DRAINAGE

Drainage is the term applied to systems dealing with excess water. The three primary drainage tasks are
(a) urban storm drainage,
(b) land drainage, and
(c) highway drainage.

Often considered as minor problems for the hydraulic engineer and frequently designed as if the works were unimportant,
these tasks actually involve substantially greater capital investment and probably consume more engineering time each
year than all of the flood-mitigation activity undertaken. The primary distinction between drainage and flood mitigation is in
the techniques employed to cope with excess water and in the fact that (with the exception of highway culverts and
bridges) drainage deals with water before it has reached major stream channels.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Crown – sometimes known as soffit, is the top inside of a pipe. (See Figure 1)
Design storm – a storm whose magnitude, rate, and intensity do not exceed the design load for a storm drainage system or
flood protection project.
Intensity-duration-frequency curve – a graphical representation of the probability that a given average rainfall intensity will
occur
Return period – also known as “recurrence interval” is an estimate of the likelihood of an event such as flood to occur. It is
a statistical measurement typically based on historic data denoting the average recurrence interval over an extended period
of time.
Runoff – that part of rain or other precipitation that runs off the surface of a drainage area and does not enter the soil or
the sewer system as inflow.
Stormwater – the excess water running off from the surface of a drainage area during and immediately after a period of
rain.
Subbasin – is a structural geologic feature where a basin forms within a larger basin. (See Figure 8.1)
Topographic map – is a general-use map at medium scale that presents elevation (contour lines), hydrography, geographic
place names, and a variety of cultural features. (See Figure 3 and samples can be seen in
http://www.namria.gov.ph/topo50Index.aspx)
Watershed – the region or land area that contributes to the drainage or catchment area above a specific point on the
stream or river. (See Figure 8.2)

Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2

URBAN STORM DRAINAGE

In cities, stormwater is usually collected in the streets and conveyed through inlets to buried conduits which carry it to a
always feasible and pumping plants may be an important part of a city storm-drainage system. (See Figure 8.5 for sample
storm drain)

System components

 Sewers
Sewer pipes are available in a variety of materials. They can be made of cast and ductile iron, PVC (polyvinyl chloride),
concrete, asbestos cement, HDPE (high density polyethylene), brick, and vitrified clay. Most new sewer pipe has a circular
cross section; however, many older sewers, especially those made from brick, have different cross-sectional shapes.

| Water Resources Engineering 1

 Vertical alignment
Figure 8.3 illustrates how the vertical position of a sewer is defined by its invert level (IL). The invert of a pipe refers to the
lowest point on the inside of the pipe. The invert level is the vertical distance of the invert above some fixed level or datum.
Soffit level is the highest point on the inside of the pipe and the crown level is the highest point on the outside of the pipe.

a = invert level (IL)

c b = Soffit level
c = Crown level
d = Ground level
D = internal diameter of pipe
b t = pipe wall thickness
D
a
t

Figure 8.3

 Manholes
Manholes are structures designed to provide access to a sewer. Access is required for testing, visual inspection of sewers,
and placement and maintenance of flow or water quality monitoring instruments.
Manholes are usually provided at heads of runs, at locations where there is changes in direction, changes in gradient;
changes in size, at major junctions with other sewers and at every 90 to 200 meter intervals depending on the size of the
sewer pipes. The diameter of the manhole will depend on the size of sewer and the orientation and number of inlets.
Sample manhole design in Figure 8.4.

Figure 8.4

 Gully Inlets
Gully inlets are inlets where surface water from roads and paved areas are entering the sewer system. Gullies consist of a
grating and usually an underlying sump to collect heavy material in the flow. A water seal is incorporated to act as an odor
trap for those gullies connected to combined sewers. Gullies are connected to the sewer by lateral pipes.

Combined inlet

Grated inlet
Curbed inlet
Gutter inlets

| Water Resources Engineering 2

  Ventilation
It is important to have adequate air ventilation in all urban drainage systems, but particularly in foul and combined sewers.
It is needed to ensure that aerobic conditions are maintained within the pipe, and to avoid the possibility of build-up of
toxic or explosive gases.

Figure 8.5

Information Needs and Design Criteria

A condensed checklist of information needs for storm sewer design is presented below. There are many sources for this
information, ranging from various local government agencies to federal agencies to pipe and pump manufacturers. The
designer must also obtain future development information for areas surrounding the site of interest.

Condensed Checklist of Information Needs for Storm Sewer Design (Source: Urbonas and Roesner, 1993)
 Local storm drainage criteria and design standards
 Maps, preferably topographic, of the subbasin in which the new system is to be located
 Detailed topographic map of the design area
 Location, sizes, and types of existing storm sewers and channels located upstream and downstream of design area
 Locations, depths, and types of all existing and proposed utilities
 Layout of design area including existing and planned street patterns and profiles, types of street cross-sections,
street intersection elevations, grades of any irrigation and drainage ditches, and elevations of all other items that
may post physical constraints to the new system
 Soil borings, soil mechanical properties, and soil chemistry to help select appropriate pipe materials and strength
classes
 Seasonal water table levels
 Intensity-duration-frequency and design storm data for the locally required design return periods
 Pipe vendor information for the types of storm sewer pipe materials accepted by local jurisdiction

Design criteria may vary from one city to another, but for the most part the following are a fairly standard set of
assumptions and constraints used in the design of storm sewers (American Society of Civil Engineers, 1969, 1992).

(a) For small systems, free-surface flow exists for the design discharges; that is, the sewer system is designed for
“gravity-flow” so that pumping stations and pressurized sewers are not considered.
(b) The sewers are commercially available circular pipes.
(c) The design diameter is the smallest commercially available pipe that has flow capacity equal to or greater than the
design discharge and satisfies all the appropriate constraints.
(d) Storm sewers must be placed at a depth that will not be susceptible to frost, will drain basements, and will allow
sufficient cushioning to prevent breakage due to ground surface loading. Therefore, minimum cover depths must
be specified.
(e) The sewers are joined at junctions such that the crown elevation of the upstream sewer is no lower than that of
the downstream sewer.
(f) To prevent or reduce excessive deposition of solid material in the sewers, a minimum permissible flow velocity at
design discharge or at barely full-pipe gravity flow is specified.
(g) To prevent the occurrence of scour and other undesirable effects of high-velocity flow, a maximum permissible
flow velocity is also specified. Maximum velocities in sewers are important mainly because of the possibilities of
excessive erosion on the sewer inverts.
(h) At any junction or manhole, the downstream sewer cannot be smaller than any of the upstream sewers at that
junction.
(i) The sewer system is a dendritic network converging towards downstream without closed loops.
Table 8.1 lists the more important typical technical items and limitations to consider.

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 Table 8.1 Technical Items and Limitations to Consider in Storm Sewer Design (Source: Urbonas and Roesner, 1993)
Velocity
Minimum design velocity 2 – 3 ft/s (0.6 – 0.9 m/s)
Maximum design velocity
Rigid pipe 15 -21 ft/s (4.6 – 6.4 m/s)
Flexible pipe 10 -15 ft/s (3.0 – 4.6 m/s)
Maximum manhole spacing
(function of pipe size) 400 – 600 ft (122 – 183 m)
Maximum size of pipe 12 – 24 in. (0.3 – 0.6 m)
Vertical alignment at manholes:
Different size pipe Match crown of pipe or 80 – 85% depth lines
Same size pipe Minimum of 0.1 – 0.2 ft (0.03 – 0.06 m) in invert drop
Minimum depth of soil cover 12 – 24 in. (0.3 – 0.6 m)
Final hydraulic design Check design for surcharge and junction losses by using backwater analysis
Location of inlets In street where the allowable gutter flow capacity is exceeded

Rational Method Design

From an engineering viewpoint the design can be divided into two main aspects: runoff prediction and pipe sizing. The
rational method, which can be traced back to the mid-nineteenth century, is still probably the most popular method used
for the design of storm sewers. (Yen and Akan, 1999). Although criticisms have been raised of its adequacy, and several
other more advanced methods have been proposed, the rational method, because of its simplicity, is still in continued use
for sewer design when high accuracy of runoff rate is not essential.
Using the rational method, the storm runoff peak is estimated by the rational formula

𝑸 = 𝑪𝒊𝑨
Where:
Q = the peak runoff rate (ft3/s, m3/s)
C = the runoff coefficient
i = the average rainfall intensity (in/hr, mm/hr)
A = the area of the tributary drainage area (acres, km 2)

 Runoff Coefficient
The runoff coefficient is a dimensionless value representing characteristics of the watershed that affect how much
of the rain will become runoff. Coefficient selection is based on land use and soil conditions. The weighted C value
to be based on a ratio of the drainage areas associated with each C value. The runoff coefficients for various types
of surfaces (used by the City of Austin, Texas) are provided in Table 8.2. Runoff coefficients in the Philippines are
shown in Table 8.3.

𝑨𝟏 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + … . . + 𝑨𝒏 𝑪𝒏
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑪 =
𝑨 𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 + … . . + 𝑨𝒏

Table 8.2 Runoff Coefficients for Use in the Rational Method (Source: Chow, Maidment, and Mays, 1988)
Character of Surface Return Period (years)
2 5 10 25 50 100 500
Developed
Asphaltic 0.73 0.77 0.81 0.86 0.90 0.95 1.00
Concrete/Roof 0.75 0.80 0.83 0.88 0.92 0.97 1.00
Grass areas (lawns, parks, etc)
Poor condition (grass cover < 50% of the area)
Flat, 0 – 2% 0.32 0.34 0.37 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.58
Average, 2 – 7% 0.37 0.40 0.43 0.46 0.49 0.53 0.61
Steep, over 7% 0.40 0.43 0.45 0.49 0.52 0.55 0.62
Fair condition (grass cover 50 – 75% of the area)
Flat, 0 – 2% 0.25 0.28 0.30 0.34 0.37 0.41 0.53
Average, 2 – 7% 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.42 0.45 0.49 0.58
Steep, over 7% 0.37 0.40 0.42 0.46 0.49 0.53 0.60
Good condition(grass cover larger than 75% of the area)
Flat, 0 – 2% 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.29 0.32 0.36 0.49
Average, 2 – 7% 0.29 0.32 0.35 0.39 0.42 0.46 0.56
Steep, over 7% 0.34 0.37 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.51 0.58

| Water Resources Engineering 4

Table 8.2 Runoff Coefficients for Use in the Rational Method (Source: Chow, Maidment, and Mays, 1988)…..continued

Character of Surface Return Period (years)

2 5 10 25 50 100 500
Undeveloped
Cultivated land
Flat, 0 – 2% 0.35 0.34 0.36 0.40 0.43 0.47 0.57
Average, 2 – 7% 0.35 0.38 0.41 0.44 0.48 0.51 0.60
Steep, over 7% 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.48 0.51 0.54 0.61
Pasture/range
Flat, 0 – 2% 0.25 0.28 0.30 0.34 0.37 0.41 0.53
Average, 2 – 7% 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.42 0.45 0.49 0.58
Steep, over 7% 0.37 0.40 0.42 0.46 0.49 0.53 0.60
Forest/woodlands
Flat, 0 – 2% 0.20 0.25 0.28 0.31 0.35 0.39 0.48
Average, 2 – 7% 0.31 0.34 0.26 0.40 0.43 0.47 0.56
Steep, over 7% 0.35 0.39 0.41 0.45 0.48 0.52 0.58

Table 8.3 Runoff Coefficients for Use in the Rational Method (Philippines, Source: Technical Standards and Guidelines for Planning and Design,
DPWHMarch 2002)
Surface Characteristics Runoff coefficient
Lawn, gardens meadows and cultivated lands 0.05-0.25
Parks, open spaces including unpaved surfaces and vacant lots 0.20-0.30
Suburban districts with few building 0.25-0.35
Residential districts not densely built 0.30-0.55
Residential districts densely built 0.50-0.75
For watershed having steep gullies and not heavily timbered 0.55-0.70
For watershed having moderate slope, cultivated and heavily timbered 0.45-0.55
For suburban areas 0.34-0.45
For agricultural areas 0.15-0.25

 Rainfall Intensity
The rainfall intensity is the average rainfall rate considered for a particular drainage basin or subbasin. The
intensity is selected on the basis of design rainfall duration and design frequency of occurrence. The design
duration is equal to the time of concentration for the drainage area under consideration. The frequency of
occurrence is a statistical variable that is established by design standards or chosen by the engineer as a design
parameter.

 Time of Concentration, tC
The time of concentration is the period required for water to travel from the most hydraulically distant point of
the watershed to the point of the storm drain system under consideration. The designer is usually concerned
about two different times of concentration, one for inlet spacing and the other for piping sizing. There is a major
difference between the two times.

(a) Inlet Spacing

The time of concentration for inlet spacing is the time for water to flow from the hydraulically most distant point
in the drainage to the inlet. Ususaly this is the timerequired for water to move across the pavement or overland
back of the curb to the gutter, plus the time required for flow to move through the length gutter to the inlet. For
pavement drainage, when the total time of concentration to the upstream inlet is less than seven minutes, a
minimum tC of seven minutes should be used to estimate the intensity of rainfall. The time of concentration for
the second downstream inlet and each succeeding inlet should be determined independently, the same as the first
inlet. Runby travel time between inlets is not considered. In the case of a constant raodway grade, and relatively
uniform contributing drainage area, the time of concentration for each succeeding inlet could also be constant.

𝟒𝟏. 𝟎𝟐𝟓(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝒊 + 𝒄)𝑳𝟎.𝟑𝟑

𝒕𝑪 =
𝑺𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒊𝟎.𝟔𝟔𝟕

Where:
i = rainfall intensity (in/hr)
c = retardance coefficient (see Table 8.4)
L = length of flow path (ft)
S = slope of flow path (ft)

| Water Resources Engineering 5

 Table 8.4 Retardance coefficients (Source: Water Resources Engineering by Linsley and Franzini, 3rd edition)

Surface Value of c
Smooth asphalt surface 0.007
Concrete pavement 0.012
Tar and gravel pavement 0.017
Closely clipped sod 0.046
Dense bluegrass turf 0.060

(b) Pipe Sizing

The time of concentration for pipe sizing is the period required for water to travel from the most hydraulically
distant point of the watershed to the point of the storm drain system under consideration. It generally consists of
two components, the time to flow to the inlet which can consist of overland and channel or gutter flow, and the
time to flow through the storm drain to the point under consideration.

𝟏 𝑳
𝒕𝑪 = ∑
𝟔𝟎 𝑽

Where:
L = length of pipe along the flow path (ft)
V = average velocity (ft/s) in the pipe

 Area
The area is the drainage surface measured in a horizontal plane. The area is usually measured from plans or maps
using a planimeter. The area includes all land enclosed by the surrounding drainage divides. In highway drainage
design, this area will frequently include upland properties beyond the highway right-of-way.

STORMWATER DETENTION

Urban stormwater management systems typically include detention and retention facilities to mitigate the negative impacts
of urbanization on stormwater drainage. The effects of urbanization on stormwater runoff include increased total volumes
of runoff and peak flow rates. In general, major changes in flow rates in urban watershed are the result of:

1. The increase in the volume of water available for runoff because of the increased impervious cover provided by
parking lots, streets, and roofs, which reduce the amount of infiltration;
2. Changes in hydraulic efficiency associated with artificial channels, curbing, gutters, and storm drainage collection
systems, which increase the velocity of flow and the magnitude of flood peaks.

Types of Surface Detention

(a) Extended detention basins (dry detention basin)
Dry detention ponds empty after a storm. Water enters the basin, is impounded behind the embankment, and is
slowly discharged through a perforated riser outlet. The coarse aggregate around the perforated riser minimizes
clogging by debris. Typically once a required water-quality volume is filled, the remaining inflow is diverted around
the basin or the pond overflows through a primary spillway. A large part of the sediment from the stormwater
settles in the basin. Refer to Figures 8.6 and 8.7.

Figure 8.6 Figure 8.7

(b) Retention ponds (wet detention ponds)

Retention ponds retain the water much longer above a permanent pool of water. A retention pond is basically a
lake that can be designed to remove pollutants. Pollutants are removed by settling. Nutrients are removed by
phytoplankton growth in the water column and by shallow marsh plants around the pond perimeter. Refer to
Figures 8.8 and 8.9.

| Water Resources Engineering 6

 Figure 8.8 Figure 8.9

Subsurface Disposal of Stormwater

Swales are shallow vegetated trenches with nearly flat longitudinal slopes and mild side slopes. Filter strips are strips of
land that stormwater must flow across before entering a conveyance system. These practices allow some of the runoff to
infiltrate into the soil and filter the flow, removing some of the suspended solids and other pollutants attached to the
solids. They also have the effect of reducing the directly connected impervious area and reducing the runoff velocity. They
can be used for stormwater runoff from streets, parking lots, and roofs.

Porous pavement and modular pavement (modular porous block pavement) can be used in parking areas to help reduce
the amount of land needed for runoff quality control. Along the entire length of the trench, a perforated pipe allows
distribution of stormwater. Perforated pipes allow the collection of sediment before it enters the aggregate backfill.

Trenches are particularly suited for rights-of-way, parking lots, easements, and other areas with limited space. Their
advantages are that they can be placed in narrow bands and in complex alignments. Prevention of excessive silt from
entering the aggregate backfill and thus clogging the system is a major concern in design and construction. Sediment traps,
filtration manholes, deep catch basins, synthetic fibercloths, and the installation of filter bags in catch basins has proven
effective (American Iron and Steel Institute, 1995).

Infiltration basins are retention facilities in which captured runoff is infiltrated into the ground. They are essentially
depressions of varying sizes, either natural or excavated, into which stormwater is conveyed and allowed to infiltrate.
Infiltration basins are typically used in parks and urban opens spaces, in highway rights-of-way, and in open spaces in
freeway interchange loops. Infiltration basins are susceptible to clogging and sedimentation and can require large land
areas. Standing water in these basins can create problems of security and insect breeding.

Recharge wells can be used to dispose of stormwater directly into the subsurface. Recharge wells can be used to remove
standing water in areas that are difficult to drain. They can also be used in conjunction with infiltration basins to penetrate
impermeable strata. Another use is a bottomless catch basin in conventional minor system design. Typically, recharge wells
are used for small areas and can be combined with catch basins. The use of a filter manhole in conjunction with a recharge
well prevents excess silt entering the recharge well and causing clogging.

Underground storage
Underground storage can be effective where surface ponds are not permitted or feasible. These storage tanks can be either
in-line, in which the storage is incorporated directly into the sewer system, or off-line, in which stormwater is collected
before it enters the sewer system and then discharged to either the sewer system or an open water course at a controlled
rate. When the capacity of an in-line system is exceeded, surcharging in the sewer can occur.

Swale Filter strip Porous pavement Infiltration trench

Infiltration basin Underground storage Modular pavement

| Water Resources Engineering 7

LAND DRAINAGE
During rain or irrigation, the fields become wet. The water infiltrates into the soil and is stored in its pores. When all the
pores are filled with water, the soil is said to be saturated and no more water can be absorbed; when rain or irrigation
continues, pools may form on the soil surface (Figure A).

Figure A During heavy rainfall the upper soil Figure B Before heavy rainfall Figure C After heavy rainfall
layers become saturated and pools may
form. Water percolates to deeper layers
and infiltrates from the pools.

Part of the water present in the saturated upper soil layers flows downward into deeper layers and is replaced by water
infiltrating from the surface pools. When there is no more water left on the soil surface, the downward flow continues for a
while and air re-enters in the pores of the soil. This soil is not saturated anymore. However, saturation may have lasted too
long for the plants' health. Plant roots require air as well as water and most plants cannot withstand saturated soil for long
periods (rice is an exception). Besides damage to the crop, a very wet soil makes the use of machinery difficult, if not
impossible.

The water flowing from the saturated soil downward to deeper layers, feeds the groundwater reservoir. As a result, the
groundwater level (often called groundwater table or simply water table) rises. Following heavy rainfall or continuous over-
irrigation, the groundwater table may even reach and saturate part of the rootzone (Figures B and C). Again, if this situation
lasts too long, the plants may suffer. Measures to control the rise of the water table are thus necessary.

The removal of excess water either from the ground surface or from the rootzone, is called drainage.
Excess water may be caused by rainfall or by using too much irrigation water, but may also have other origins such as canal
seepage or floods.

In very dry areas there is often accumulation of salts in the soil. Most crops do not grow well on salty soil. Salts can be
washed out by percolating irrigation water through the rootzone of the crops. To achieve sufficient percolation, farmers will
apply more water to the field than the crops need. But the salty percolation water will cause the water table to rise.
Drainage to control the water table, therefore, also serves to control the salinity of the soil.

Drainage can be either natural or artificial. Many areas have some natural drainage; this means that excess water flows
from the farmers' fields to swamps or to lakes and rivers. Natural drainage, however, is often inadequate and artificial or
man-made drainage is required.

Types of artificial drainage

Surface drainage
Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the surface of the land. This is normally accomplished by shallow
ditches, also called open drains. The shallow ditches discharge into larger and deeper collector drains. In order to facilitate
the flow of excess water toward the drains, the field is given an artificial slope by means of land grading (Figure D).

| Water Resources Engineering 8

 Figure D The field is given artificial slope to
facilitate drainage

Subsurface drainage
Subsurface drainage is the removal of water from the rootzone. It is accomplished by deep open drains or buried pipe
drains.

i. Deep open drains

The excess water from the rootzone flows into the open drains (Figure E). The disadvantage of this type of subsurface
drainage is that it makes the use of machinery difficult.

Figure E Control of the groundwater table

by means of deep open drains

ii. Pipe drains

Pipe drains are buried pipes with openings through which the soil water can enter. The pipes convey the water to a
collector drain (Figure F).

Drain pipes are made of clay, concrete or plastic. They are usually placed in trenches by machines. In clay and concrete
pipes (usually 30 cm long and 5 - 10 cm in diameter) drainage water enters the pipes through the joints. Flexible plastic
drains are much longer (up to 200 m) and the water enters through perforations distributed over the entire length of the
pipe.

Figure F Control of the groundwater table

by means of buried pipes

iii. Deep open drains versus pipe drains

Open drains use land that otherwise could be used for crops. They restrict the use of machines. They also require a large
number of bridges and culverts for road crossings and access to the fields. Open drains require frequent maintenance
(weed control, repairs, etc.).
In contrast to open drains, buried pipes cause no loss of cultivable land and maintenance requirements are very limited.
The installation costs, however, of pipe drains may be higher due to the materials, the equipment and the skilled manpower
involved.

| Water Resources Engineering 9

iv. Tile drainage
The purpose of subsurface drainage is to lower the water table in the soil. The water table is the level at which the soil is
entirely saturated with water. The excess water must be removed to a level below the ground surface where it will not
interfere with plant root growth and development. Root growth requires air to be present in the soil. Both water and air
need to be present in the spaces between the soil particles, often in equal proportions. If water fills all of these spaces
(saturated), there is no room for air.

Tile drainage should be designed so the water table between tile lines can be lowered within 24 hours after a rain to a level
that will not cause crop injury. Generally, most field crops are not injured if the water table is lowered to at least six inches
below the ground surface in the first 24 hours after a rain. During the second day after a rain the water table should be
lowered to approximately one foot and on the third day to 1.5 feet below the ground surface.

The soil types in an area to be drained greatly influence the type of system that will be installed and indicate if special
problems should be anticipated.

Tile drains are placed at uniform depths where possible. The topography of the land influences the grades available, and it
is often possible to orient the drains within the field to obtain a desirable grade. The grades should be sufficient to result in
a non-silting velocity yet be flat enough that the maximum allowable velocity rate is not exceeded and the drain is not
subjected to excessive pressure flow. Too much flow will cause erosion around the drain.

Some arrangements of tile drains (Figure G)

Figure G Some arrangements of tile drains

Parallel tile drain

Herringbone tile drain

The herringbone system (b) consists of parallel tile laterals that enter the main at an angle, usually from both sides. This
system is used for long, relatively narrow wet areas such as those next to flat drainage ways. The parallel or gridiron system
(a) is similar to the herringbone system except that the laterals enter the main from only one side. This system is used on
flat, regularly shaped fields with uniform soil types. The double-main system (c) is a modification of the gridiron and
herringbone systems. It is used where a depression, which is frequently a natural watercourse, divides the field. A random
system (d) is used where the topography is undulating or rolling and contains isolated wet areas.

| Water Resources Engineering 10

HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

Highways occupy long, narrow strips of land and pose two types of drainage problems. Highways cross many natural
drainage channels, and the water carried by these channels must be conveyed across the right of way without obstructing
the flow in the channel upstream of the road and causing damage to property outside of the right of way.

Longitudinal Drainage
Unless stormwater resulting from rainfall on the highway right of way and tributary slopes is properly controlled, severe
erosion of the shoulder and cut slopes may create a costly maintenance problem and dangerous driving conditions. In
humid regions erosion can often be controlled by establishing vegetative cover on slopes of cut and fill and along shoulders.
In this case the water should be spread out as much as possible since erosion increases with a power of velocity which in
turn increases with depth. A good grass cover can withstand velocities up to about 2.5 m/sec. Bermuda grass is typical of
turf-forming grasses offering good protection. Grass will not withstand immersion for long periods, and slopes of at least
0.005 should be provided so that water will drain off rapidly.

In arid regions where natural rainfall is insufficient to maintain a vegetal cover or in humid regions where runoff is high,
other means of protection are necessary. Slopes of cuts may be protected by an intercepting dike or ditch at the top of the
slope. In long cuts the dike should approximately follow a contour and, if possible, should divert the water into a natural
drainage way without allowing it to reach the roadway. If it is necessary to direct the water to the roadway ditch before the
end of the cut, a paved spillway section down the cut slope will be necessary. Contour furrows at intervals above the top of
the cut slope will retard overland flow, and the landowner may benefit from the additional moisture retained on the land.

Roadside ditches are usually constructed in a shallow V-shape since this section is easily maintained with graders, is less
hazardous, and permits the shallow flow necessary to avoid erosion. The ditch should be large enough to carry the design
flow with a freeboard of 3 to 6 in. (8 to 15 cm). The flow line of the ditch is sometimes placed low enough so that
underdrainage from the highway base course may enter the ditch, although where the base course and underlying soil are
of low permeability, very little underdrainage can be expected.

Bare earth will withstand velocities between 1 and 4 ft/sec (0.3 to 1.2 m/sec), depending upon the soil types. If the
computed velocity for the design flow is too high for the soil, protection may be provided by lining the ditch with asphalt,
concrete, dry rubble, or sod. An alternative to lining the ditch throughout its entire length is drop structures at intervals
which permit the remainder of the ditch to be maintained on a grade sufficiently low to prevent excessive velocities. Drop
structures may prove to be a traffic hazard. A third alternative is to divert the flow to a natural drainage way by use of a
paved chute across the side of the fill before the accumulated runoff in the ditch is sufficient to cause harmful velocities.
Drop inlets discharging the flow into a pipe which carries it to the downstream side of the fill are preferred for intercepting
the flow in the uphill ditch unless the intercepted water can be discharged directly into a culvert on the upstream side of
the roadway. If interception is necessary in long cuts, a drop inlet discharging into a buried pipe running parallel to the
highway is required until a point is reached where the flow can be directed into a natural drainage way.

Depressed highways and underpasses sometimes create a difficult drainage problem. Occasionally the flow which collects
at the bottom of an underpass can be carried away by gravity to a storm drain or natural channel. Often, however, a small
automatic pumping station set in a sump beneath the roadway is required to lift the water to a point where it can be
carried away by gravity flow.

Cross-drainage

Since highways cross many natural drainage channels, provision for carrying this water across the right of way is necessary.
It should be noted that a considerable saving is often possible by locating a highway along ridge lines and eliminating
channel crossings. Since an average of one-fourth of highway construction costs is for drainage structures, some saving may
be realized even though the ridge route involves greater length and less satisfactory grades and alignment.

Cross drainage is accomplished by culverts, bridges, and dips. Culverts and bridges carry the roadways over a stream, and
the distinction between the two types of structures is mainly on the basis of size. Frequently structures with a span in
excess of 20 ft (6 m) are classed as bridges, while structures of shorter span are called culverts. This is arbitrary, and from
the hydraulic viewpoint it might be more proper to include with culverts all structures designed to flow with submerged
inlet. A dip is a depression of the roadway so that flow from a cross channel may pass over the road.

 Culverts
The essential features of a culvert are the barrel which passes under the fill; the headwalls and wingwalls at the
entrance and endwalls or other devices at exit to improve flow conditions and prevent embankment scour; and in
some cases debris protection to prevent entrance of debris which might clog the culvert barrel.

Culvert barrels are made of a variety of materials, the main basis of selection being the cost of the installed
culverts. Small culverts may be made from precast concrete, vitrified clay, cast iron, or corrugated steel pipe.

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 Minimum diameter for culverts should be about 18 to 24 in. (45 to 60 cm), although 12-in. (30-cm) pipe might be
used for small flows carrying no debris or trash.

It is common to place the culvert axis normal to the highway center line even though this requires some changes in
the natural channel. The alternative is a skew culvert, which will be longer than the normal culvert and will rewuire
more complex construction of headwalls and endwalls. As a general rule, it is best that culvert alignment conform
to the natural stream alignment.

Culvert parts Box culvert Arch Culvert

Culvert parts
A = barrel
B = headwall
C = wingwall
D = apron

Debris barrier

 Bridge Waterways

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 The waterway opening of a bridge must be large enough to pass the design flood without creating excessive
backwater. If stream velocities are low or there are only a few piers in the stream, the backwater* problem may be
of little importance. Massive piers or long-approach embankments encroaching on the waterway of the stream
may result in considerable damage from high stages above the bridge and may increase the likelihood of the
bridge being overtopped by floodwater.

*A backwater is a part of a river in which there is little or no current. It refers either to a branch of a main river, which lies
alongside it and then rejoins it, or to a body of water in a main river, backed up by the tide or by an obstruction.

Backwater profile

Economic design requires the determination of the minimum clear length of span which will not cause intolerable
backwater conditions. The first step in the study is a determination of the permissible backwater heights, based on
field investigation of lands and structures along the stream which might be harmed by an increase in stage. The
second step is the determination of the stage in the channel downstream from the bridge site at design flow.
Bridge waterway Bridge waterway

 Dips
Dips sometimes offer an economical solution to the cross-drainage problem in arid areas where streamflow is
infrequent and of short duration, provided the channel to be crossed is shallow enough to permit construction of
the dip without excessive grading of the approaches. The upstream edge of the roadbed at the dip should be even
with the bottom of the channel to avoid scour which might undermine the road. The downstream edge of the road
should be protected with a cutoff wall, paving, or rock riprap for the same purpose. The profile of the dip should
be as close to the shape of the stream cross section as possible, to eliminate interference with streamflow. If the
stream transports heavy debris, the road surface should be made especially heavy.

Posts should be set to indicate the edges of the road, and suitable warnings should be posted against crossing the
dip when flow is occurring. To avoid continuous overflow on perennial streams one or more small culverts may be
provided under the roadway to accommodate low flows.

A rolling grade use undulating crests and dips to divert water off the tread

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Design of insloped dips for forest roads. A to C, slope about 10 to 15 cm to assure lateral flow; B, no material accumulated
at this point - may require surfacing to prevent cutting; D, provide rock rip-rap to prevent erosion; E, berm to prevent
overflow; F, culvert to carry water beneath road; G, widen for ditch and pipe inlet (Megahan, 1977).

Design of outsloped dips for forest roads. A to C, slope about 10 to 15 cm to assure lateral flow; B, no material accumulated
at this point - may require surfacing to prevent cutting; D, provide rock rip-rap to prevent erosion; E, berm to confine
outflow to 0.5 m wide spillway. (Megahan, 1977).

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