Frying of Food

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Frying of Food: A Critical Review
Article in Journal of Culinary Science & Technology · June 2017

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JOURNAL OF CULINARY SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/15428052.2017.1333936

E. K. Okea, M. A. Idowua, O. P. Sobukolaa, S. A. O. Adeyeyeb, and A. O. Akinsolac
a
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun
State, Nigeria; bDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Mountain Top University, Lagos-Ibadan
Expressway, Mowe, Ogun State, Nigeria; cDepartment of Home Economics, Federal College of
Education (Special), Oyo, Oyo State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Deep fat fried foods are very popular food because of their Received 10 April 2017
Downloaded by [Dr SAMUEL ADEYEYE] at 11:07 23 December 2017
unique quality characteristics. The process is based on the Accepted 19 May 2017
immersing food at high temperatures, depending on the raw KEYWORDS
materials, thereby leading to physical and chemical changes Chemical reaction; frying;
such as starch gelatinization, protein denaturation browning, nutritional changes
and crust formation. In order to obtain a product with a low fat
content, it is essential to understand the mechanisms involved
during the frying process so that oil migration into a food
product can be minimized. The purpose of this study is to
review literature findings on frying of food. The review also
aims to draw the attention of stakeholders, including decision
makers, on the need to assess the health risks associated with
consumption of fried food product and, consequently, the
necessary measures and steps to reduce such risks in order
to have safer food in the world.
Frying
Frying is one of the oldest food processing methods. Its popularity is related
to the ease and speed of food preparation and sensory characteristics, such as
unique flavor and taste (Ngadi & Xue, 2009). It is a cheap and fast process of
simultaneous heat and mass transfer that changes the sensory and nutritional
characteristics as result of complex interactions between food and oil
(Ziaiifar, Achir, Courtois, Trezzani, & Trystram, 2008). Frying is an efficient
cooking method because it is a result of high temperature and fast heat
transfer (Sanibal & Filho, 2002). The oil into which the food is immersed
acts like a heat transferring compound. The process has a preserving action
caused by thermal destruction of microorganisms, enzymes, and reduction of
water activity on the surface of the food (Fellows, 2006). Changes in food and
oil depend on the characteristics of the food, oil type, surface/volume ratio of
the oil, rate of air incorporation into the oil, temperature, heating process,
length of immersion, and the kind of material the frying container is made
of. Additionally, the longer the oil is used, the greater the induction of
CONTACT E. K. Oke kennyoke35@gmail.com Department of Food Science and Technology, P.M.B 2240,
Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
2 E. K. OKE ET AL.
adverse reactions. Extended exposure of oil to high temperatures and atmo-

spheric air can generate highly oxidized, potentially toxic products (Del Re &
Jorge, 2006).
Frying process
The actual technology of frying is claimed to have originated and been
developed near the Mediterranean area due to the influence of olive oil
(Moreira, Castell-Perez, & Barrufet, 1999). Fried food products generate bil-
lions of dollars. In the United States alone, more than 500,000 commercial
restaurants use one million metric tons (MMT) or 2.0 x 109 lb. of frying fats
and oils annually (Moreira et al., 1999). Frying is such a popular process due to
the characteristics of the foods that are produced. Frying is a highly complex
process where a series of phenomena occur simultaneously throughout the
entire process. More specifically, there is simultaneous heat, moisture, and oil
transfer taking place between the product and the heating medium (frying oil).
There is also the formation of a crust layer. To complicate the issue even
further, the composition of the oil is steadily changing throughout the process.
It is extremely important to have an understanding of what is happening
during the frying process such that optimization of the process can be achieved
Frying mechanism
Deep fat frying or immersion frying
Deep fat frying is one of the oldest methods of cooking that probably
originated from the Mediterranean (Varela, 1988). Foods are fried primarily
to cook and to make them more desirable, palatable, and digestible. Frying is
a process that involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer, in which frying
oil is the medium of heat transfer into the food, while moisture migrates out
and oil is absorbed into the food (Budžaki & Šeruga, 2005; Krokida,
Oreopoulou, & Maroulis, 2000). Usually, foods to be fried are immersed in
hot oil at a temperature range between 120 and 180°C, depending on the raw
material and the final product desired (Costa & Oliveira, 1999). Many
physicochemical changes take place during frying such as starch gelatiniza-
tion characterized by swelling of starch granules; protein denaturation;
browning; crust formation, which develops as a result of drying out of the
surface of the fried product; flavor component formation that characterizes
fried foods; shrinkage; and swelling. These physical and chemical changes
lead to structural transformations at both the macro and micro level.
Mass transfer phenomena in frying involve the outflow of moisture and
intrusion of fat caused by transfer of heat energy to the product and its
surface characteristics during and after frying, although the process is still not
JOURNAL OF CULINARY SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 3
clearly understood. During deep-fat frying, heat is transferred by convection

from the oil to the surface of the food and then into the core by conduction.
The moisture from the food escapes through weak crevices and forcefully
dug pores created by pressured moisture in the food. With this moisture loss,
the surface temperature rises reaching closer to that of the frying oil and this
subsequently leads to crust formation. Although, some oil may replace some
of the water removed, it has been shown that overpressure development
during frying prevents substantial amount of oil absorption (Mellema,
2003). Gamble and Rice (1988) were among the first to attempt to describe
the mechanism of mass transfer in fried products. They concluded that most
of the oil drawn into potatoes when removed from the frying oil is due to
condensation of vapor that creates a vacuum effect thereafter. They also
proposed that oil absorption and moisture loss in fried potato chips is a
simultaneous phenomenon. Also, Ufheil and Escher (1996) showed that oil is
not absorbed during the frying process but rather after frying by the adhesion
to the surface of the product. They demonstrated this by frying potato slices
in dyed oil and measured the amount of dyed oil in the sample during and
after frying by spectrophotometric method. Moreira, Sun, and Chen (1997)
reported that only 20% of oil is absorbed during frying of tortilla chips, while
the remaining 80% is on the surface. They also showed that, overall, about
64% of the total fat content of the tortilla chips were absorbed during the
cooling stage. Fried foods are high in calories, and their consumption has
generated a lot of concern among consumers, especially in the last couple of
decades where changes in our social behavior have compelled more and
more people to eat out than ever before. The trend today is towards the
consumption of healthier foods with low calorie content. Fat reduction in
fried foods has been the target of many research activities, and a couple of
approaches have been applied successfully. These include physical and che-
mical treatments such as pre-drying (Debnath, Bhat, & Rastogi, 2003; Gupta,
Shivhare, & Bawa, 2000; Moyano, Rioseco, & Gonzalez, 2002), microwave
pretreatment (Adedeji et al., 2009), blanching (Rimac-Brncic, Lelas, Rade, &
Simundic, 2004), and soaking in NaCl solution (Bunger, Moyano, & Rioseco,
2003). Fat absorption in frying is affected by a host of factors like frying time,
frying temperature, initial moisture content of the product, oil quality,
product geometry, interfacial tension, post-frying treatment, and surface
condition of the food (Adel-Aal & Karara, 1986; Fan & Arce, 1986; Gamble
& Rice, 1988; Lulai & Orr, 1979; Mittelman, Mizrahi, & Berk, 1982; Pinthus
& Saguy, 1994; Rice & Gamble, 1989). Mass transfer, especially fat uptake,
during frying is partly a surface phenomenon (Bouchon, Aguilera, & Pyle,
2003; Ufheil & Escher, 1996), and the process has been linked directly to the
product’s structural configuration especially at the surface (Bouchon et al.,
2003). The condition of the surface determines to a great extent the level of
4 E. K. OKE ET AL.
fat absorbed and moisture loss. Deep fat fryers basically consist of a chamber
where heated oil and food are placed and the size depends on their use.
Advantages of deep fat frying

(1) Speed of cooking;
(2) Energy efficiency and economy;
(3) Consistency of cooked product;
(4) Adds color, flavor and crisp texture;
(5) Maintains micro-nutrients (Mehta & Swinburn, 2001).
Shallow frying or contact frying

Shallow frying or contact frying is most suited to foods that have a large
surface/volume ratio. The food is placed in a frying pan that contains a thin
layer of oil, and heat is transferred to the bottom surface of the food material
mostly by conduction from the hot surface of the pan through the thin layer of
oil. The thickness of the oil layer varies owing to irregularities in the surface of
the food. This, together with the escape of water vapor bubbles from the hot
surface of the food, causes temperature variations and produces the character-
istic irregular browning of shallow-fried foods. Shallow frying has high surface
heat transfer coefficients but is not stable across the entire surface of the food.
Chemical reactions of oil during deep fat frying

Hydrolysis of oil
When food is fried in heated oil, the moisture forms steam, which evaporates
with a bubbling action and gradually subsides as the foods are fried. Water,
steam, and oxygen initiate the chemical reactions in the frying oil and food.
Water, a weak nucleophile, attacks the ester linkage of triacylglycerols and
produces di- and monoacylglycerols, glycerol, and free fatty acids. Free fatty
acids contents in frying oil increase with the number of fryings (Chung et al.,
2004). Free fatty acid value is used to monitor the quality of frying oil.
Hydrolysis is more preferable in oil with short and unsaturated fatty acids
are more soluble in water than long and saturated fatty acids.
Oxidation of oil
The oxygen in deep-fat frying reacts with oil (Cuesta et al., 1993; Peers &
Swoboda, 1982; Sanchez-Muniz et al., 1993a, 1993b). The chemical mechan-
ism of thermal oxidation is principally the same as the autoxidation
mechanism. The thermal oxidation rate is faster than the autoxidation, but
specific and detailed scientific information and comparisons of oxidation
rates between thermal oxidation and autoxidation are not available.
Polymerization of oil
Volatile compounds are extremely important to the flavor qualities of frying
oil and fried foods, but volatile contents in total decomposition products of
frying oil are present at the concentration of part per million levels (Nawar,
1985). The major decomposition products of frying oil are non volatile polar
compounds and triacylglycerol dimers and polymers. The amount of cyclic
compounds is relatively small compared to the nonvolatile polar compounds,
dimers, and polymers (Dobarganes et al., 2000; Frankel et al., 1984; Sanchez-
Muniz et al., 1993b; Tekeoka et al., 1997). Dimers or polymers are either
acyclic or cyclic depending on the reaction process and kinds of fatty acids
consisting of the oil (Cuesta et al., 1993; Sanchez-Muniz et al., 1993b;
Tekeoka et al., 1997; Tompkins & Perkins, 2000). Dimerization and poly-
merization in deep-fat frying are radical reactions.
Frying equipment
Frying equipment can be divided into batch frying equipment or continuous
fryers. Batch fryers are typically smaller and primarily used in catering
service. Continuous fryers, which are capable of handling large amounts of
frying oil and foods, are primarily used in industrial settings and involve
large-scale production. Fryers can be operated under atmospheric, high or
low pressure, and even under vacuum (Mallikarjunan, Ngadi, & Chinnan,
2010). However, most large-scale production is done under atmospheric
conditions.
Properties of fried food

Fats and oils play important functional and sensory roles in food products.
They are responsible for carrying, enhancing, and releasing the flavor of
other ingredients, as well as for interacting with other ingredients to
develop the texture and mouth-feel characteristics of fried foods (Giese,
1996). One of the fundamental objectives of frying is to make food more
acceptable. Fat is the natural palatable agent par excellence. When frying
food, the hot frying fat that has penetrated into it replaces part of the
water it contains, making the food considerably more palatable (Varela
et al., 1988). This absorbed fat exerts a tenderizing effect on the crust, as
well as a wetting effect on the food, and thus contributes for the popularity
of deep fried foods, namely, their flavor, crispness and pleasant eating
6 E. K. OKE ET AL.
characteristics (Stevenson, Vaisey- Genser, & Eskin, 1984). The typical

fried flavor is mainly due to lipid degradation products originating from
frying oils (Pokorny & Elmadfa, 1999). Foods fried at the optimum
temperature and time has golden brown color, is properly cooked and
crispy, and has optimal oil absorption. Under-fried foods at lower tem-
perature or shorter frying time than the optimum have white or slightly
brown color at the edge and have ungelatinized or partially cooked starch
at the center (Choe & Min, 2007).
Nutritional aspect of fried food

There is a constant concern to pinpoint the effects that the various factors
involved in a thermal, industrial, or culinary process have on the nutritive

value of the food that is processed. When the fat penetrates the food, it
may selectively modify the composition of the food, as if in a kind of
chromatographic process. The changes produced depend on numerous
factors, such as the composition of frying fat and of the food, the texture,
size, and shape of the food, and the frying conditions such as temperature,
duration, etc. All these factors influence the changes that occur in the
nutritive value of the fried food (Varela et al., 1998). Undesirable changes
may occur concurrently with desirable modifications, one such change
being the loss of nutrients, and especially vitamins, during the frying
process (Fillion & Henry, 1998). These are the changes that occur in the
nutritional aspect of fried food.
Changes in the lipid fraction of foods

Some lipids present in fried food are oxidized, may be accelerated by
temperature increasing and oxygen concentration. Although nutritional
effects are difficult to be estimated due to some of interfering factors, most
especially the lipid such as the type of oil, history of thermal treatment, and
portion retained in the food (Fellows, 2006). Due to oil incorporation, it is
important that the choice of the frying oil is based not only on its techno-
logical characteristics but also on its nutritional features (Mellema, 2003).
The increase in energy intake is one of the principal problems associated with
consumption of frying foods. The fat content of food increases due to
absorption and retention of oil, which implies an increase in energy intake
on average in 42% in French fries and 53% in hamburgers (USDA, 2013).
Digestibility of fat is also changed when the process is accomplished using
reused oils/fats. Even if a frying oil regulation is established, limiting polar
compounds to 25% and polymer content to 12%, potentially toxic com-
pounds can appear in oil (Ziaiifar et al., 2008).
Changes in protein content

Nutritive value of food proteins is a combination of quality and quantity.
Quality represents functional content of the protein consumed and used by
the organism. Quantity represents the protein content in the food. Heat
treatment can reduce the amount of protein and destroy some amino acids,
changing the quality of protein composition in food (Henry, 1998).
Nevertheless, the protein content increased after frying in grass carp fillet
(Zhang et al., 2013). In another study, proteins of the fried sardine were
higher than those of the untreated ones. This may be due to the formation of
new products similar to protein during the frying processes and could have
influenced the determination of protein content using Kjeldahl method
(Deman, 1999; Ismail & Ikram, 2004). The frying process reduced the
amino acid contents, with the lowest value was obtained in samples fried in
palm oil (Oluwaniyi, Dosumu, & Awolola, 2010). Deep-fat frying had been
reported to decrease the available lysine of fish fillets by about 17% and by
25% when the fish oil had been used for continuous frying for 48 h as a result
of interactions between the amino group of lysine and carbonyl compounds
(Oluwaniyi et al., 2010). Nevertheless, no significant effect of the frying
practices was found on the amino acid content (lysine, histidine, threonine,
valine, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, arginine, aspartic acid,
serine, glutamic acid, proline, glycine, alanine, cysteine, and tyrosine) of
selected fish (Ismail & Ikram, 2004). A study on the amino acid contents
of raw, cooked, and fried fish no found differences in individual amino acids
as result of frying (Steiner-Aseidu, Asiedu, & Njaa, 1991). The frying process
due to the effect of concentration can also be a process of dehydration. In
relation to essential amino acids, there is no agreement in the literature about
loss. However, lysine is the first amino acid involved in the Maillard reaction,
so it is supposed to be lost during the frying process
Changes in the mineral content

Mineral components show great changes during cooking operations, such as
boiling, because of their solubility in water. Their changes are almost negli-
gible during frying, as they are soluble only in trace amounts in frying oil.
Due to water loss, the weight of fried food decreases during frying. Most
mineral components are non-volatile; therefore the content of minerals, on
wet weight, would be expected to rise. There occurs, however, another
process at the same time, i.e., the uptake of frying oil. The weight of fried
material increases, and if the metal content is expressed on a dry weight
basis, a moderate decrease of mineral content would be found (Pokorny &
Elmadfa, 1999). Studies found that minerals are relatively preserved by
frying, especially at high temperatures (165–185°C), and short cooking time
8 E. K. OKE ET AL.
(Gokoglu, Yerlikaya, & Cengiz, 2004). Ozeren and Ersoy (2009) evaluated
fish processing and observed a small increase in the concentration of miner-
als such as Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Zn after frying, probably due to a
concentration effect. In a study with rainbow trout fillets, the minerals Na,
Ca, Mg, K, P, Fe, and Zn increased significantly during the frying process
(Asghari, Zeynali, & Sahari, 2013).
Another study determined the effects on the content of minerals and
heavy metals of frying frozen seafood. The process of frying increased
significantly the content of macro and microelements as well as the content
of heavy metals (Na, Mg, Ca, Cu, Fe, Zn, Pb, Cd, and Hg), except for K
and Mg content in mussels and shrimp, respectively (Czech & Stachyra,
2013). However, the content of some minerals can increase with frying due
to the effect of concentration.
Changes in vitamin content and degradation of antioxidants

Several vitamins are sensitive to higher temperatures and oxidation, but high
temperatures are reached only in surface layers of fried food, where their loss
is certainly very high. Total losses depend mostly on internal temperature,
which usually varies between 70 and 90°C. In this range, vitamin retention
depends much more on the internal temperature than on the temperature of
the frying oil (Pokorny & Elmadfa, 1999). Vitamins are thermo sensitive and
their oxidation depends on the internal temperature of the food and frying
process. Vitamin C usually is the most thermo sensitive. Among B group
vitamins, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and B6 are the most frequently affected
by the process (Reda, 2004). Jimenez-Monreal, Garcia-Diniz, Martinez-
Tome, Marical, and Murcia (2009) reported moderate loss of vitamin C
when frying fruits in soybean oil. Loss of vitamins is caused by high tem-
peratures or enzymatic oxidation during the preparation process or long
periods of frying (Somsub, Kongkachuichai, Sungpuag, & Charoensiri,
2008). Speek et al. (1998) investigated the effect of processing on carotenoids
in vegetables, indicating an average loss of 14% and 24% for vitamin A
activity in boiling and frying, respectively. Manorama and Rukmini (1991)
investigated the effects of processing on the preservation of beta-carotene in
palm oil. Total beta-carotene was eliminated in the first frying operation, but
the mixture of other types of carotenes, even with some losses, was still found
in the oil. Some carotene oxidation products were identified in heated palm
oil, indicating that the loss of beta-carotene during frying is probably partly
due to the oxidation of the compound (Fillion & Henry, 1998; Wong, 1977).
Retinol, carotenoids, and tocopherols are destroyed, changing oil flavor and
color. However, preferential oxidation of tocopherols has a protective (anti-
oxidant) effect, which is particularly important, since the majority of the
frying oils is of vegetable origin, showing great amounts of unsaturated,
rapidly oxidized fats (Fellows, 2006). In oils with different unsaturation

degrees, degradation was significantly higher when tocopherols were absent
and can to be related with tocopherols type (Barrera-Arellano et al., 2002).
Kourimska and Gordon (1995) reported that the content of α-tocopherol was
lost more quickly than other tocopherols of canola oil, with a 50% reduction
after four to five frying operations.
Fat uptake in fried food

Fried foods usually have an attractive color, distinctive mouth feel, and
pleasant taste, as well as fried flavor and unique crispy crust formation.
However, these products usually contain a substantial amount of fat, some
as much as 45% (Funami, Funami, Tawada, and Nakao, 1999) because foods,
especially those that are naturally low in fat, absorb large amounts of fat
during deep fat frying (Rimac-Brncic et al., 2004). During deep-fat frying,
water in the crust will evaporate and move out of the food, sufficient water
has to be able to migrate from the core of the food to the crust in order for
the flow of vapor to continue and the crust has to remain permeable. The fact
that the vapor leaves voids for the fat to enter later is the reason why fat
uptake is largely determined by the moisture content of the food (Saguy &
Pinthus, 1995; Southern et al., 2000). Similarly, sections of the food with
more moisture loss also show more fat uptake (Gamble, Rice, & Selman,
1987). Some even argue that the volume of fat absorbed will equal the total
volume of water removed. Since oil can only penetrate where water has
evaporated, oil penetration only occurs where the temperature has been
sufficiently high, i.e., in the crust. There is abundant proof that oil hardly
penetrates in the cooked core and that the microstructure of the crust is the
main determining factor in oil uptake (Pinthus, Weinberg, & Saguy, 1995).
Moreover, interest in low fat products has recently increased. Fried foods also
contain high amount of fat (1/3 of the total weight of the foods) yet remain
popular. Interest in low fat product has recently increased as excess fat
consumption is considered to heighten blood cholesterol, high blood pres-
sure, and coronary heart disease (Pinthus et al., 1995). Thus, many studies
have aimed to improve the frying process by controlling and lowering the
final fat content of the fried products (Ziaiifar et al., 2008). Some practical
methods are based on the modification of frying techniques, the frying
medium, and surface properties (Mellema, 2003; Pinthus et al., 1995).
Proper shaking and draining, exertion of optimum temperature and frying
time (Mellema, 2003), modification of viscosity and degradation of frying oil,
and application of batters or coatings (Mellema, 2003) are some alternatives.
Use of hydrocolloids as coating is a method for reducing oil uptake in fried
products because of their preventive properties. Hydrocolloids have been
used as multifunctional additives in food processing. They are added to
10 E. K. OKE ET AL.
control and to improve physical properties like viscosity, water binding

capacity, and emulsion stability. It was also reported that some hydrocolloids,
mainly long chain polysaccharides, could reduce oil absorption during deep
fat frying. (Ang, 1993; Koelsch & Labuza, 1992; Mallikarjunan, Chinnan,
Balasubra-Maniam, & Phillips, 1997; Nelson & Fennema, 1991; Williams &
Mittal, 1999). There are two main ways of applying hydrocolloids in fried
products. The first is as an aqueous solution forming what is generally known
as “edible coating” on the food to be fried, and the second is as a batter
ingredient in battered or breaded foods (Fiszman & Salvador, 2003).
An edible coating is defined as a thin layer of edible material applied to the
surface of foods in addition to or as a substitution for natural protective
coatings, able to form a barrier to moisture, oxygen, and solute movement
for the food (Mchugh & Senesi, 2000; Smith, Geeson, & Stow, 1987). On the
other hand, edible film is defined as a thin layer of edible material formed on
a product surface as a coating or placed (pre-formed) on or between food
components (Krochta & Mulder-Johnston, 1997). Thus, an edible film is a
thin skin, which has been pre-formed (for example, by casting a biopolymer
solution separately from the food to form a film later applied to the food),
whilst an edible coating is a suspension or an emulsion, which is applied
directly to the food surface and later forms a film (Souza, Cerqueira, Teixeira,
& Vicente, 2010). Edible coatings and films do not replace traditional packa-
ging materials, but provide an additional factor to be applied for food
preservation; Edible coatings (ECs) are consumed along with the food, thus
the composition must conform to the regulations applied to the food pro-
duct. One of the advantages in using edible coatings and films is the reduc-
tion of water loss: They are applied to the surface of foods, before or after
certain processing operations, in order to modify product appearance, taste,
increase shelf-life, protect ingredients, prevent migration of core constituents,
create texture, or maintain structural integrity, which are the key points of
impacting food products (Fiszman & Salvador, 2003). In addition, edible
coatings may enhance sensory characteristics, can be consumed along with
the food, provide additional nutrients, and include quality-enhancing anti-
microbials. Furthermore, they may reduce the cost and also the amount of
traditional packaging used (Campos et al., 2010). Batter and breading systems
are the common type of food coatings used in deep-fat fried foods. Usually,
the batter is made up of flours, starch, water, hydrocolloids, flavoring,
seasoning, and other ingredients, depending on the manufacturer’s choice.
It is often in the form of a thick liquid or semi-liquid system into which food
is dipped prior to frying. The breading comprises of breadcrumb or cracker
grits applied dry to form a suitable texture. The batters are generally classified
into two basic categories, namely puff/tempura batter and adhesive/interface
batter (Loewe, 1990). The adhesive batters are often used with the breading
coating to serve as a gumming agent to enable the breading to evenly coat the
surface of the food material. Puff/tempura is usually liquid dough, chemically

leavened, which can by itself serve as the outside coating to a food material.
The functionality of the batter system is affected by a number of factors such
as viscosity, water holding capacity, thermal properties, and product compo-
nents. The formulation is also extremely flexible and changes the product’s
malleability during product development. However, recent studies have estab-
lished strong relationship between formulations, functional properties of coat-
ing systems, and their overall qualities like pick-up values, adhesion power,
texture, and appearance (Dogan, Sahin, & Sumnu, 2005; Xue & Ngadi, 2006).
Flours are the major functional ingredient of breading and batter used in deep-
fat fried foods. Wheat flour is the traditional flour for batter formulation
primarily because of the viscoelastic characteristic of its gluten content; how-
ever other flours such as rice, soy, and corn flours are increasingly being used
as substitutes because they improve the overall functionality of the formulation
such as water holding capacity, viscosity, color, etc.
Hydrocolloids are added to the breading/batter system to serve two main
purposes: to control viscosity and the water holding capacity of the system
(Rimac-Brncic et al., 2004). This helps create a network of structures that
minimizes mass transfer during frying, resulting in reduced oil uptake and
the formation of a more desirable texture (Dogan et al., 2005). Hydrocolloids
form gels when heated but return to their original viscosity when cooled
(Dziezak, 1991). The gelation is what promotes the barrier-resistant effect to
oil uptake and moisture loss (Mellema, 2003; Meyers & Grazela, 1990). The
type of hydrocolloids often used in deep-fat fried foods as coatings are of the
cellulose derivatives such as methylcellulose (MC), carboxyl methylcellulose
(CMC), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), and others like xanthan
gum, guar gum, etc. (Rimac-Brncic et al., 2004). All these cellulose derivatives
are water soluble with good film-forming properties. Alginate and pectin are
widely used in food systems to stabilize and to modify the rheology of food.
Starch contains amylose ([1→4]-α-D-glucopyranosyl) and amylopectin
(amylose branched with side units of D-glucopyranosyl linked by α-1,6-gly-
cosidic bonds). Dextrins derive from starch and are characterized by a
smaller molecular size. Coatings resulting from dextrins provide a better
water vapor resistance than starch coatings (Allen, Nelson, Steinberg, &
Mcgill, 1963). Gums include exudates gums (arabic, tragacanth and karaya),
seed gums (locust bean and guar), and microbial fermentation gums
(xanthan and gellan). Xanthan gum provides uniform coatings, carrageenan.
Examples of animal sources of coating include chitosan, a natural polysac-
charide prepared by the alkaline deacetylation of chitin β-
1,4-Nacetylglucosamine (found in fungi, arthropods and marine inverte-
brate); commercially, it is produced from exoskeletons of crustacean, such
as crab, shrimp, and crawfish. Proteins can be obtained from animal sources,
such as casein and whey protein (the main milk protein fractions: 80% and
12 E. K. OKE ET AL.
20%, respectively), and from plant sources, such as zein, gluten, and soy
proteins (Gennadios, Mchugh, Weller, & Krochta, 1994). Different proteins
are able to form films and coatings; this ability depends on their molecular
weight, conformations, electrical properties (charge vs. pH), flexibilities, and
thermal stabilities (Vergas et al., 2008). Nevertheless, proteins have been
studied less extensively than polysaccharides. The performance of hydrocol-
loids is determined by their ability to interact with the other food compo-
nents. Another property of hydrocolloids is that they are indigestible, and
their inclusion in batter coating has significant effect on the rheological and
textural properties of fried products (Meyers & Grazela, 1990).
Previous research work conducted on frying using coating

Several research works have been carried out by researchers on fried products
with the application of edible coating as hydrocolloid. Martin and Davis
(1986) and Mohammed et al. (1995) also reported about the effects of protein
in additives and ingredients on donut oil uptake characteristics. Prosise
(1990) also reported about small amounts of polyvinylpyroldine as additives
to prepare reduced-fat donuts. Pinthus et al. (1992) also reported that
methylcellulose was found to be more effective than cellulose in reducing
oil uptake for donuts. Mallikarjunan et al. (1997) reported the use of starchy
product as edible coating for deep-fat frying. The coatings used in this study
are corn zein, methylcellulose, and HPMC. He therefore concluded that
irrespective of the type of edible films used in this study, applying a coating
reduced moisture loss and fat uptake during deep-fat frying. Among the films
tested, methylcellulose showed most effective moisture and fat barrier prop-
erties. Funami et al. (1999) also reported the ability of the dry ingredient
curdlan to lower oil uptake and moisture loss in doughnuts. The report
further shows that curdlans was more effective in reducing oil uptake or
moisture loss of doughnuts during deep-fat frying than cellulose derivatives.
Williams and Mittal (1999) also found that MC films showed the best barrier
properties because they reduced fat uptake more than hydroxypropycellulose
(HPC) and gellan gum films applied to a pastry mix. Shih, Daigle, and
Clawson (2001) also conducted research on donuts using wheat flour and
various additives. The report further shows that replacement of wheat flour
with a long grain or waxy rice flour resulted in lower dough consistency and
moisture content. Donuts formulated with wheat flour and up to 50%
gelatinized flour were comparable to wheat donuts in general characteristics
but as much as 64% lower in oil uptake. Garcia, Ferrero, Bertola, Martino,
and Zaritzky (2002) studied the use of edible coating from cellulose deriva-
tive to reduce oil uptake in fried products. MC and HPMC were used in
coating formulations to reduce oil uptake in deep-fat fried potato strips and
dough discs. He therefore concluded that MC coatings were more effective in
reducing oil uptake than HPMC ones. Gowri, Begum, Saraswathi, and
Prakash (2008) also investigated the effect of incorporation of selected
additives on fat uptake and sensory quality of two traditional deep fried
snacks. Eleven different additives were selected. The report further shows
that reduction in fat uptake from the fried products was not achieved using
some additives, while some are achieved using the additives. Garmakhany,
Mirzaei, Nejad, and Maghsudlo (2008) analyzed the effect of hydrocolloid
(carboxymethylcellulose, xanthan gum) as coating agent on the quantity of
oil uptake and on sensory attributes of potato chips. The report further shows
that the most effective coating reduced the oil uptake of the product.
Bertolini et al. (2008) also reported the comparison of the deep frying process
in coated and uncoated dough system. The report further shows that the
effect an edible methylcellulose coating reduces oil uptake during frying and
was analyzed on a dough system, and the coating reduced oil uptake of
dough systems. Usawakesmanee, Chinnan, Wuttijumnong, Jangchud, and
Raksakulthai (2008) also studied the effect of coating ingredients, i.e.,
HPMC, MC, and wheat gluten (WG), incorporated into predusting mix on
moisture content, fat content, and consumer acceptability of fried breaded
products. He therefore concluded that HPMC and MC coating reduced
moisture loss and fat absorption more effectively than WG. Kim, Lim, Bae,
Lee, and Lee (2011) studied the effect of hydrocolloid coatings on the heat
transfer and oil uptake during frying of potato strips. Gellen and guar gum
were chosen as coating material. Potato strips were coated with hydrocolloid
solutions at three different concentrations (0.3%, 0.6%, and 0.9%). The
hydrocolloids coating caused significant changes in the heat transfer coeffi-
cients during frying, which were more pronounced at higher concentrations
of the hydrocolloid solutions. Bhagwan et al. (2011) also studied the effect of
hydrocolloid (HPMC, CMC, guargum, and xanthum gum) in casing of
samosas on reduction of oil uptake. Among all the hydrocolloids studied at
different levels for preparation of samosas, it can be concluded that samosas
prepared with the addition of xanthan gum at 1.5% were statistically sig-
nificant over all other hydrocolloids in oil uptake with optimum sensory
quality characteristics. Ansarifar, Mohebbi, and Shahidi (2012) studied some
physicochemical characteristics of crust coated with egg white and chitosan
using a deep fried model system. The report further shows that batter
formulation had a significant effect on moisture and fat content, color, and
hardness of the product. Lee, Cho, Hong, Park, and Lim (2012) also studied
the physical properties of wheat flour composites dry-coated with micropar-
ticulated soybean hulls and rice flour and their use low-fat doughnut pre-
paration. The report further shows that wheat flour composites prepared by
hybridization with microparticulated rice flour (up to 30%) and /or soybean
hulls (up to 10%) exhibited unique physical properties and were effective in
reducing fat uptake during frying. In addition, the composite formation in
14 E. K. OKE ET AL.
which wheat flour was dry coated with rice flour or soybean hulls exhibited
significant effects on the physical properties of the deep-fat fried doughnuts
prepared with composite flours. Tabibloghmany, Hojjatoleslamy, Farhadian,
and Ehsandoost (2013) conducted a research study on effect of linseed
(Linum usitatissimum) hydrocolloid as edible coating in decreasing oil
absorption in potato chips during deep-fat frying. The result of this experi-
ment showed that application of linseed as coating hydrocolloid in prepara-
tion of potato chips caused decreased oil uptake, acidity, and peroxide value
of extracted oil and increased moisture content of potato chips with no
changes in texture compared to blank treatment. The investigation further
revealed that 1.5% linseed was the best in the aforementioned cases.
Therefore, linseed hydrocolloid as an edible coating is acceptable for decreas-
ing oil uptake potato chips for both nutritional and economical aspects.
Parang, Babak, and Maryam (2015) reported the effect of some hydrocolloids
(guar, carboxymethylcellulose, pectin) coating on reducing oil uptake and
quality factors of fermented doughnuts at different concentration. The report
further shows that the use of hydrocolloids decreases the oil absorption in
doughnuts; moreover the tested coatings or hydrocolloid coatings decreased
the fat uptake but also decreased the water reduction during frying product.
Norizzah et al. (2016) reported the effects of xanthan gum and carragee-
nan on the oil uptake and acceptability of banana (Musa acuminate) fritters
during repeated deep-fat frying. The report further shows that there was
significant reduction in oil content of banana fritters dipped in batter con-
taining xanthan gum compared to carrageenan and control. However, 1%
xanthan gum was effective in reducing oil absorption of banana fritters
without affecting the overall sensory acceptability.
Product quality and shelf life

The sensorial attributes of a fried product, i.e., flavor, color, and crispness,
depend on the raw material, the frying medium, and the frying conditions.
The frying medium is absorbed into the products and, therefore, is an
important ingredient of some of them, especially chips and other snacks.
Consequently, the nutritional quality of the fried product depends on the
quality of the fried oil. The compounds produced through the oil dete-
rioration occurring during frying are uniformly distributed in the oil
remaining in the fryer and in the oil absorbed by the food (Guillaumin,
1988). If the oil has deteriorated extensively, a product of unacceptable
quality will be produced. During storage, the quality of the fried snacks
mainly depends on the deterioration of the absorbed oil, which continues
under storage. This deterioration is accompanied by the formation of off-
odors and products that may cause some health problems. The oils
undergo oxidative and hydrolytic alteration under storage, similar to the
ones occurring during frying, although the reaction rates are much slower.
Hydrolytic alterations are caused by lipase enzymes in the presence of
moisture. Therefore, preservation of foods from hydrolytic rancidity can
be achieved by the control of processing conditions in order to inactivate
enzymes and to maintain low moisture during storage. Oxidative altera-
tions during storage are the most important of the two mechanisms, with
respect to food acceptability. These alterations are caused by oxygen attack
and are accelerated by temperature increase and presence of light.
Preservation from oxidative rancidity can be achieved by storage at
lower temperature, elimination of oxygen and light, or addition of anti-
oxidants. Several synthetic and natural antioxidants have been added either
to the frying oil or to the final fried product. It should be reminded that
the oils that contain higher amounts of unsaturated fatty acids deteriorate
faster and, therefore, need a higher protection against oxidation. Another
important quality defect of fried snacks is the reduction of crispness
during storage due to absorption of moisture. In addition, moisture gain
accelerates rancidity. Moisture absorption and the consequent deteriorative
changes can be prevented by the use of packaging materials with appro-
priate moisture barrier pro perties. In this case, the shelf life of the
products can be extended to several months. If the packaging material is
not transmitted by light and if the air inside the packaging is replaced by
an inert gas, e.g., nitrogen, a considerably longer shelf life can be obtained.
Conclusion
Although fried food have been part of the world menu for a long time, results
from literature revealed that one of the main problems associated with fried
food is its high oil content as a result, owing to its association with the high
incidence of diseases such as obesity, high cholesterol, or high blood pres-
sure. However, previous studies have revealed that coating can reduce the oil
uptake or lower the oil content of fried food. Therefore, it is very important
that the shelf stability and packaging materials used for fried food products
are checked. However, there is need for adequate process, quality control,
and regulatory monitoring of fried food products in order to safeguard the
health of the consumer from unwanted diseases.
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Frying of Food: A Critical Review

Article in Journal of Culinary Science & Technology · June 2017

Kehinde Emmanuel Oke Michael Ayodele Idowu

Sobukola Olajide Philip S. A. O. Adeyeye

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Frying of Food: A Critical Review

E. K. Oke, M. A. Idowu, O. P. Sobukola, S. A. O. Adeyeye & A. O. Akinsola

To cite this article: E. K. Oke, M. A. Idowu, O. P. Sobukola, S. A. O. Adeyeye & A. O. Akinsola

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Frying of Food: A Critical Review

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

adverse reactions. Extended exposure of oil to high temperatures and atmo-

clearly understood. During deep-fat frying, heat is transferred by convection

Advantages of deep fat frying

Shallow frying or contact frying

Chemical reactions of oil during deep fat frying

Properties of fried food

characteristics (Stevenson, Vaisey- Genser, & Eskin, 1984). The typical

Nutritional aspect of fried food

involved in a thermal, industrial, or culinary process have on the nutritive

Changes in the lipid fraction of foods

Changes in protein content

Changes in the mineral content

to the effect of concentration.

Changes in vitamin content and degradation of antioxidants

rapidly oxidized fats (Fellows, 2006). In oils with different unsaturation

Fat uptake in fried food

control and to improve physical properties like viscosity, water binding

surface of the food material. Puff/tempura is usually liquid dough, chemically

Previous research work conducted on frying using coating

Product quality and shelf life

temperatures in oils differing in unsaturation degree and natural antioxidant content.

Guillaumin, R. (1988). Kinetics of fat penetration in food. In G. Varela, A. E. Bender, & I. T.

Pokorny, J. (1999). Changes in nutrients at frying temperatures. In D. Boskou & I. Elmadfa

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