Required:

132
 mf & mv

Degrees of Freedom:

NU = 2 unknowns

NE = 2 independent equations

DOF = 2-2 =0  solution exists.

Solution:

m p = 106,668.144 4 = 26,667.0362 kg of salt slurry produced per effect

m f = m v1 + m p
m f = m v1 + 26,667.0362

Solid Balance:

m f = m v1 + 26,667.0362
0.2m f = 26,667.03620.9
mf = 120,001.6629 kg fresh pure brine day effect

Note: We take the salt solution to be 20% solid according to the Duhring’s chart wherein

it is the maximum concentration of sodium chloride solution. The Duhring’s chart is needed

in calculation for the energy balance.

The total fresh pure brine needed to supply for the four- effect evaporator is 480,006.6516

kg of fresh pure brine/ day.

A.4. Material Balance around Mixer and Clarifier

Na2 Na2
CO3 OH
Recycled Pure Brine =

Raw Mixer Brine Clarifier 480,006.6516 kg/day

1 atm, 25oC 20% NaCl o
1 atm, 25 C 20% NaCl
Seawater 2+
Mg = 0.5 g/L 3 ppm Mg2+
3.5% by weight NaCl 2+
Ca = 2.5 g/L Mg OH 2 ↓ 2 ppm Ca2+
Mg2+ = 0.5 g/L
Ca2+ = 2.5 g/L CaCO 3 ↓

Based from literature: seawater contains 3.5% by weight NaCl and contains impurities (Mg2+ =

0.5 g/L and Ca2+ = 2.5 g/L).

133
Assume:

Negligible impurities in the entering raw salt and recycled brine

Raw salt contains 99% by weight NaCl

A.4.1. Material balance around clarifier

Composition of Pure brine:

20% NaCl

3 ppm Mg2+

2 ppm Ca2+ (based from Asin Law (RA 8172)

Chemical reactions:

Ca 2+ + Na 2 CO 3 → CaCO3 ↓ + 2Na +
Mg 2+ + 2NaOH → Mg OH2 ↓ + 2Na +

Degrees of Freedom Analysis:

NU = 4

NE = 2

DOF = 4-2 = 2  underspecified

The other 2 unspecified can be derived from the chemical reaction relation

Inlet brine composition:

(
Equivalent mole of Ca 2 + = (2.5 g L ) 1 mole Ca 2 + 40g )
= 0.0625mole Ca 2 + L of brine

(
Equivalent mole of Mg 2 + = (205 g L ) 1 mole Mg 2 + 23g )
= 0.0217mole Mg 2 + L of brine

Pure brine composition:

Equivalent mole of Ca 2+ = 2ppm = 0.002g L 1 mole Ca 2+ 40g 

= 5 ×10 5 mole Ca 2+ L of brine

Equivalent mole of Mg 2+ = 3ppm = 0.003g L 1 mole Mg 2+ 23g 

= 1.304× 10 4 mole Mg 2+ L of brine

134
Required weight of Na2CO3:

(0.0625× 10-5 - 5 × 10-5 )(mole Ca 2+ L of brine )(1mole Na 2CO3 1 mole Ca 2+ )

(96gNa 2 CO 3 1moleNa 2 CO 3 )= 5.995g Na 2 CO 3 L of brine

Required weight of CaCO3 ↓:

(0.0625× 10-5 - 5 × 10-5 )(mole Ca 2+ L of brine )(1mole Ca 2CO 3 1 mole Ca 2+ )

(100.0869gCaCO3 1mole Ca 2 CO 3 )= 6.2504gCaCO 3 L of brine

Required weight of NaOH:

(0.0217x )( )(
1.3043× 10- 4 mole Mg 2 + L of brine 2 mole NaOH 1 mole Mg 2+ )
(40 g NaOH 1 mole NaOH)= 1.7256g NaOH L

Required weight of Mg(OH)2 :

(0.0217x 1.3043× 10- 4 )(mole Mg 2+ )(

L of brine 1mole of Mg(OH )2 1 mole Mg 2 + )
(58.3197g Mg (OH)2 1mole )= 1.2579g Mg (OH )2 L of brine

Na2C Na
O3 OH
Pure Brine
Brine MPB = 480,006.6516 kg/day
Clarifier
MB 1 atm, 25oC 20% NaCl
3 ppm Mg2+
2 ppm Ca2+

Mg(OH)2 = 1.2579 g Mg(OH)2(MB)/L/day

CaCO3 = 6.2504 g CaCO3 (MB) /L/day

Let:

MB = rate of brine (kg/day) entering

MPB = rate of pure brine (kg/day) leaving

MNaOH = rate of NaOH (kg/day) entering

M Na2CO3 = rate of Na2CO3 (kg/day) entering

135
 M Mg(OH)2 = rate of Mg(OH)2 (kg/day) leaving

MCaCO3 = rate of CaCO3 (kg/day) leaving

Overall Material Balance around Clarifier:

M B + M Na 2CO3 + M NaOH = M CaCO3 + M Mg OH 2 + M PB

M B + 5.9952gNa2 CO 3 L of brine M B kg of brine day  + 1.7256gNaOH Lof brine 

M B kg of brine day  = 6.2504gCaCO3 L of brine M B kg of brine day 
+ 1.2579g MgOH2 Lof brine M B kg of brine day 
+ 480,006.6256 kg day

M B + 5.992× 10-3 M B + 1.7256× 10-3 M B =

6.2504× 10-3 M B + 1.2579× 10-3 M B + 480,006.6256

1.002MB = 480,006.625 kg day

M B = 479,910.6445 kg of brine day

M Na 2 CO3 = (5.9952gNa2CO3 L of brine )(479,910.6645 kg of brine day ) = 2,875.6247kg day

M NaOH = (1.7256g NaOH L of brine )(479,910.6645 kg of brine day ) = 828.1339kg day

MCaCO3 = (6.2504 gCaCO3 L of brine )(479,910.6645 kg of brine day ) = 2,999.6336kg day

M Mg(OH ) = (1.2579gMg(OH)2 L of brine )(479,910.6645 kg of brine day ) = 603.6796kg day

2

A.4.2. Mixer

Raw Salt Brine

Seawater Mixer
1 atm, 25oc 20 % NaCl solution
Recycled
479,910.6645 kg/day
Brine
Given:

Seawater = 3.5% by weight NaCl

Raw Salt = 99% by weight NaCl

Recycled Brine: Based from the calculation around filter centrifuge

136
 M RB = 6,668.1484recycle brine day
1.3336kg total NaCl day

Required:

MRS & MSW

Let:

MRB = rate of recycled brine entering (kg/day)

MRS = rate of raw salt entering (kg/day)

MSW = rate of seawater entering (kg/day)

MB = rate of brine leaving (kg/day)

Degrees of Freedom of Analysis:

NU = 2 unknowns

NE = 2 independent equations

DOF = 2-2 =0  solution exists

Overall Material Balance:

M RB + M RS + M SW = M B
6,668.1484+ M RS + M SW = 479,910.6695
M RS + M SW = 473,242.5211 kg day

( )
NaCl balance : 1.3336+ M RS (0.99) + M SW 3.5 × 10 3 = 479,910.6695(0.2)

0.99 M RS + 3.5 x 10 - 3 M SW = 95,980.8003

M RS = 95,615.2575 kg of raw salt day

M SW = 377,627.2636 L of seawater day

A.5. Solar Evaporation

Seawater Raw Salt

Solar
3.5 wt% NaCl Evaporation
95,615.2579 kg of raw salt

137
Formula was based according to Akridge, 2007:

(
m s = m w 1.52× 10- 4 s 2 + 9.5 × 10- 3 s )
Where:

ms = mass (kg) of salt crystallized

mw = mass(kg) of solar evaporated

s = initial salt concentration of the brine in wt% of NaCl

Solution:

(
m s = m w 1.52 × 10 - 4 s 2 + 9.5 × 10 - 3 s )
[
95,615.2579kg = m w 1.52 × 10 - 4 (3.5)2 + 9.5 × 10 - 3 (3.5)]
m w = 2,723,150. 43 kg of H 2O

At 20oC- 40oC: based on William, 2002, 12.5-15 kg of salt/day requires evaporation of 35-

43 kg of H2O evaporation rate of 3.5- 4.8mm/day

138
 Appendix B

Energy Balance Calculations

B.1. Energy Balance around Dryer

Energy used for air today the salt to 0.02% moisture:

q = (217,903.41)(1 24 )(1000 3600)(133.60)+ (100,000)(1 24 )(1000 3600)(25.44)

q = 366,387.6803W

Energy absorbed by the wet salt:

     
q  217,903.41 1 24 1000 3600 120.51  100,000 1 24 1000 3600 51.50

B.2. Energy Balance around Heat exchanger

Given:

Inlet steam temperature (T1) = 120°C

Outlet steam temperature (T2) = 55°C

Inlet aqueous salt temperature = 25°C

Outlet aqueous salt temperature = 100°C

Mass flow rate of aqueous salt entering = 120,001.629 kg/day

Specific heat capacity of steam at 120°C (1.9854 bar) = 2.1196 kJ/kg. K (Calculated from

Steam Characteristics Table)

Specific heat capacity of aqueous salt at concentration by mass of 20% = 3.375 kJ/kg. K

Energy Balance:

Assume no heat loss to the surrounding

Q = m aq salt Caqsalt t 2 - t 1  =120,001.629 kg day 1 day 24 hr 3.375 KJ kg • K 100 - 25°C
=1,265,642.181KJ hr
= 351,567.2727W

139
B.3. Energy Balance around Parallel Feed Quadruple Effect Evaporator
mV4, TV4

mv1, Tv1 mv2, Tv2 mv3, Tv3

Live steam
from boiler
II II IIIIII IVIV
ms1, Ts1 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm
Tsat =
1atm Tsat= Tsat1atm
= 1atm
Tsat =
100oCo 81.67oC 60.37oC 39.26 o
Tsat= 100 C Tsat= Tsat= C
mf mf mf mf

xf xf xf xf

mp , xp mp , xp mp , xp mp , xp

90% 90% 90% 90%

From section A.3. Material Balance around Parallel Feed Quadruple Effect Evaporator

m f = 120,001.6629 kg of fresh pure brine of 20% moisture

m p = 26,667.0362 kg/day of 90% salt slurry

m v1 = 93,334.5967 kg vapor/day

For Heat Balance: Assume: BPR, °C, in each effect is constant to be 2°C.

Area of each effect is constant to be 118 m2.

Since it is parallel feed :

m f = m f1 = m f2 = m f3 = m f4 ; m p = m p1 = m p2 = m p3 = m p4 & X F and X P

is constant throughout the process, therefore calculations are analyzed as a single-effect

evaporator.

B.3.1. Energy Balance around Effect I Evaporative Crystallizer

W
mV1

ms, Ts1
S I
1 atm
F 100°C

mf, xF
P
mP, xP

140
Given:

m f = 120,001.6629 kg of fresh pure brine/day at 20% NaCl solution, TF = 25°C

m p = 26,667.0362 kg/day salt slurry/day at 90% solution

m v1 = 93,334.5967 kg vapor/day

Since, A = 35m2 ; BPR,°C = 2°C

At 1 atm, Tsat, °C = 100°C

T1 = BPR,°C + Tsat ,°C

T1 = 2°C + 100°C = 102°C

λ = latent heat of vaporization = 2200.5582 KJ/kg (steam table) at TS = 120 °C, at 202.65

kPa

At T1 = 102 C , using heat capacity of feed which is assumed CPF = 4.14 kJ/kg∙K (often,

for feeds of inorganic salts in H2O, the CP can be assumed to be approximately that of water

alone).

At T1 = 102oC: Enthalpy of saturated vapor at Tsat = 2672.0 kJ/kg (steam table)

∴ H v = 2,676.0KJ kg + 4.14 KJ kg • K 102°C - 100o C 1 K 1o C 

H v = 2,684.28KJ kg

HC = 0; since of 373.15 K datum temperature (1 atm vapor space pressure)

h F = C PF (TF - T1 ) = 4.14 KJ kg • K (298.15K- 375.15K)

Heat Balance:

FC PF (TF - T1 ) + Sλ = PH L + WH v

(120,001.6629)(4.14 KJ kg • K )( 298.15K - 375.15K) + S(2,200.5582)

= 26,667.0362(0 ) + 93,334.5967( 2684.28)

S = 131,235.03kg steam day

S = 31,235.03(kg steam day )(1 day 24 hr )

141
 S = 5,468.126249 kg steam/hr

q = Sλ = 5,468(kg steam day )(2,200.5582)(1000 3600)

q = 3,342,419.415 W

( )
q = UAΔA = UA (Ts - T1 ) = 3,342,419.415 W = U 118m 2 (120 - 102)

U1 = 1573.6438 W/m 2 • K

B.3.2. Energy Balance around Effect II Evaporative Crystallizer

mV1,
II
100°C
0.5

atm
mf,xF

mP,xP
From previous calculations:

m f = 120,001.6629 kg of fresh pure brine day at 25o C

m p = 26,667.0362 kg salt slurry day

m v1 = 93,334.5967 kg vapor/day

Material Balance:

m f + m v1 = m v2 + m p

m v2 = m f + m v1 - m p = 120,001.6629 + 93,334.5967 - 26,667.0364

m v2 = 186,669.2239 kg of steam/day

Heat Balance:

At Tsat = 81.67°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapor = 2,646.5382 kJ/kg

BPR = 2 °C;

142
 T2 = BPR,°C + Tsat = 2°C + 81.67°C= 83.67°C

At T2 = 83.67°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapor using heat of capacity (4.14 kJ/kg∙K)

H v2 = 2,646.5382+ 4.14(83.67°C - 81.67°C) = 2,654.8682KJ kg

q 2 = m v1 H v2 
q 2 = 95,334.5967 kg day 2,654.8182KJ kg 1000J 1 KJ1 day 24 hr 1hr 3600 s 
q 2 = 2,867,897.986 W

q 2 = 2.867x106 W

q 2 = UAΔT = 28,867,897.986 = U(118m2 )(100°C - 83.67°C)

U 2 = 1,488.3172 W/m 2 K

B.3.3. Energy Balance around Effect III Evaporative Crystallizer

mV3

mV2, 81.67°C
III
0.2 atm
Tsat=
60.37°C

mf,xF mP,xP

From previous calculations:

m f = 120,001.6629 kg of fresh pure brine day at 25o C

m p = 26,667.0362 kg salt slurry day

m v2 = 186,669.2239 kg vapor day

Material Balance:

m f + m v1 = m v2 + m p

m v3 = m f + m v2 - m p = 120,001.6629 + 186,669.2239 - 26,667.0364

m v3 = 280,003.8903 kg of steam/day

143
Heat Balance:

m v2 (h v2 )+ m f (h F )= m v3 (h v3 )+ m p (h L )

At Tsat = 60.37°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapour = 2,610.3239 kJ/kg

BPR = 2 °C;

T3 = BPR,°C + Tsat = 2°C + 60.37°C= 62.37°C

At T3 = 62.37°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapour using heat of capacity (4.14 kJ/kg∙K)

H v3 = 2,610.3239kJ kg + 4.14(2°C)(1 K 1o C)= 2,618.6029kJ kg

q 3 = m v2 (H v3 )

= (186,669.2239 kg day)(2,618.6029kJ kg)(1000 J kJ)(1 day 24 hr)(1 hr 3600 s)

q 3 = 5,657,555.066 W

q 3 = UAΔT = 5,657,555.066 W = U(118m2 )(81.67°C - 62.37°C)

U 3 = 2,484.2167 W/m 2 K

B.3.4. Energy Balance around Effect IV Evaporative Crystallizer

mV4

mV3
III
0.2 atm
Tsat =
60.37°C

mf,xF

mp,xp
From previous calculations:

m f = 120,001.6629 kg of fresh pure brine day at 25o C

m p = 26,667.0362 kg salt slurry day

m v3 = 280,003.8502 kg vapor day

144
Material Balance:

m f + m v3 = m v4 + m p

m v4 = m f + m v3 - m p = 120,001.6629 + 280,0003.8502 - 26,667.0364

m v4 = 280,003.8903 kg of steam/day

Heat Balance:

m v3 (h v3 )+ m f (h F )= m v4 (h v4 )+ m p (h L )

At Tsat = 39.26°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapor = 2,573.0769 kJ/kg

BPR = 2 °C;

T4 = BPR,°C + Tsat = 2°C + 39.26°C= 41.26°C

At T4 = 41.26°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapor using heat of capacity (4.14 kJ/kg∙K)

H v4 = 2,573.877kJ kg + 4.14(2°C)(1 K 1o C)= 2,581.357kJ kg

q 4 = m v3 (H v4 )= (280,003.8502 kg day)(2,581.357kJ kg)

(1000 J 1 kJ)(1 day 24hr)(1 hr 3600 s)

q 4 = 8,365,623.831 W

q 4 = UAΔT = 8,365,623.831 W = U(118m2 )(62.67°C - 39.26°C)

U 4 = 3,082.4116 W/m 2 K

B.4. Energy Balance around Condenser

H2O (l) H2O (l)

T=120°C CONDENSER T = 25°C
P = 1 atm
Q

Given:

m v4 = 373,338.477 kg vapor day (vapor from the last effect)

Assumptions:

T = 25°C; P = 1 atm at normal conditions

145
Required:

Cooling duty to condense the water vapor (Q)

Va ∧
ΔH
Δ

Vapor

Solution:

∧
Q = mΔ H
Q = m( H 1 + ΔH 2 + ΔH 3 )

ΔH 1 = C p ΔT
C p at 16°C = 4.248 kJ kg K
ΔH 1 = 4.248 kJ kg K 100 - 120°C
ΔH 1 = 84.96kJ kg

ΔH 2 = ΔH v = heat of vaporization = -4.219 kJ kg at T = 100°C

ΔH 3 = C p ΔT
C p at 25°C = 4.180kJ kg K
ΔH 3 = 4.180kJ kg K 25 - 100°C
ΔH 3 = 313.5 kJ kg

∧
∴ Q = mΔ H = m(Δ( 1 + ΔH 2 + ΔH 3 )

Q = 373,338.477 kg vapor day(84.96+ 4.219+ 313.5)kJ kg

(1 day 24 hr)(1000 J 1 kJ)(1 hr 3600 s)

Q = 1,739,994.96 W

146
B.5 Energy Balance around Clarifier

In any reaction between stable molecules, energy is required to break the reactant chemical

bonds and energy is released when the products bonds form. (Chapter 9, Elementary Principles of

Chemical Processes, 3rd edition)

∧
The heat of reaction (or enthalpy of reaction), Δ H , (T,P)

At 25°C, 1 atm:

∧
q= ΔH

Ca 2+ + Na 2 CO 3 → CaCO 3 ↓ +2Na+

Mg 2+ + 2NaOH → Mg(OH)2 ↓ +2Na+

ṅin and ṅout is based from the material balance around clarifier (see 3.1.4)

Inlet-Outlet enthalpy table:

Substance ṅin ∧ ṅout ∧

(mol/s) Hin (kJ/mol) (mol/s) Hout (kJ/mol)
Ca 2+ (aq) 0.0625 -543.0 - -
Mg 2+ (aq) 0.0217 -462.0 - -
Na2CO3 (s) 0.3467 -1,130.68 - -
NaOH (s) 0.2396 -426.7 - -
CaCO3 (s) - - 0.3469 -1,207.0
Mg (OH)2 - - 0.1198 -924.54

∧ ∧
Δ H = ∑ n out H out - ∑ n in H in

Δ H = [(0.3569)(- 1207.0) +(0.1198)(- 924.54)]

[(0.0625)(- 543.0) +(0.0217)(- 462.0) +(0.3467)(11130.68) +(0.2396)(- 426.7)]

Δ H = 529.4682- (- 538.2067)

Δ H = 8.7387 W

147
Energy Balance:

Open System

Q- W s = Δ H+ ΔE k + ΔE P

W s = 0; ΔE P = 0; ΔE k = 0

Q = Δ H = 8.7387

Q = 8.7387 W

148
 Appendix C

Equipment Design Calculations

C.1. Mixer Design

Dimension of the tank:

Operating condition:

At T = 25o C, ρ = 1453.3kg m 3
Liquid granular mix in the mixing tank = 479,910.6645 kg day

Per batch:

1 batch = 8 hours
479,910.6645 kg day × 1 day 24 hours × 8hours = 159,970.2215 kg
m 159,970.2215 kg
V= = 3
= 110.0738m 3 batch
ρ 1453.3kg m

Volume of Cylinder:

V = π hD 2 4

Assumption:

h
= 1 → square batch
D
πD 3
V= = 110.0738m 3
4
4 110.0738m 3 
D=3 = 5.194m
π
D = h = 5.194 m
π5.194 m  2
A = π D2 4 = = 21.91m 2
4

Dimensions in the impeller

Assume: pitched-blade (45o) turbine

5.194 m
Impeller diameterD a   D/3   1.7313m
3
1.7313m
Blade width (W)  D a /8   0.2164m
8

149
 Q
N=
Nq Da 3

From Geankoplis, for pitched – blade (45°) turbine (p.151);

N q = 0.5
Q = Av i ;
A = 21.191m 2
v i = 3.048 m min
Q = 21.191m 2 3.048 m min  = 64.5901m 3 min
64.5901m 3 min
N= = 24.8931rev min
0.51.73133 
D a 2 Nρ
N Re =
μ
1.7313m2 × 24.8931rev min × 60 sec min × 1453.3kg m 3
N Re =
1.557× 10 -3 Pa s
N Re = 11.6075× 10 5

Rotational Speed, N

Motor Horsepower

P
Np =
ρN 3 D a 5
P = N p ρN 3 D a 5

From Figure 3.4-4 of Transport Processes and Unit Operations by Geankoplis 3e (p.145),

Power Correlations for Various Impellers and Baffles

For NRe = 11.6075x105, Np = 12

P = 1.2× 1453.3kg m 3 × 24.8931rev min × 1 min 60s3 × 1.7313m 5

P = 1.9372 Kilo Watts = 2.5979hp

C.2. Clarifier Design (R-101)

Feed flow rates:

Brine solution = 479,910.6645 kg day

Na 2CO 3 = 2,875.624kg day
NaOH = 2,999.6336kg day

150
 Total liquid loading = 479,910.6645 kg day + 2,875.624kg day + 2,999.6336kg day
= 485,785.9221kg day

Per Batch:

485,785.9221kg day 1 day 24 hrs 8 hrs 1 batch = 161,928.6407 kg batch

Influent Volume Flow Rate per Batch:

Influent Volume Flow Rate per Batch :

V = m  = 161,928.6407 kg 1453.3kg m 3 = 111.4213m 3 batch = 111,421.3L batch
V = 13927.66L hr

Detention time:

Operating parameters for the determination of detention time for clarifiers as discussed by the

Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Operation Training and Certification Unit, and

Rick Fuller on his Wastewater Info Webpage and many other authors:

Detention Time = 2-3 hours

Trial 1 Assume that the Clarifier Tank has a capacity of 10,000 L.

Tank Volume 10 m 3
Detention Time = = = 0.09 batch
Influent Flow Rate 111.4213m 3 batch
8 hrs.
Detention time = 0.09 batch × = 0.72 hrs > detention time parameter
1 batch

Trial 1 Assume that the Clarifier Tank has a capacity of 30,000 L.

Tank Volume 25 m 3 8 hrs.

Detention Time = = 3
× = 2.154 hrs.
Influent Flow Rate 111.4213m batch 1 batch
Detention Time = 2.154 hrs. → within the detention time parameter range
Volume of Clarifier Tank = 30,000L= 30m 3

The volume of the cone is not considered as it is too small compared to the total volume of

the clarifier tank and it is filled with sludge.

D
Assume : =1
h

151
 πD 3
V= = 30m 3
4
D = h = 3.4m
πD 2 3.4 2 π
SA = = = 9.08 m 2
4 4

Clarifier Loading:

Surface Overflow Rate, SOR

From Table 18-7: Typical Thickener and Clarifier Design Criteria and Operating Conditions, of

Perry’s Handbook 7th edition:

SOR = 0.5 - 1.2 m 3 m 2 h for brine purification

Trial 1:

Flow Rate 13927.66L h

Overflow Rate, SOR = = 2
= 1533.88L h m 2
SA 9.08 m
2
SOR = 1533.88L h m → exceeds the design criteria

Thus, the capacity of the clarifier is further adjusted:

Assuming that the clarifier has a capacity of 40,000 L:

Tank Volume 40m 3 8hrs

Detention Time = = 3
× = 2.87 hrs.
Influent Flow Rate 111.4213m /batch 1batch
Detention Time = 2.87 hrs. → within the design criteria

Dimensions of the Clarifier:

D
Assume = 1.2, this generates a larger surface area.
h

πD2 h D
V = 40 m 3 = ;h =
4 1.2
3
πD πD3
V = 40 m 3 = =
4 × 1.2 4.8

D = 3.94m
h = 3.28m
πD 2 π × 3.94 2
SA = = = 12.19 m 2
4 4

Surface Overflow Rate, SOR:

152
 Flow Rate 13927.66L/h
SOR = = = 1142.933L/h m
SA 12.19 m 2
SOR = 1142.933L/h m → this is within the design criteria

Weir Overflow Rate, WOR:

Influent Flow Rate

WOR =
Length of Weir
Influent Flow Rate = 13.928 m 3 h = 13,928L h
Length of Weir = π × 3.94 = 12.38 m
13,927.66L h
WOR = = 1125.01L h m
12.38 m

Solids Loading Rate, SLR:

Solids
SLR =
Surface Area
Solids = sum of flow rate of sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide entering
Solids = 2,875.624+ 828.1339 kg day = 3703.7579kg day
3703kg day
SLR = 2
= 303.84kg day m 2 = 12.66kg hr m 2
12.19 m

C.3. Forced Circulation Evaporator Design

Slurry density: Since the slurry density consists of solid particles suspended in liquid the

properties of a slurry mixture will depend upon its constituents.

density of slurry = ρ m = [100 (C w ρ s )] + [(100 - C w ) ρ 1]

Where:

ρm = density of the salt slurry

Cw =solid concentration by weight, %

C w =density of liquid in mixture, kg/m3

L =density of liquid in mixture, kg/m3

Given:

Cw = 90 %

ρ s = ρ NaCl = 2.16 g/cm3 = 2160 kg/m3

153
 ρL =1000 kg/m3

density of slurry = ρ m = [100 (90 2160)]+ [(100 - 90) 1000]= 2400.01kg m 3

Retention time:

(salt slurry,(kg hr))(retention time, hr)

Vfresh brine in =
ρ m , (kg m 3 )

Given:

Vfreshbrine =120,001.6634 kg hr (1 day 24 hr)(0.00042 m 3 kg) = 2.10m 3

salt slurry = 53,334.0724 kg hr (1 day 24 hr) = 2222.2530kg hr

ρ m = 2400.01kg m 3

2.10 m 3(2400.01kg m 3 )
retention time = = 2.26hr
2222.2530 kg hr

Minimum vapor velocity:

Given:

From Rule of thumb

For vapor heads, a conservative value is recommended = 0.0244 m/s

For mesh separator this value may be increased by range of 0.0305-0.0610m/s.

Heating surface area required =118 m2 (see Chapter 3)

Evaporator drum operating under 1 atm = 101.325 KPa

Steam pressure = 202.325 KPa

PM 101.325KPa (18 g mole)

ρ H 2 O vapor = =
RT (8314 kJ/mole K)(100 + 273)K

= 0.588kg m 3

Design pressure = 5% extra of maximum working pressure(steam)

=(202.325KPa)(1.05)
= 212.441KPa

154
Tube Details:

Most generally used diameter ranges from 1.25- 2.00in outer diameter and most generally used

lengths of tubes ranges from 4-15 ft. (From Rule of thumb)

The corrosive and abrasive nature of the brine requires that consideration be given to the

materials of construction. Common materials used in contact with salt solutions include titanium,

317L stainless steel, CD-4 MCu, Incoloy 825, and Alloy 20. CD-4 MCu is a cast corrosion and

heat resistant stainless steel alloy with good abrasion resistance. Incoloy is a high-grade nickel

chromium alloy (Hart et al., 2004).

Given:

5/4-in nominal diameter, 80 scheduled number of 10 ft length stainless steel 317L

From Tube dimension table: For 5/4-in nominal diameter

outsided diameter, d 0 = 42.164mm

inside diameter, d i = 32.46mm
lenght = 10 ft = 3.048mm

Tube pitch, ΔPT = 1.25 d o = 1.25(42.164 mm)

Surface area of each tube, a = πdo L

= π(52.705) x10- 3 m (3.048m)

= 0.5046m

155
 A heating surface area
Number of tubes required, N T = =
a surface area of each tube

118 m 2
=
0.5046m 2
= 233.81tubes= 234 tubes
2
Area ocuupied by tubes = N T (1 2)(PT ) (sin α)

where α = 60°
2
= 234(1 2)(52.705x10- 3 ) (sin 60)

= 0.2814m 2

But actual one is more than this: From rule of thumb area san be divided by a factor which

0.2814
varies from 0.8-1.0. Therefore actual area required by the tubes = = 0.3518 m 2 .
0.8

Also from the rule of thumb, the central downcomer area is taken 40-70% of the total cross

sectional area of tubes.

2 2
Downcomer area = 0.5 [(N T )(π 4)(d o ) ]= 0.5[233(π 4)(0.042164) ] = 0.1627m2
4 (0.1627)
Downcomer diameter = = 0.4551m 2
π

Total area of tube sheet in evaporator = downcomer area + area occupied by tubes

= 0.4551 + 0.3518 m2

= 0.8069 m2

4(0.8069)
Thus tube sheet diameter = = 1.01m
π

Evaporator drum diameter:

V A
Rd = ; Equation used to determine drum diameter
(ρ L - ρ v )
0.0172
ρv

Where:

156
 V=volumetric flow rate of vapor in m3/s

A= cross-sectional of drum

The diameter of the drum may be the same as that of the calendria. However it is necessary to

check the size from the point of satisfactory entrainment separation.

For drums having wire mesh as entrainment separator device, Rd may be taken as 1.3.

V 373,334.427 kg day(1 day 3600 s)(1 m 3 0.588kg)

A= = = 5.137m 2
(ρ L - ρ v ) (1000 - 0.588)
(R d ) 0.0172 (1.3)(0.0172)
ρv 0.588

4 (5.137)
Therefore drum diameter = = 2.557m
π

From the rule of thumb drum height can be taken as 2-5 times of tube sheet diameter.

Drum height = 3(1.01)= 3.03m

C.4. Design Calculations for Heat Exchangers (H-101, H-102, H-103, H-104)

Problem Statement

120,001.629 kg per day of aqueous salt solution will be heated from 25°C to 100°C by a

steam having an inlet temperature of 120°C to 55°C. Published fouling factors should be used.

Design a shell and tube heat exchanger for this application.

Thermal Design

Given:

Inlet steam temperature (T1) = 120°C

Outlet steam temperature (T2) = 55°C

Inlet aqueous salt temperature = 25°C

Outlet aqueous salt temperature = 100°C

Mass flow rate of aqueous salt entering = 120,001.629 kg/day

157
 Specific heat capacity of steam at 120°C (1.9854 bar) = 2.1196 kJ/kg. K (Calculated from

Steam Characteristics Table)

Specific heat capacity of aqueous salt at concentration by mass of 20% = 3.375 kJ/kg. K

Energy Balance:

Assume no heat loss to the surrounding

Q= m steam csteam (T1 - T2 )= m aq salt C aqsalt (t 2 - t 1)

Q = m aq salt C aqsalt (t 2 - t 1)=120,001.629 kg day(1 day 24 hr)(3.375kJ kg.K)(100 - 25)°C

=1,265,642.181kJ hr = 351,567.2727W

Since Q =1,265,642.181 kJ/hr, T2 (outlet steam temperature/condensate temperature) can

now be calculated

Q
m steam =
Csteam (T2 - T1)

1,265,642.181 kJ hr
m steam = =9186.3644kg hr = 220,472.7477 kg steam day
2.1196 kJ kg.K (120 - 55)

Calculation of heat transfer area and tube numbers:

Iteration #1:

It has assumed that the first iteration considers 1-2 shell and tube heat exchanger with the

following parameters:

 Fixed tube plate

1
 1 "square pitch(PT )
4

 1" outside diameter tube (do ) = 0.0254m

 Tube length (LT) = 20 ft (6.096 m)

 Tube ID (di) = 0.834”

 Fluid arrangement: Countercurrent; Steam heating on the shell side and the evaporating

solution (aqueous salt solution) on the tube side.

158
The log mean temperature correction factor (F1-2) for 1-2 shell and tube heat exchanger.

R 2 +1 1- P A + R 2 +1
F1- 2 = ln ln
R -1 1 - PR A - R 2 +1

T - T 120 - 55
R= 1 2= = 0.867
t 2 - t 1 100 - 25
t -t 100 - 25
P= 2 1 = = 0.789
T1 - t 1 120 - 25
2 2
A = -1 - R = - 1 - 0.867 = - 1.8645
P 0.789

0.8672 + 1 1 - 0.867 1.8645+ 0.8672 + 1 0.8380

F1- 2 = ln ln = = 0.4893
0.867 1 1 - 0.867× 0.789 1.8645 0.8672 + 1 1.7738

For countercurrent flow:

(T - t )- (T2 - t 1) (120 - 100) -(55 - 25)

ΔTlm = 1 2 = = 24.6630°C
(T1 - t 2 ) 120 - 100
ln ln
(T2 - t 1) 55 - 25

Calculating the heat transfer area:

From table 12.1.Typical overall coefficients (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's

Chemical Engineering.6, p.637).The value of the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is 1000-1500

W m 2 o C . Say that from the appropriate given range, 1200 W m 2 o C is used as the value of the

overall heat transfer coefficient (U).

Q 351,567.2727 W
A= = 2o
= 24.2728m 2
U × ΔTlm × F1 2 1200 W m C × 24.6630°C× 0.4893

Calculating the number of tubes:

A 24.2728m 2
Ntubes = = = 49.9= 50 tubes
π × d o × L t π × 0.0254m × 6.096m

Check for Fluid velocity:

159
 If the tube side fluid velocity, u, is < 1m/s (typical design velocity), consider revising the design

parameters and consideration (increase the number of tube pass) to meet the design velocity

(Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.660).

n tube pass 1day 1hr 2

4 × m aqueous salt solution × 4 × 120,001.629× × ×
N tubes 24 hr 3600s 50
u= = = 0.1574m/s
π × ρ× d i 2 kg
π ×1000 3 × 0.02122
m

Since u=0.1574m/s, it is less than 1m/s, consider increasing the number of tube pass to meet

the typical velocity design.

Iteration #2:

Considers 1-8 shell and tube heat exchanger with the following parameters:

 Fixed tube plate

1
 1 " square pitch (PT )
4

 1" outside diameter tube (do ) = 0.0254m

 Tube length (LT) = 33 ft ( 10.0584 m)

 Tube ID (di) = 0.834”

 Fluid arrangement: Countercurrent; Steam heating on the shell side and the evaporating

solution (aqueous salt solution) on the tube side.

Calculating the number of tubes:

A 24.2728m 2
Ntubes = = = 30.2418= 31 tubes
π × d o × L t π ×0.0254m ×10.0584m

Check for Fluid velocity:

n tube pass 1day 1hr 8

4 × m aqueous salt solution × 4 × 120,001.629× × ×
N tubes 24 hr 3600s 31
u= =
π × ρ× d i 2 π ×1000 kg m 3 × 0.02122
u =1.0348m/s

160
 Since u=1.0348 m/s > 1 m/s, therefore, the design velocity is within the acceptable range.

Calculating the bundle diameter:

From table 12.4.Constants for K1 and n1 depending whether the tube layout is a triangular or

a rectangular pitch (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6,

p.649), for square pith and 8 number of tube passes K1 and n1 values are 0.0331 and 2.643

respectively.

1 1
N 31 2.643
Bundle diameter= d o ( tubes ) n 1 = 0.0254( ) = 0.3382m
K1 0.0331

Tube side heat transfer coefficient (hi):

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ handbook the viscosity of aqueous salt solution is 2.5 cp

(2.5x10-3kg/m. s).

Number of tube pass

4 × m aqueous salt solution ×
Number of tube
Re =
π × d i ×μ

kg 1 day 1 hr 8
4 × 120,001.629 × × ×
day 24 hr 3600s 31
Re =
π × 0.0212× 2.5 cp
Re = 8610.650

From Figure 12.23.Tube-side heat transfer factor (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson &

Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.665), jh is equal to 14.1x10-3. The relationship of jh and jH

is jH = jh x Re.

jh = jH × Re = 0.0141× 8610.650=121.410
hd
jH = i i μC k -1 3 μ μ w 
k

Consider μ μ w = 1, μ = viscosity of the tube side fluid & μ w = viscosity of the tube side fluid at
wall temperature and k (thermal conductivity) = 0.596W m 2 .K .

161
 h i 0.0212m 
121.410= 2.51x10-3 × 3375 J kg.K 0.596 J s.m.K-1 3 (1)
0.596 J s.m.K
h i = 8267.9645 W m 2 .K

Shell side heat transfer coefficient (ho):

Assume: 25% cut segmental baffles

1 n1 1 2.643
Bundle diameter= d o (N tubes K 1) = 0.0254(31 0.0331) = 0.3382m

From Figure 12.10.Shell Bundle clearance (Sinnot, R.K.,3rd edition. Coulson & Richardson’s

Chemical Engineering.6, p.646), the bundle diameter clearance is 12 mm = 0.012 m.

Shell diameter, Ds = 0.3382 m + 0.012 m = 0.3502 m

D 0.3502m
Baffle spacing, l B = s = = 0.0700m
5 5
Tube pitch, PT = 1.25 d 0 = 1.25(0.0254 m)= 0.03175m

4 (PT2 - π/4do2 )
Equivalentdiameter for the shell side, D e =
πdo

4 (0.031752 - π/4 0.02542 )

De = = 0.0251m
π × 0.0254
(P - d )D l (0.03175- 0.0254) 0.3502× 0.07
Cross flow area, A s = T o S B = = 0.0049m 2
PT 0.03175
kg 1 day 1 hr 1 kg
Mass velocity,G D = 220,472.7477 × × × 2
= 520.769
day 24 hr 3600s 0.0049m s. m 2
μs (viscosity of steam at 120 °C ) = 0.0130 cp
kg
0.0251m × 520.769
D × Gs s. m 2
Re = e = = 1.00548× 106
μs 0.0130cp

From Figure 12.29. Shell-side heat transfer factors (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson &

Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.665), jh is equal to 7.8x10-4 with 25% cut segmental baffles.

162
 jh = jH × Re = 7.8x10- 4 × 1.00548x106 = 784.2744

h d
jH = o e (μCs k) (μ μ w )
-1 3 -14
k

h o (0.0251m) (0.0130cp× 2119.6 J kg.K )- 1 3

784.2744= ×
0.0184 W m.K 0.0184 W m.K

h o = 657.7668W m.K

From Table 12.2.Fouling factors coefficient, typical values (Sinnot, R.K., 3rdedition.Coulson

&Richardson’s Chemical Engineering.6, p.640), the fouling factor of steam (oil free) and aqueous

salt solution are 0.0001 and 0.0003 m2. °C/W respectively.

1 A A A
U o, calculated = + R d,steam + o [(d o - d i ) 2k w ]+ o (1 h i )+ o (R d, aqueous salt solution )
ho A1 A1 A1

U o, calculated =1412.40 W m 2 o C

U o, calculated is above the assumed1200 W m 2 o C

Therefore the calculated overall heat transfer coefficient is within the design criteria 1000-1500

W m 2 o C . The required heat transfer area where number of tubes is 31:

A required =πdo L t n t =π × 0.0254m ×10.0584m × 31 = 24.8814m 2

C.5. Condenser Design (C-101)

Amount of water to be circulated:

M w (C p × ΔT )= M v (λ)

M w [4.187 kJ kg.K ×(35 - 20)]=15,555.601kg vapor hr (1 hr 3600 s)(402.679kJ kg)

M w = 27.70kg s
amount of water required= M w = 2,393,661.851kg day water at 20°C

Logarithmic mean temperature difference:

163
 [(Tv - Twin ) (Tv - Twout )] [(120- 20)- (120- 35)]
LMTD = = = 92.296°C
(Tv - Twin ) (120 - 20)
ln ln
(Tv - Twout ) (120 - 35)

Overall heat transfer coefficient

From Table 12.1 Typical overall coefficients

For condenser:

Hot Fluid: Aqueous vapor

Cold fluid: Water

U(W m 2 o C)= 1000 - 1500

Let U=1200 W m 2 o C

Q= 1,739,994.96 W (See Chapter 3 for calculations)

Q 1,739,994.96 W
Total heat transfer, A = = 2 o
=15.71m 2
U × ΔTLMTD 1200 W m C ×(92.296°C)

Tubes of 5/4-in outside diameter, 16 BWG, length of 4.8768 m lay on 25/16” square pitch.

A 15.71m2
Number of tubes, Nt= = = 32.60= 33 tubes
π × d o × L π × 0.03175m × 4.83

From tube count table: For tube O.D of 5/4-in on 25/16” square pitch

No. of passes= 2
I.D. of shell = 889mm
Nearest number of tubes = 31
Corrected heat transfer area = N × π × d × L

= 31× π × 0.03175× 4.88= 15. 09 m 2

1,739,994.96 W
Corrected U = 2
= 1249.3262 W m 2 °C
15.09m × 92.296°C

C.6. Boiler Design (B-101)

164
 The boiler system comprises of a feed water system, steam system and fuel system. The feed

water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam demand.

The steam system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through

a piping system to the point of use. Steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked with

steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the

necessary heat (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011).

1. Pressure

1.1. Low to medium pressure (< 10 Bar) – used as industrial boilers, normally has natural

circulation (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011).

1.2. High pressure (10 – 14 Bar) – used as utility boilers, normally has natural circulation (Jaya,

Aprilia, 2011).

1.3. Super high pressure boilers (> 17 Bar) – used as utility, can be natural or forced circulation.

The prevention of film boiling and high temperature corrosion should be considered (Jaya,

Aprilia, 2011).

1.4. Supercritical pressure boilers (> 22.1 Bar) – used as utility boiler with large capacity once

through or combined circulation. The prevention of film boiling and high temperature

corrosion should be considered (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011).

From the above statement steam generated by Boiler-101 is 202.325 kPa (2.02325 bar) which

is less than 10 bar, thus classified under low to medium pressure, B-101 is used as industrial boilers

and normally has natural circulation. According to Jaya, Aprilia (2011), natural circulation boiler,

the circulation of the working fluid in the evaporating tube is produced by the difference in density

between the steam / water mixture in the risers and water in the down comers

165
2. Tube layout

Table 1. Comparison of fired tube and water tube boiler (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011)

No. Parameter Fired Tube Water tube

1 Rate of steam generation Less rapid More rapid

2 Pressure < 25 kg/cm2 > 25 kg/cm2

3 Risk of explosion Less More

4 Floor space More Less

5 Cost Higher Less

6 Operating Skill Less Higher

7 Water treatment Low Higher

Therefore, based from the above table it is appropriate to use fired tube. Fired tube boilers

consist of a series of straight tubes that are housed inside a water-filled outer shell. The tubes are

arranged so that hot combustion gases flow through the tubes. As the hot gases flow through the

tubes, they heat the water surrounding the tubes. The water is confined by the outer shell of boiler.

To avoid the need for a thick outer shell fired tube boilers are used for lower pressure applications

(Jaya, Aprilia, 2011).

Flue of hot gas is flowing inside the tubes. Water is contained inside the shell. Moreover, fired

tube boilers typically have a lower initial cost, are more fuel efficient and are easier to operate, but

they are limited generally to capacities of 25000 kg/h and pressures of 17.5 kg/cm 2 (Jaya, Aprilia,

2011).

3. Boiler Layout- There are three basic designs: A, D and O type. The names are derived from

the general shapes of the tube and drum arrangements. All have steam drums for the separation

of the steam from the water, and one or more mud drums for the removal of sludge (Jaya, Aprilia,

2011).

166
2.1. Type A - have two mud drums symmetrically below the steam drum. Drums are each smaller

than the single mud drums of the type D or O. Bottom blows should not be undertaken at

more than 80% of the rated steam load in these boilers. Bottom blow refers to the required

regular blow down from the boiler mud drums to remove sludge and suspended solids (Jaya,

Aprilia, 2011).

2.2. Type D is the most flexible design. They have a single steam drum and a single mud drum,

vertically aligned. The boiler tubes extend to one side of each drum. Generally, have more tube

surface exposed to the radiant heat than other designs (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011).

2.3. Type O - have a single steam drum and a single mud drum. The drums are directly aligned

vertically with each other, and have a roughly symmetrical arrangement of riser tubes.

Circulation is more easily controlled, and the larger mud drum design renders the boilers less

prone to starvation due to flow blockage, although burner alignment and other factors can

impact circulation (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011).

Therefore, based from the three basic design stated above, it is most appropriate to use type

D, since it is the most flexible and more tube surface is expose to the radiant heat than other

designs.

C.7. Centrifuge (FC-101)

Parameters:

G = centrifugal acceleration m s 2

D = diameter(m)
Ω = speed of the centrifuge , r min
Vt = tip speed of the bowl, m s

rb = throughput radius(m)

The basis to design this equipment is the particle size of the salt, which is120 𝜇𝑚.

From table 18-14 in Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th edition, Pusher Centrifuge is

the type of centrifuge suitable for salt with a particle size of 120 𝜇𝑚.

167
For Pusher Centrifuge:

Minimum velocity, V = 5 x 10-5 m s

Minimum capacity= 1 ton h ; Diameter, D = 250 mm
Maximum capacity= 120 ton h ; Diameter, D = 2150 mm

Basis:

1 ton h 24 000 kg day ; D = 250 mm

at rate = 50 000 kg day ; D = ?
By ratio and proportion :
D 53,334.072= 250 24,000
D = mm
D ≈ 555.6 mm = 0.5556m

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th edition

General Principle of Centrifuge:

average speed, Vt  91 m s For centrifuges made of stainless steel

G g  0.000559 2 D
G  Vt 2 Q 1 n

Where:

G  centrifugal acceleration, m s 2 
g  earth' s gravity,  m s 2 
n  usually between 2 and 3
D  diameter, (m)
  speed of centrifuge, r min 
Q  flowrate, kg s 
Vt  tip speed of the bowl, m s 

using n = 2.5 (average)

Vt = 91 m s
Q = 53 334.072kg day
g = 9.81m s 2

168
 G = V 2Q1 n = 912 53 334.072kg day 1 day 24 hrs 1 hr 3600 s 1 2
t
G = 6827.77m s 2
G g = 0.000559Ω 2 D
6827.77 9.81 = 0.000559Ω 2 0.521
Ω = 1545.9 r min
Ω = 1546 r min
throughput radius, rb
G = Ω 2 rb
rb = G Ω 2 = 6827.77 15462 = 2.86x10- 3 m

C.8. Equipment Design of Dryer

d p  120μm
ρ (salt) 2160kg/m 3
ρp (air) 0.9643kg/m 3
μ (air)  0.02179cP  2.179 10 5 Ns/m 2

Dimensions of the Fluidized Bed Vessel Dryer (Stanley, W., & Walas, E., 1990)

Using Leva’s Equation in obtaining the minimum fluidization velocity:

0.0093dp1.82 (ρp  ρ)0.94

Umf 
μ0.88 ρf 0.06
0.0093(120 10 6 m)1.82 (2160kg/m3  0.9643kg/m3 )0.94
Umf 
(2.179 10 5 Ns/m 2 )0.88 (0.9643kg/m 3 )0.06
Umf  0.0118m/s

Arrhenius Equation

Ar  ρ(ρp  ρ)gd 3p/μ

0.9643kg/m3 (2160kg/m3  0.9643kg/m3 )(9.81m/s 2 )(120  10 6 m)3
Ar 
(2.179 10 5 Ns/m 2 )2
Ar  74.3311

Reynolds Number

Re mf  (27.2)2  0.0408(Ar)  27.2

Re mf  (27.2)2  0.0408(74.3311) 27.2
Re mf  0.0557

169
Using Grace’s equation in obtaining the minimum fluidization velocity:

μRe mf
U mf 
d pρ
(2.179 10 5 Ns/m 2 )(0.0557)
U mf 
(120 10 6 m)(0.9643kg/m 3 )
U mf  0.0105m/s

The conservative one is the larger value, Umf  0.0118m/s

Minimum bubbling velocity

U mb  33dp (ρρ/μ0.1
0.1
 0.9643kg/m3 
U mb  33 120  10 m 6
5

2 
 2.179 10 Ns/m 
U mb  0.0115m/s
 U mb/U mf  0.0115/0.0118  0.9748

m'  0.03

The fluctuation in level is:

r  e m Gf G mf /Gmf 
'

r  e 0.03(5 1) 
r  1.1275

170
Entrainment of the smallest particles cannot be avoided, but an appreciable multiple of the

minimum fluidizing velocity can be used for operation; say the ratio is 5. (Couper)

u f  5u mf  5(0.0118) 0.059m/s

Reading from the graph, d p 120μ2  0.0047 in and G f /G mf 5 ,

The R (Bed Expansion Ratio) is obtained by interpolation or from the dashed line

By interpolation:

0.004  0.0047 1.18  R


0.004  0.006 1.18  1.24
R  1.201

Off the dashed line:

R  1.22

R=1.22 is more conservative.

ε mb/ε mf  Gf /G mf 0.22  50.22  1.42

ε mf  0.4094/1.42  0.2883

Ratio of Bed Levels:

L mb/L mf  1  ε mf /1  ε mb 
L mb/L mf  1  0.2883/1  0.4094  1.2050

171
 Reading from the graph, d p  120μ2  0.0047in

m'  0.03

The fluctuation in level is:

r  e m Gf G mf /Gmf 
'

r  e 0.03(5 1) 
r  1.1275

 217,899.9005 kg/day
G 3
 225,966.9195 m 3/day
0.9643kg/m

A  G /u f

225,966.9195 m 3/day 
1day
 86400s 
A
0.059m/s
A  44.33m 2

A  πd2/4
d  4A/π
d  4(44.33)/π
d  7.51m

With a charge of 100,000 kg of solids and a voidage at minimum bubbling of 0.4094, the height

of the minimum bubbling bed is

m
L
ρ p 1  ε A
100,000
L
216044.33m 2 1  0.4094
L  1.77m

L b  Lr  1.771.1275  1.99m  2 m

TDH from the figure,

TDH  1.238m
Dryer Vessel Length  1.238  2  3.238m

172
 Terminal Velocity using Stoke’s Law:

ut 

g ρp  ρ d 2
p
18μ
9.812160  0.9643
ut  120  10 6 2
182.179  10 
5

u t  0.7776m/s

Flow rate in the terminal velocity:

V' ut  Au
V' ut  44.330.7776  34.47m3/s
Power required in the bed :
 
P  V' ut gL ρ  ρ p 1  ε 
P  9.81(2)34.472160  0.96431  0.4094
P  862.9kW

C.8. Equipment Design of Blower (F-101)

Basis of the Blower design (Suleiman, Y. et.al.,2013)

Blower head

P 862.9
H   2.64 m
ρgVut 0.9643 9.81 34.47

173
Froml iterature,
r1 , radius of the suction eye  0.06m
b1 , blade width  0.04 m
r2  0.225m
b 2  0.032m
N b , number of blades  5

Speed of the suction eye

Vut 34.47
v n1    2279.23m/s
2ππ1b1 2π0.060.04

But v n1  U1tanβ1

v n1 2279.23
U1    4111.45m/s
tanβ1 tan 29
4111.45 60
N  4111450rpm
0.06  2π

2π4111450
U 2  r2 ω  2ππ   0.225  96873.76m/s
60
Vut 34.47
v n2    761.95m/s
2ππ2 b 2 2π0.2250.032

Impeller discharge velocity,v 2

v 2  U2 2  v n2 2  96873.762  761.952  96876.7565m/s

Assuming that the fluid enters the impeller with purely radial absolute velocity, (Cheng-Kang and

Mu-En, 2009) νt1= 0. The increase in head becomes,

U2 v t2
H
g
Hg 2.64  9.81
v t2    0.0003m/s
U2 96873.76

Shaft Power:

Pd 862.9
Ps    1,232.71kW
η 0.7

C.9. Equipment Design of Air Heater (H-105)

174
Thermal Design

Given:

Inlet steam temperature (T1) = 120°C

Outlet steam temperature (T2) = 55°C

Since air temperature is varying from 20-30 °C, assume inlet air temperature (t1) = 25°C

Outlet air temperature (t2) = 93°C

Mass flow rate of dry air entering = 217,899.9005 kg/day

Physical Properties

From the temperatures given the properties of air and steam at 1 atm (Geankoplis, 2003):

Steam:

Specific heat, C p  1.8966kJ/kg  C

Thermal conductivity, k  0.02467W/m  C
Density, ρ  0.5670kg/m 3
Viscosity,μ  1.2434 10 5 kg/m  s
N Pr  0.9559

Air:

Specific heat, C p  1.008kJ/kg  C

Thermal conductivity, k  0.02872W/m  C
Density, ρ  1.0653kg/m 3
Viscosity,μ  2.00  10 5 kg/m  s
N Pr  0.7027

Energy Balance

Assume no heat loss to the surrounding

Q  m steam c p,steam T2  T1   m air Cp, air t 2  t 1 

kg  1day   J 
Q  m air Cp, air t 2  t 1   217,899.90 05    1008  93  25C
day  86400sec   kg. K 
 172,867.254 4 W

175
 Since Q =172,867.2544 W, T2 (outlet steam temperature/condensate temperature) can now be

calculated

Q
m steam 
C p,steam T2  T1 
J
172,867.2544
m steam  sec  1.4022 kg  121,153.893 kg steam
J sec day
1896.6 (120 - 55)
kg.K

Calculation of heat transfer area and tube numbers:

For countercurrent flow:

ΔTlm 
T1 - t 2  - T2 - t1   120 - 93 - 55 - 25  28.4737C
 T - t    120 - 93 
ln 1 2  ln  
T
 2 1  - t   55 - 25 

T1  T2 120  55
R   0.96
t 2  t 1 93  25
t 2  t 1 93  25
P   0.72
T2  t 1 120  25

From Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook 8th edition, these values do not intercept on

the figure for a single shell-pass exchanger, Fig. 11-4 (a), so use the figure for a two-pass shell,

Figure Fig. 11-4 (b), which gives (FT) = 0.75. So,

ΔTm  FT ΔTlm
 0.75 28.4737
 21.36C

Calculating the heat transfer area:

From table 12.1.Typical overall coefficients (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's

Chemical Engineering.6, p.637).The value of the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is 30-300

W W
. Say that from the appropriate given range, 30 2 is used as the value of the overall
m C
2
m C

heat transfer coefficient (U).

176
 Q 172,867.254 4W
A   269.7679 m 2
U  ΔTm 30 W
 21.36C
m 2 C

The parameters in calculating the number of tubes, considering a 2-4 Shell-and-tube heat

exchanger.

 Fixed tube plate

 14 B.W.G Gage

 1 ¼” square pitch

3
 " outside diameter tube (d o ) = 0.01905 m
4

 Tube length (LT) = 5 m (popular size)

 Tube ID (di) = 0.01483 m

 Fluid arrangement: Countercurrent; Steam heating on the shell side and the dry air on the

tube side.

Calculating the number of tubes:

A 269.7879m 2
Ntubes    902 tubes
π  d o  L t π  0.01905m  5 m
say 904

So, for 4 passes, tubes per pass = 226 tubes

Check for Fluid velocity:

If the tube side fluid velocity, u, is < 1m/s (typical design velocity), consider

revising the design parameters and consideration (increase the number of tube pass) to meet the

design velocity (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.660).

 n tube pass 
4  m dry air    4  217,899.9005 1day  1hr   4 
ut   Ntubes   24 hr 3600s  904 
 60.7025m/s
π  ρ d i 2
kg
π 1.0653 3  0.014832
m

177
Tube side heat transfer coefficient (hi):

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ handbook the viscosity of air is 1.845 x 10-3 Pa.s.

kg 
ρ d i u t 1.0653 m 3 60.7025 sec 0.01483m 
m 
Re = =
μ 2.00  10 5 kg m  sec
 47,950.1158

From Figure 12.23. Tube-side heat transfer factor (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson &

Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.665), jh is equal to 3.3410 x10-3.

μ
Consider  1, μ  viscosity of the tube side fluid & μ w  viscosityof the tube side fluid at
μw

W
wall temperature and k (thermal conductivity)  0.02872 .
m. K

Nu  jh RePr 0.33  3.341 103 47,950.1158 0.70270.33  142.5937

 k   0.02872
h i  Nu    142.5937   276.1490
 Di   0.01483

Bundle and Shell Diameter:

From table 12.4. Constants for K1 and n1 depending whether the tube layout is a triangular or

a rectangular pitch (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6,

p.649), for square pith and 4 number of tube passes K1 and n1 values are 0.175 and 2.285

respectively.

Assume: 25% cut segmental baffles

1 1
N  n1
 904  2.285
Bundle diameter  d o  tubes   0.01905   0.8 m
 K1   0.175 

From Figure 12.10.Shell Bundle clearance (Sinnot, R.K.,3rd edition. Coulson &

Richardson’s Chemical Engineering.6, p.646), the bundle diameter clearance is 16 mm = 0.016 m.

Shell diameter, Ds = 0.8 m + 0.016 m = 0.816 m

178
Shell side heat transfer coefficient (ho):

Ds 0.816m
Baffle spacing, l B    0.1632m
5 5
Tube pitch, PT 1.25d0 1.250.01905m  0.0238m

Equivalentdiameterfor the shell side, De 

1.1 2
do

PT  0.917do 2 
De 
1.1
0.01905
 
0.02382  0.9170.019052  0.01349m

Cross flow area, A s 

PT - d o DS l B  0.0238- 0.019050.816 0.1632  0.0266m 2
PT 0.0238

121,153.893 kg day  
1day
m steam  86400sec 
us    93.0784m/s
A sρ 2 kg 
0.0266m  0.5670 
 m3 

ρ d e u s  m3 

 0.567kg  60.7025m 
sec 0.01483m 
Re = =
μ 1.2434 10 5 kg m  sec
 57,257.5887

From Figure 12.29. Shell-side heat transfer factors (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson &

Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.665), jh is equal to 2.6274 x10-3 with 25% cut segmental

baffles.

μ
Consider  1, μ  viscosity of the tube side fluid & μ w  viscosityof the tube side fluid at
μw

W
wall temperature and k (thermal conductivity)  0.02467 .
m. K

Nu  jh RePr 0.33  2.6374 103 57,257.58870.95590.33  148.2161

 k   0.02467
h s  Nu    148.2161   271.0519
 De   0.01349

179
 From Table 12.2.Fouling factors coefficient, typical values (Sinnot, R.K., 3rdedition.Coulson

&Richardson’s Chemical Engineering.6, p.640), the fouling factor of steam and air are 0.0001 and

0.0002 m2. °C/W respectively. The thermal conductivity, kw of stainless steel is 15.0574 W/ m2 -

°C.

  d
 d o ln o

1  do  + 1 + R
di
Uo, calculated =  + R d,air  
 hi  di   hs
2× k w
d,steam

 
 
 
 0.01905ln0.01905 
 1  0.01905  0.01483  + 1
 + 0.0002  + 0.0001
 276.1490  0.01483  2 × 15.0574 W  271.0519
 m 2 . °C 

W W
=112.9135 2 ; Uo, calculated is above the assumed 30 .
m . °C m 2 . °C

W
Therefore the calculated overall heat transfer coefficient is within the design criteria 30-300 .
m 2 . °C

The required heat transfer area where number of tubes is 904:

A required  πdoL t nt  π  0.01905m  5 m  904  270.51m 2

C.10. Equipment Design of Tanks

C.10.1. Pure Brine Tank Design

Pure brine tank dimensions:

Operating conditions:

T = 25oC

ρ = 1453.3kg day
Liquid in the Tank = 480,006.6516 kg/day

180
Per Batch:

1 day 8 hrs.
480,006.6516 kg/day × × = 160,002.2172 kg batch
24 hrs 1 batch

Therefore,

m 160,002.2172 kg
V= = = 110.1m 3
ρ 1453.3kg/m 3
πD2h
V=
4

D
Assume : =1
h

πD3
V= = 110.1m 3
4
D = 5.195 m
D = h = 5.195 m

C.10.2. Salt Holding Tank (T=102)

Parameters:

Capacity of the vessel; V (m3)

Diameter of the vessel; D (m)

Height of the vessel; H (m)

flowrate of salt leaving each centrifuge = 50 000 kg day

total flowrate of salt entering the tank = 100 000 kg day

Assumption 1:

1 kg = 1 L
therefore;
100 000 kg day = 100 000 L day 1 m 3 1000 L  = 100 m 3 day

Assumption 2:

operation time : 8 hr
retention time : 20 mins
volume of the tank, V :
V = 2100 m 3 day 1 day 8 hrs 1 hr 8 hrs 20min
V = 8.333 m 3

181
 H
Rule - of - thumb : =3
D
H = 3D

C.10.3. Ionization Tank (T-103)

flowrate of salt entering the tank  100 000 kg day

Assumption 1:

1 kg  1 L
therefore; 100 000 kg day  100 000 L day 1 m 3 1000 L   100 m 3 day

Assumption 2:

operation time : 24 hrs

retention time : 30 s

Assumption 3: Computation of V of Storage Tank and Ionization Tank is the same

So, the volume of the ionization tank, Vi:

Vi  2100 m 3 day 1day 24 hrs 1hr 60min1 min 60s 30s

V  0.0694 m 3

Rule-of-thumb:

H
3
D
H  3D
π
Vi  D 2 H
4
3π 3
0.0694  D
4
D  0.309 m
H  0.927 m
π
V = D2H
4
3π 3
8.333= D
4
D = 1.524m
H = 4.524m

182
 Appendix D

Organizational Chart

183
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN ASSESSMENT RUBRIC

Project Name: Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater Date: May 15, 2017

Team Members: 1. De Vera, Crissalie Mariez M.

2. Gammad, Miriam A.
3. Mamattong, Jinky B.
4. Pingad, Rizza P.

Category/ Exceptional Acceptable Marginal Unacceptable Points

Dimensions (4) (3) (2) (1)
Organization Information is presented in a Information is presented in a Work is hard to follow as there Sequence of information is
& Style logical, interesting way, which logical manner, which is easily is very little continuity. difficult to follow.
is easy to follow. followed. No apparent structure or
Purpose of work is stated, but continuity.
(2) Purpose is clearly stated and Purpose of work is clearly does not assist in following Purpose of work is not clearly
explains the structure of work. stated assists the structure of work. stated.
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explanations and explain to some degree. demonstrated and interpreted. subject matter. No questions
elaboration. are answered. No
(2) interpretation made.
Design Clear and complete Overall sound understanding Some understanding of Little or no grasp of problem.
Problem and understanding of design goal of the problem and constraints. problem. Major deficiencies Incapable of producing a
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solution. solution.
(2)
Alternative Final design achieved after Alternative approaches Serious deficiencies in Only one design presented or
Designs review of reasonable identified to some degree. exploring and identifying clearly infeasible alternative
alternatives. alternative designs. given.
(1)
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Aided Tools analyze designs. develop designs. selection and/or use of tools.

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desired objectives. objectives. desired objectives. desired objectives.

(3) Effective implementation of Moderately effective Minimal utilization of resource No implementation of

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Sound understanding of Serious deficiencies in
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TOTAL