Hydrogen Untapped Energy

HYDROGEN
UNTAPPED ENERGY?
Report author Olu Ajayi-Oyakhire BSc
Copyright © 2012, IGEM. All rights reserved

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Published by the Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers

Hydrogen – Untapped Energy?
Table of contents
Foreword 4
Executive summary 5
1 Introduction 7
2 Why do we need hydrogen in the energy system? 8

2.1. Harnessing energy from unrestrained wind farms 8
2.2. Harnessing energy from other renewable sources 11
2.3. Energy security 12
2.4. De-carbonising the power generation and transport sectors 13
3 What is the hydrogen economy? 14

3.1. Production – sources of hydrogen 15
3.2. Storing and distributing hydrogen 18
3.3. Hydrogen utilisation 22
4 Current hydrogen activities 22

4.1. What is going on in the UK 23
4.2. EU activities on hydrogen to date 29
4.3. Global outlook 32
5 Hydrogen – where is the market for it? 33

5.1. Potential market for automotive hydrogen applications 33
5.2. Other niche markets for hydrogen 36
5.3. Hydrogen in the gas industry 36
6 Hydrogen – how safe is it? 38

6.1. Hydrogen properties and characteristics 38
6.2. Regulations, codes and standards (RCS) 40
7 Summary of findings 42
8 Glossary of terms 44
9 Acknowledgements 46
3
Foreword from IGEM
The Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers (IGEM) supports the government
objective of developing a low carbon economy. In order to achieve a reduction of
80% of CO2 emissions by 2050 the development of the use of hydrogen and fuel
cell technology is seen as vital to a low energy economy.
The gas industry has a long history of responding to changes in the operating
environment from the early days of gas lighting in 1792 when coal gas was first
used through to the highly developed gas distribution network we have today.
The energy constituent of coal gas was hydrogen and the UK therefore operated
the first hydrogen network for 170 years before converting to natural gas in the
late 1960’s. The development of hydrogen as a clean, sustainable low carbon fuel
has a key part to play in developing a healthier environment and in securing
future energy supplies.
IGEM believes that the development of technologies utilising hydrogen is relevant

to all energy sectors including transport, buildings, industry and utilities but this
can only be achieved with the commitment of public and private sectors with
government support on both a national and European level.
IGEM is aware that this will require major investment in terms of infrastructure
for transportation, hydrogen production technologies to integrate intermittent
power sources to the electrical grid, the use of fuel cell applications in buildings
and the development of the gas distribution network to transport hydrogen.
However as the technology improves and the use of these technologies increases,
the economic viability of utilising hydrogen will be more sustainable.
We could see the use of lighting in the home going full circle with hydrogen
providing the fuel but instead of the light source being a naked flame as it was in
1792, it will be provided by a fuel cell delivering electricity to illuminate a low
energy light source.
Claire Curtis-Thomas
Chief Executive Officer
Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers
4
Executive summary
1. Hydrogen has potential applications across our future energy systems due
particularly to its relatively high energy weight ratio and because it is emission-
free at the point of use. Hydrogen is also abundant and versatile in the sense that
it could be produced from a variety of primary energy sources and chemical
substances including water, and used to deliver power in a variety of applications
including fuel cell combined heat and power technologies. As a chemical feedstock,
hydrogen has been used for several decades and such expertise could be fed back
into the relatively new areas of utilising hydrogen to meet growing energy
demands.
2. The UK interest in hydrogen is also growing with various industrial, academic and
governmental organisations investigating how hydrogen could be part of a diverse
portfolio of options for a low carbon future. While hydrogen as an alternative fuel
is yet to command mass-appeal in the UK energy market, IGEM believes hydrogen
is capable of allowing us to use the wide range of primary energy sources at our
disposal in a much greener and sustainable way.
3. IGEM also sees hydrogen playing a small but key role in the gas industry whereby
excess renewable energy is used to generate hydrogen, which is then injected into
the gas grid for widespread distribution and consumption. Various studies suggest
admixtures containing up to 10 – 50%v/v hydrogen could be safely administered
into the existing natural gas infrastructure. However, IGEM understands that this
would currently not be permissible under the Gas Safety (Management)
Regulations (GS(M)R) for gas conveyance here in the UK. Also, proper
assessments of the risks associated with adding hydrogen to natural gas streams
will need to be performed so that such systems can be managed effectively.
4. IGEM has also identified a need for standards that cover the safety requirements
of hydrogen technologies, particularly those pertaining to installations in
commercial or domestic environments. IGEM also recommend that the technical
measures used to determine separation distances for hydrogen installations,
particularly refuelling stations, are re-assessed through a systematic identification
and control of potential sources of ignition.
5
5. Hydrogen has the potential to be a significant fuel of the future and part of a
diverse portfolio of energy options capable of meeting growing energy needs. This
report, therefore, seeks to demonstrate how hydrogen could be a potential option
for energy storage and power generation in a diverse energy system. It also aims
to inform the readers on the current state of hydrogen here in the UK and abroad.
This report has been assembled for IGEM members, interested bodies and the
general public.
6
1. Introduction
It will require a radical change in the way we utilise our depleting resources for
heating, electricity generation and transport in order to meet challenging 2050 carbon
reduction targets of 80% in 1990 levels.1
There have been a number of strategies set out to meet our 80% reduction targets
which include using fossil fuel sources more sustainably and efficiently, encouraging
commercialisation of innovative technologies, and deploying alternative energy
sources with the potential to generate clean power.2 Using fossil fuels efficiently will
involve deploying carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies but with the high
number of economic and legal hurdles that still need to be crossed, it will be a while
before CCS becomes the main carbon abatement technology.
Alternative energy sources can be derived from renewables - wind, solar, tidal,
geothermal, and bio-fuels (such as biomass, biodiesel, bio-ethanol and biogas).
Renewable energy has tremendous potential but is limited mainly to electricity
generation due to the constraints associated with using renewable sources in other
areas of energy consumption such as transportation and heating. Energy arising from
wind, waves and solar sources can vary on a daily basis depending on weather
conditions. There will be occasions when the amount of energy being generated by
these climate based sources far exceeds the energy demand required on the day.
Therefore the level of energy produced may exceed the ability of the grid to absorb
the level of energy generated without causing grid stability issues.
Technology for storing electricity is well established in the form of batteries and
pumped storage however coupling renewable energy sources with electricity storage
requires long term storage capability (weeks or even months). To give an idea of the
scale, the energy density of batteries suitable for transport applications is typically
between 100 – 180 Wh/kg (Watt hour per kilogram) and such devices can cost up to
£25/kg.3
One alternative to battery storage is effectively storing and distributing energy in the
form of hydrogen. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of processes using
different sources4 at an average cost of £1.90/kg.5 Provided there is access to clean
water, wind energy that would have otherwise been wasted can be used to generate
1
DECC accessed 03.11.11. Available at <http://www.decc.gov.uk/>.
2
HSE - Science & research, accessed 03.11.11. Now we’re cooking with gas (well hydrogen, actually!). Available at
<http://www.sro.hse.gov.uk/publicpages/ShowArticle.aspx?id=190>.
3
Calculated at an exchange rate of $1.57 (<www.xe.com> 13.08.12).
4
Interview with Mark Crowther – Managing Director at Gastech at CRE, 06.02.12.
5
7
hydrogen via electrolysis. This hydrogen generated can then be converted back to
electricity by reacting it with air or oxygen in combustion engines or fuel cells
(hydrogen energy density is around 33.6 kWh/kg). Hydrogen can also be stored in a
number of ways. Underground storage has been practised since the 1970’s and new
capacity (equivalent of 2.5% of annual UK energy use) has just been built in Texas,
USA.
2. Why do we need hydrogen in the energy system?
2.1 Harnessing energy from unrestrained wind farms
“We have almost a quarter of Europe’s offshore wind and tidal resource, a tenth of its wave
energy potential and so we are determined to harness the opportunities that come from our
inclement weather” Fergus Ewing MSP, Scottish Minister for Energy, Enterprise and Tourism6
The UK is one of windiest countries in Europe and consequently wind energy is

considered in some quarters to be critical to enable us to reach our renewable energy
targets. Although the wind energy sector is yet to fully mature, project roll-outs have
gathered pace since the first (onshore) wind farm built at Delabole in 1991.7 The
report on Building a low carbon economy in the UK8 points out that onshore and
offshore wind resource together could deliver 30% of our electricity supply by 2020
and be part of a radical decarbonisation of the economy by 2030. However, certain
commentators consistently argue that the scale and pace of wind power development,
incentivised by the Renewables Obligation (RO),9 exceeds the ability of the grid
system to integrate this sporadic energy source.
These wind power integration arguments have been backed up by recent events in
2011 when National Grid revealed that significant “constraint” payments (see Box 1
on page 9)10 were made to a number of Scottish wind farms in April 2011. The
Renewable Energy Foundation (REF)11 report that constraint payments were made
because in that instant, the Scottish electricity grid network could not cope with all the
wind energy being generated and chose to hold back the wind power input to the
6
4th World Hydrogen Technologies Convention (WHTC ’11), Glasgow, Scotland. 14.09.11. Opening plenary session.
7
Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford 2005, accessed 03.11.11. Wind power and the UK wind resource.
Available at http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/publications/downloads/sinden05-dtiwindreport.pdf.
8
CCC - Committee on Climate Change 2008, accessed 03.11.11. Building a low-carbon economy - the UK’s contribution to
tackling climate change. Available at <http://www.theccc.org.uk/pdf/TSO-ClimateChange.pdf>.
9
Ofgem accessed 21.12.11. What is the Renewables Obligation (RO)? Available on
<http://www.ofgem.gov.uk/Sustainability/Environment/RenewablObl/Pages/RenewablObl.aspx>.
10
Transmission Constraint Agreement, accessed 12.12.11. Available on <
http://www.nationalgrid.com/uk/Electricity/Balancing/services/balanceserv/systemsecurity/trans_constraintagreement/>.
11
REF - Renewable Energy Foundation 2011, accessed 03.11.11. High rewards for wind farms discarding electricity 5th –
6th April 2011. Available at <http://www.ref.org.uk/publications/231-high-rewards-for-wind-farms-discarding-electricity-
5th-6th-april-2011>.
8
electricity system. Constraint payments get added to household bills and are
ultimately paid for by consumers, raising fears about the long-term suitability of wind
power to meet energy needs as Britain pushes for more wind farms.12
Box 1: What are Constraint Payments?

Constraints arise when the electricity system is unable to transmit generated power to
the location of demand. This could be due to congestion at one or more locations within
the Transmission Network. National Grid is responsible for ensuring the electricity system
remains within safe operating limits and that the pattern of generation and demand
responds to any Transmission related constraints.
In the event that the system is unable to accept the electricity being generated, National
Grid will take action in the utility market to either increase or decrease the amount of
electricity at different locations on the network. There is a variety of tools available to
assist National Grid to do this, which includes entering into a Transmission Constraint
Agreement and buying or selling electricity in the Balancing Mechanism (see below) with
power providers, suppliers and large customers to resolve the constraints on the
Transmission System.
The Balancing Mechanism requires the electricity generators to switch off or reduce the
power supplied; a system already used to reduce supply from coal and gas-fired stations
when there is low demand. On top of the standard charge for power generation, wind
turbine owners lose very lucrative subsidies which are paid to companies generating
electricity from green sources. In the event of the wind turbines having to be the turned
off, the loss of this double source income leads to higher compensation costs. Below is a
table that shows the wind farms compensated for not generating energy in April 2011.
Wind farm Rate paid per MWh Total paid in April Wind farm owner
2011
Whitelee £180 £308,000 Scottish Power
Farr £800 £265,000 RWE nPower
Hayward Hill £140 £140,000 SSE Renewables
Black Law £180 £130,000 Scottish Power
Millennium £300 £33,000 Falck Renewables
Beinn Tharsuin £180 £11,500 Scottish Power
Resolving the grid-balancing issue, according to the House of Lords’ Economic Affairs
Committee,13 will require more backup generation capacity to respond very quickly to
short term changes in electricity outputs from wind farms. However, the technical
12
According to the REF, wind farms forego subsidies worth approximately £50 - £55 per MWh from the Renewables
Obligation Certificate (ROC) and Levy Exemption Certificates (LEC). Therefore, the constraint payments are required by the
wind generators so as not to be out of pocket.
13
The economics of renewable energy, chapter 4: renewable in the electricity system, accessed 13.12.11. Available on
<http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200708/ldselect/ldeconaf/195/19507.htm>.
9
challenges and costs associated with such backup generation, large enough to balance
an electricity system, with a high percentage of intermittent renewable generation are
still uncertain. The Department for Energy and Climate Change (DECC) has also called
for better energy storage facilities to be connected to renewable power sources.14
15
Figure 1: Location of Scottish wind farms that received payments to reduce output to 30 April 2011.
One possible option to storing this wind energy that would otherwise be wasted could
be hydrogen generation via electrolysis. Electrolysis is just one of the many hydrogen
production methods available today. It uses direct current (DC) electricity to drive a
non-spontaneous chemical reaction such as the dissociation of water into hydrogen
(H2) and oxygen (O2). Electrolysers have traditionally been used for hydrogen
production in places with low electricity prices or where very high purity gas was
required, however, not until very recently have they started to become a viable option
for production as fossil fuel prices continue to rise.
14
DECC accessed 03.11.11. Available at <http://www.decc.gov.uk/>.
15
REF - Renewable Energy Foundation 2011, accessed 03.11.11. High rewards for wind farms discarding electricity 5th –
6th April 2011. Available at <http://www.ref.org.uk/publications/231-high-rewards-for-wind-farms-discarding-electricity-
5th-6th-april-2011>.
10
Ideas of using wind turbine technology to produce electricity for hydrogen production
were first proposed in the early 1970s. Several papers have been written on using
small to mega-watt scale offshore wind turbines to electrolyse seawater, with the
hydrogen produced piped back to land.16
2.2 Harnessing energy from other renewable sources
The issue associated with matching the supply and demand of solar power due to its
seasonal variability could be resolved by generating hydrogen. For example, solar
photovoltaic cells could be used to produce hydrogen via electrolysis and later used to
provide heat or electricity when it is most needed – which is on a cold winter’s night
not at noon in the summer.17 Geothermal and tidal energy could also be used to
generate power and this power stored as hydrogen. Although it is very difficult to
determine the full worth of electricity from intermittent sources, this renewably
derived hydrogen has the potential to allow consumers to purchase this power as and
when they need it.18
From an efficiency viewpoint, there are energy losses involved with converting
renewable energy to hydrogen and converting that hydrogen back to power via a fuel
cell. In comparison, the round-trip efficiency of an energy system is reduced by a
factor of 3 if fossil fuel is used to make electricity, then the electricity used to make
hydrogen. However, there are still some advantages of deploying such a concept.
Advances in technology mean hydrogen is no longer difficult to store and transport,
which effectively means using hydrogen is never constrained by demand. Also, using
intermittent sources to produce hydrogen has the potential to maximise the operating
hours per year which could significantly reduce the cost per kWh of the energy
generated from these sources.
16
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, accessed 13.12.11. Electrolysis: Information and Opportunities for Electric
Power utilities. Available on <www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/40605.pdf>.
17
Mark Crowther, 2010, Hydrogen: Green currency of the future. Gas International Engineering and Management
(Jan/Feb 2010) pp 23 – 26.
18
11
Figure 2: Hydrogen storage concept for renewable energy.
2.3 Energy security
One of the UK’s long term energy challenges is the ability to deliver secure supplies of
clean energy at affordable prices, as North Sea oil and gas reserves dwindle and we
become increasingly dependent on stocks imported from overseas. After years of
being a net exporter of both fuels, the UK became a net importer of natural gas and
crude oil in 2004 and 2005 respectively. Production peaked in the late 1990s and has
declined steadily ever since as the discovery of new reserves has not kept pace with
the maturity of existing fields. Becoming a net importer of both fuels has also made a
significant contribution to the UK’s balance of payments.
In 2010 the UK produced 1.4 million barrels per day (mbl/d) of oil and consumed 1.6
million barrels per day (mbl/d); however, this consumption has gradually been on the
decline since 2005 mainly because of a progressive ebbing of gasoline demand.19 For
natural gas, UK Continental Shelf (UKCS) production has been decreasing since 2000
and in 2010 was down 4% on 2009 levels. According to DECC, this was one of the
smaller year-on-year decreases as production has been falling by an average rate of
6% per year since 2000. In 2010 gas demand also increased by 8.4%, following a
decrease of 7.6% in the previous year because of the cold climate and higher demand
from electricity generators. As a result imports of natural gas have increased and in
2010 were almost a third higher than in 2009.20
19
2010 Oil & Gas Security, accessed 20.12.11. Emergency Response of IEA Countries. Available on
<www.iea.org/papers/security/uk_2010.pdf>.
20
<http://www.decc.gov.uk/assets/decc/11/stats/publications/dukes/2306-dukes-2011-chapter-4-natural-gas.pdf>.
12
Figure 3: United Kingdom dry natural gas production (excluding imports), monthly range and average
21
monthly production for the year, January 2000 to December.
Therefore in the longer term, oil and gas will still remain an important but declining
part of the UK’s energy mix. Their use, particularly for electricity, heat generation and
transport, will decline in favour of renewable energies. In addition, consumption is
more than likely to fall as a result of improvements in energy efficiency and the
development of better performing hybrid vehicles.
The White Paper on Energy22 suggests that the potential long-term possibilities for
large scale alternatives to gas for the production of heat may be through the
production and use of hydrogen and low carbon electricity. However, with the various
storage and end-use options available, including micro-generation and combined heat
and power (CHP) and the possibility of blending small quantities with natural gas in
the gas grid, hydrogen could be a part of a diverse portfolio of short to medium term
options in place to address the dependence on natural gas for heating and oil for
transport.
2.4 De-carbonising the power generation and transportation sectors
In an effort to meet our statutory 80% reduction in emissions by 2050, it is easy to

target the 2 major emitters of CO2 according to Figure 4, which are the power and
transportation sectors. However, the fact remains that low carbon alternatives in
these 2 sectors are vital to achieving any emission targets.
21
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). The United Kingdom’s natural gas supply mix is changing, June 2012,
accessed 22.06.12. Available on <http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=6770>.
22
Department of Trade and Industry. Meeting the energy challenge: a white paper on energy, May 2007, accessed
24.11.11. Available on <http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file39387.pdf>.
13
23
Figure 4: UK 2006 green-house gases (GHG) emissions presented by DECC source sector category.
Hydrogen manufactured from indigenous fossil fuels such as coal (with post-
combustion CCS) could provide a flexible, interchangeable option to electricity. Also,
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are being developed, some of which are at very advanced
stages and could be a better option to electric vehicles (EVs) both from a cost and
consumer standpoint.24
IGEM believes hydrogen as an alternative energy carrier to electricity is

capable of allowing us to use the wide range of primary energy sources in a
much greener way, as well as giving the options of both easing the transition
to an all electric transport sector and increasing the opportunities for
hydrogen in this market.
3. What is the hydrogen economy?

The hydrogen economy is a system with three associated elements:
• Production of molecular hydrogen from fossil fuel (with carbon sequestration),
nuclear energy or renewable energy.
• Storage and transportation of hydrogen.
23
CCC - Committee on Climate Change 2008, accessed 03.11.11. Building a low-carbon economy - the UK’s contribution
to tackling climate change. Available at <http://www.theccc.org.uk/pdf/TSO-ClimateChange.pdf>.
24
Ofgem Project TransmiT Consultation 2010, accessed 03.11.11. UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association (UK HFCA)
Response. Available on <http://www.ukhfca.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/UKHFCA-OFGEM-TransmiT-UKHFCA-
Response-Final-_2_.pdf>.
14
• The final end-use of hydrogen to produce heat (domestically and commercially)

and power.
Whereas hydrogen is the most abundant element on the planet, it does not occur
naturally in its useful form; it has to be generated using fossil fuel, nuclear or
renewable energy.
Furthermore, contrary to much popular belief, the whole concept of the hydrogen
economy and using it as a fuel is not new. Up until 1977 manufactured gas,
comprising of methane, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and approximately 50%
hydrogen was piped into UK homes and used to cook meals and provide heat and
lighting, before attention shifted to the much cheaper and cleaner natural gas.
3.1 Production – sources of hydrogen
Similar to electricity, hydrogen can be produced from a wide variety of primary

sources.25
• Coal – hydrogen can be produced from the gasification of coal.
• Oil – hydrogen can be produced from steam reforming or partial oxidation of
fossil oils.
• Gas – hydrogen can be produced as a by-product from reforming natural gas or
biogas with steam.
• Power – hydrogen can be produced from water electrolysis using any power
source including nuclear, wind and solar power.
• Wood/Biomass – hydrogen can be produced by decomposing biomass under
controlled conditions.
• Algae - hydrogen can be produced via methods that utilise photosynthesis.
• Alcohols – hydrogen can be produced from gas or biomass-derived alcohols such
as ethanol and methanol.
The natural gas or steam reforming process involves pre-heating, purifying and
reacting the gas with steam in the presence of an active nickel catalyst to produce
hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide is then reacted further with
water in the ‘shift’ reaction to produce additional hydrogen. Process efficiencies are
typically between 65 – 75%.
25
IEA HIA, accessed 10.11.11. Hydrogen Production and Storage – R & D Priorities and Gaps 2006. Available on
<http://ieahia.org/pdfs/Hydrogen_Gaps_and_Priorities.pdf>.
15
Figure 5: Hydrogen sources & production processes.
A coal gasifier converts pulverised coal into hydrogen and carbon monoxide when
steam and oxygen are added in a cycle known as the Integrated Gasification
Combined Cycle (IGCC). Partial oxidisers produce hydrogen from heavy hydrocarbons
(e.g. oil), typically at process efficiencies of about 50%.26
Electrolysis involves splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity.
Ideally, 39 kWh of electricity and 8.9 litres of water are required to produce 1kg of
hydrogen at 25°C and 1atm.27 Typical commercial electrolyser system efficiencies are
between 56 – 73% which corresponds to 53.4 - 70.1 kWh/kg (some new technologies
have shown to achieve up to 80% efficiency on a gross calorific value (GCV) basis).
26
Dutton G., Bristow A., Page M., Kelly C., Watson J., Tetteh A. The Hydrogen energy economy: its long term role in
greenhouse gas reduction. Tyndall research project IT1.26, accessed 10.11.11. Available on
<http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/content/uk-hydrogen-futures-2050>.
27
16
Pyrolysis, photo-biological and thermo-chemical processes are the less well-known

hydrogen production routes. Biomass pyrolysis, similar to the gasification process,
produces a variety of gases at temperatures in excess of 800°C including hydrogen,
methane, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide.
Photo-biological production of hydrogen is the process whereby photosynthetic

microbes undergo metabolic activities using light energy to produce hydrogen from
water. Examples of microbes with such metabolic capabilities include green algae and
cyanobacteria.28
The global hydrogen production stands at around 448 billion m3 per year (40 billion kg
per year). The reforming method is the most cost-effective way to produce large
quantities of hydrogen (costing between £0.50 - £4.00/kg29 of hydrogen produced). It
accounts for around 48% of the hydrogen currently produced worldwide (see figure
6), especially in places such as the US, where hydrogen is predominantly used for
refining petroleum and producing fertilizer. The major drawbacks to this method,
however, are (a) the process is based on the use of non-renewable fossil fuel sources
and (b) the reactions involved also produce carbon dioxide which has to be dealt
with.30
Here in the UK, most of the hydrogen produced is also from the steam reforming
process. Much of this hydrogen production is done on commercial scales in industrial
clusters located in the Northwest of England, Teesside and South Wales. This
hydrogen, for the most part, is used within the production facilities where it is made,
with some merchant gas – commercially traded hydrogen gas – available for
distribution. The International Energy Agency (IEA), evaluating the UK hydrogen
infrastructure, suggests that for the short to medium term, current hydrogen gas
production and supply is incapable of supporting a major expansion of its use in fuel
cell or gas turbine applications. The IEA also suggests that most UK refineries possess
the infrastructure and feed stocks needed to manufacture hydrogen on a large enough
scale, and ammonia plants could be expanded for further hydrogen production if a
profitable market emerged.31
28
IEA HIA, accessed 10.11.11. Hydrogen Production and Storage – R & D Priorities and Gaps 2006. Available on
<http://ieahia.org/pdfs/Hydrogen_Gaps_and_Priorities.pdf>.
29
30
31
Hoffheinz G., Kelly N., Ete A. Evaluation of hydrogen demonstration systems & United Kingdom hydrogen infrastructure.
Years 2-3 of task 18 of the IEA hydrogen implementing agreement 2007, accessed 14.11.11. Available on
<http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file38314.pdf>.
17
18% 4%
Natural Gas
48%
Oil
Coal
Electrolysis
30%
32
Figure 6: Global hydrogen production by source in 1999.
As mentioned previously, electrolysis is a production option mostly used in places with

inexpensive sources of electricity. Early designs were tanks filled with an electrolyte
that was manually made to contact electrodes, both the cathode and the anode, in
alternate sequences. These provided the interface between the circuit delivering the
external energy and the electrolyte where the initial dissociation of ions take place.
Newer designs are more intricate and complicated systems, and their capital costs are
largely driven by the costs of the electricity used and the materials used as the
separation diaphragm. In the EU, cost targets for the production of hydrogen have
been set at £13.05/kg in 2010, £7.78/kg in 2015 and £4.32/kg in 2025 and there are
currently some electrolyser systems capable of producing hydrogen for as little as
£3.77/kg (based on£0.03/kWh33 energy and 20 year Capex amortisation).34
3.2 Storing and distributing hydrogen
Theoretically hydrogen can be stored as a liquid, gas or solid. Liquid hydrogen is

typically kept at temperatures bordering on -253°C in highly insulated tanks.
Hydrogen can also be stored as a compressed gas underground at up to 150bar, and
as a solid within the chemical structure of hydrides or porous carbon-based materials.
Gaseous hydrogen storage is by far the simplest and most employed option for both
large and small scale storage. The two main methods of storing large quantities of
gaseous hydrogen include: (a) in cavities created by dissociation in salt formations
and (b) deep aquifer layers.35 Some examples are given below:
32
Ogden J. Hydrogen applications: Industrial uses and stationary power. Hydrogen pathways class, UC Davis 2004,
accessed 14.11.11. Available on <http://www.its.ucdavis.edu/education/classes/pathwaysclass/7-
StationaryH2(Ogden).pdf>.
33
Calculated at an exchange rate of €0.79 (<www.xe.com 13.08.12>).
34
ITM Power HFuel Cost structure, accessed 25.11.11. Available on <www.itm-power.com/news-item/hfuel-cost-
structure/.
35
Donat, G., F. Hydrogen-an energy carrier. The institution of Gas Engineers Library.
18
• Teesside, UK, by Sabic Petrochemicals (3 × 70,000 m3 storage capacity)

• Clemens Dome, Lake Jackson, Texas, U.S., by ConocoPhillips (580,000 m3)
• Moss Bluff salt dome, Liberty County, Texas, U.S., by Praxair (566,000 m3
maximum permitted capacity)
At the other end of the spectrum, small scale hydrogen storage, such as that required
on board road vehicles, is commonly in conventional steel cylinders or special
composite material tanks capable of holding the gas at pressures of up to 700bar.
Such systems require relatively rare materials to build which can be very expensive to
procure.
Distributing hydrogen is another key element to its use. Pipeline transportation is

traditionally done within large petrochemical complexes when the hydrogen produced
is to be used directly. Long distance hydrogen pipelines do exist, with the longest in
Europe being between France and Belgium at 400km.36 At present, the UK only has
about 25m of hydrogen pipeline.
Utilising the existing infrastructure for natural gas is an option often mentioned for the
transmission of hydrogen gas. Most types of natural gas conveying pipes have been
known to be porous to molecular hydrogen, however a technical distinction is
necessary at this point. Below 20bar hydrogen can be safely carried in existing steel
and plastic pipes provided that the joints are mechanically suitable. Above this
pressure or thereabouts and certainly at 40bar, there is risk of hydrogen being
absorbed into the material of the pipe causing hydrogen embrittlement. This is a
process whereby various metals become brittle and fracture following contact with
hydrogen.37 High carbon plastics are also known to be too porous for conveying
hydrogen.38
The conventional methods for hydrogen distribution therefore include: cylinders and
tube trailers used mainly for small to medium-scale liquid and gaseous hydrogen
delivery, and on-site liquid hydrogen production facilities.39
36
C.A. Berridge. Hydrogen as a fuel source for vehicles – options for a hydrogen bus energy supply system based on
economic & environmental considerations, accessed 22.12.11. Available on
http://design.open.ac.uk/research/documents/BerridgerevisedPDF.pdf.
37
38
C.A. Berridge. Hydrogen as a fuel source for vehicles – options for a hydrogen bus energy supply system based on
economic & environmental considerations, accessed 22.12.11. Available on
http://design.open.ac.uk/research/documents/BerridgerevisedPDF.pdf.
39
Liquid & bulk gases – hydrogen, accessed 22.12.11. Available on
www.airproducts.co.uk/bulkgases/hydrgen_equipment.htm.
19
3.3 Hydrogen utilisation
Hydrogen is a raw material used extensively in industry, particularly in the chemical

industry (for ammonia and methanol synthesis) and the refining industry (for hydro-
treatments by hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons and hydro-sulphuration).
Other areas where hydrogen is used include the aerospace industry, food and
semiconductor industries.
8% 2%
16%
Other
17% Heat Transfer
Organic chemicals
Other Chemicals
Metallurgy
Foodstuff
36%
21%
40
Figure 7: UK hydrogen consumption by industry sector in 1996.
3% 2%
6%
Ammonia Production
Chemical Industry/
Refineries
Electronic Industry
35% Metal/Glass Industry
Food Industry
54%
41
Figure 8: Global hydrogen consumers by industry in 2007.
Hydrogen can be used to provide electricity and heat through its use in fuel cells (see
box 2 on page 21) or through combustion in an internal combustion engine (ICE). Fuel
cells generate electricity from an electrochemical reaction where oxygen and hydrogen
combine to form water. The electricity produced from the reaction can be used in
40
British Energy, accessed 14.11.11. The feasibility, costs and markets for hydrogen production 2002. Available
on<http://www.british-energy.com/documents/The_Feasibility,_Costs_and_Markets_for_Hydrogen_Production.pdf>.
41
Linde engineering, accessed 14.11.11. Industrial hydrogen production and technology. Available on
<http://www.hzg.de/imperia/md/content/gkss/institut_fuer_werkstoffforschung/wtn/h2-speicher/funchy/funchy-
2007/5_linde_wawrzinek_funchy-2007.pdf> .
20
many portable, stationary and transport applications and the heat produced as a by-
product can also be used for heating and cooling purposes.42
Fuel cells can be stacked up together to generate more power depending on the
requirement of the application, however, the cost of building a fuel cell is still
relatively expensive when compared to the ICE. Further measures to increase the fuel
cells’ durability and reduce costs is in development43. Examples of fuel cell
applications powered by hydrogen include stationary combined heat and power (CHP)
units, used either for centralised energy production or micro-generation of electricity
and heat. Renewable resource-rich areas with limited ability to export electricity to the
electricity grid could be potential beneficiaries of CHP applications.
Box 2: How does a fuel cell work?

A fuel cell unit consists of a stack – a unit composed of a number of individual cells. Each
cell within the stack has two electrodes - one positive and one negative - called the
cathode and the anode. The reactions that produce electricity take place at the
electrodes. Every fuel cell also has a solid or liquid electrolyte (which facilitates
movement of ions from one electrode to another) and a catalyst (which accelerates the
reactions at the electrodes). The electrolyte’s role is key as it must only permit the
appropriate ions to pass between the electrodes. If free electrons or other substances
travel through the electrolyte, the chemical reaction will be disrupted.
Figure A1: How a fuel cell works (Source – The Fuel Cell Today Industry Review 2011)
As a transport fuel, hydrogen can be used in hydrogen internal combustion engine

vehicles (HICEVs) and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs). Hydrogen’s use in
internal combustion engines is much the same as the petrol-powered engines we have
in our cars today, but with slight modifications. Research has suggested that hydrogen
42
The fuel Cell Today Industry Review 2011. Available on
<http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/media/1351623/industry_review_2011.pdf>.
43
Interview with Karen Hall – UK HFCA Technical Manager, 26.08.11.
21
burns much cleaner and improves efficiency by around 20% compared to the use of
petrol44 which makes HICEVs a realistic near-term transition option.
In the longer term, hydrogen fuel cells in vehicles are likely to be the more popular
utilization technology for transport, mainly because the fuel cells generate electricity
on-board the vehicle. Traditional hybrid electric vehicles require plug-in systems that
connect to the electricity grid which could have long term ramifications for the
electricity system.45
Most major car manufacturers have fuel cell electric vehicles prototypes in
development and others already lease out vehicles to end-users in different parts of
the world46 e.g. Honda, Toyota, Hyundai, Ford, Chrysler, Mercedes-Benz, Nissan and
General Motors.
Figure 9: Honda’s fuel cell electric vehicle on display at the 4th World Hydrogen Technologies Conference
held in September 2011 in Glasgow, Scotland (Photo courtesy of Jonathan Wing, Fuel Cell Today).
4. Current hydrogen activities

The state of the current global market for hydrogen suggests further developments
are required in the various elements associated with a working hydrogen economy.
44
Dutton G., Bristow A., Page M., Kelly C., Watson J., Tetteh A. The Hydrogen energy economy: its long term role in
greenhouse gas reduction. Tyndall research project IT1.26, accessed 10.11.11. Available on
<http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/content/uk-hydrogen-futures-2050>.
45
Interview with Will McDowall – Research associate with UCL, 27.09.11.
46
The fuel Cell Today Industry Review 2011. Available on
<http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/media/1351623/industry_review_2011.pdf>.
22
According to the Department of Trade and Industry (now Department for Business
Innovation & Skills – BIS),47 reporting on the global status of hydrogen research,
much work is needed in areas such as the fuel cell technology and its applications for
transport and power generation.
4.1 What is going on in the UK?
In England and Scotland, the UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association (UKHFCA) and
the Scottish Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association (SHFCA) are the main bodies
facilitating hydrogen activities and promoting support for further research and
development. Their emphasis is on representing the leading UK hydrogen and fuel cell
companies as well as organisations from the academic community.
According to UKHFCA technical manager Karen Hall, the Association acts to engage
with UK government to highlight the importance of fuel cells and hydrogen
technologies for the UK economy and the future energy mix. The UKHFCA contributes
to discussions concerning energy futures, as well as ensuring the UK hydrogen
industry is aware of the possible avenues for research funding both locally and
internationally, through various governmental bodies known as Knowledge Transfer
Networks (KTNs).48
IGEM believes additional support for technical hydrogen research here in the
UK is necessary so as to facilitate more UK input to the safety codes and
regulations work currently taking place internationally.
At the time of writing, the research councils (e.g. Engineering and Physical Sciences
Research Council, EPSRC) via the Department for Business Innovation & Skills (BIS)
have supported and funded hydrogen fuel cell demonstration projects in the UK.49
Regional initiatives such as England’s Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) have
also provided funding for projects. One example is Advantage West Midlands (AWM),
facilitating research in the West Midlands region and setting up new facilities as part
47
Sustainable Energy Programmes - The global status of hydrogen research, accessed 22.11.11. Available on
<http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file16067.pdf>.
48
Interview with Karen Hall – UK HFCA Technical manager, 26.08.11.
49
Hyways - 2050 UK Hydrogen Vision 2006 draft, accessed 17.11.11. Available on <
http://www.hyways.de/docs/deliverables/WP3/HyWays_UK_Vision_Hydrogen_Chains_JUN2006.pdf>.
23
of research alliance involving the Universities of Birmingham and Warwick.50 Other

sources of funding are the Carbon Trust and the Energy Savings Trust.51
Below are some of the ongoing demonstration projects in the UK.
The Cleaner Urban Transport for Europe (CUTE) trial
“These buses are a marvel of hydrogen technology, emitting only water rather than belching
out harmful pollutants” Boris Johnson, Mayor of London
Between 2004 and 2007, the city of London participated in the Cleaner Urban
Transport for Europe (CUTE) trials as part of a worldwide demonstration that tested a
fleet of zero-emission fuel cell buses in 9 cities across the globe. Transport for London
(TfL)52 operated 3 specially built Mercedes Citaro buses (see figure 10) for 8 to 10
hours a day.
53
Figure 10: Hydrogen-powered fuel cell (HFC) bus operating on a busy route in Central London.
The success of the trials has led to the introduction of 5 hydrogen-powered buses
currently operating on one of London’s most polluted areas as of March 2011.
Planning permission for a hydrogen refuelling facility to be built in the east of London
has also been approved by the Olympic Delivery Authority and a further 3 buses will
be delivered by the end of 2012.
50
Interview with University of Birmingham’s Fuel Cell group, 22.08.11.
51
Hyways - 2050 UK Hydrogen Vision 2006 draft, accessed 17.11.11. Available on <
http://www.hyways.de/docs/deliverables/WP3/HyWays_UK_Vision_Hydrogen_Chains_JUN2006.pdf>.
52
Transport for London (TfL), Hydrogen Vehicles, accessed 17.11.11. Available on <
http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/environment/8444.aspx>.
53
London’s hydrogen buses, accessed on 17.11.11. Available on <http://www.habitables.co.uk/transport/londons-
hydrogen-buses>.
24
IGEM recommends that the UK government continually invest in

infrastructure linked to hydrogen transport applications and the subsequent
research that could permit significant technological advancements. This
would ensure infrastructure reliability and integrity needed to achieve UK
wide commercialisation of hydrogen powered buses and other related
automotive technologies.
ITM Power
ITM Power is a company based in Sheffield that specialises in the design and
manufacture of hydrogen energy systems for energy storage and clean fuel
production. They run a number of project trials and demonstrations aimed at getting
their products into the commercial market. One such project is the hydrogen-powered
home in Sheffield which incorporates an internal combustion engine powered with
hydrogen from an electrolyser unit splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen.54
In early 2011 ITM Power launched the field trials HOST – Hydrogen On Site Trials.
This saw ITM Power’s self-contained Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) based
electrolyser system HFuel (see figure 11), and 2 hydrogen internal combustion engine
vans operating at third party sites for a set period of time. The programme to date
has seen 21 commercial partners join from 7 different industry sectors including
Scottish & Southern Electric, Enterprise and DHL.55
ITM Power believes HFuel could be the solution to the energy storage conundrum
associated with integrating intermittent renewable energy in the electricity system.
Charles Purkess ITM Power marketing manager explains, “Denmark is a typical
example where 20% of the generating capacity is from wind but only a small
percentage of demand can be met with that wind power. The rest has to be either
exported to Sweden or Norway or wasted”.56
54
Ellwood P., Bradbook S., Hoult E., Snodgrass R. Emerging energy technologies programme: Background report. Health
& Safety Laboratory, May 2010.
55
Hydrogen On Site Trials (HOST), accessed 18.11.11. Available on <http://www.itm-power.com/page/49/HOST.html>.
56
Visit to ITM Power HQ in Sheffield, UK. 26.09.11.
25
57
Figure 11: ITM Power’s HFuel unit generates hydrogen gas from water by electrolysis.
SUPERGEN XIV – Delivery of Sustainable Hydrogen (DOSH2)
The ongoing SUPERGEN XIV research project brings together 12 of the leading
universities in the UK – including the Universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Strathclyde,
Birmingham and Newcastle - with the aim of improving the way hydrogen and
hydrogen based fuels are produced and delivered. The research topic areas cover
hydrogen production routes that make use of less energy than conventional
processes. In addition, the socio-technical issues which deal with how hydrogen is
delivered to the consumer and the impact of including hydrogen in the energy
infrastructure are also being addressed by social scientists.58
The University of Birmingham Fuel Cell group
The University of Birmingham Fuel Cell group currently runs a number of

demonstration projects in different areas to evaluate the benefits of using hydrogen
technologies in real-life applications. One such area is SCRATCH – Supply Chain
Research Applied to Clean Hydrogen – which ran from May 2007 through till 2010.
Successful demonstrations include a hydrogen filling station, a hydrogen-powered
house, 5 Microcab hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (see figure 12) used to deliver university
post and a hydrogen fuel cell CHP unit.
The fuel cell CHP unit (see figure 13) used a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) based
fuel cell to supply 1.5kW of electricity and 3kW of heat to a house. The 1.8m by 1m
BAXI unit produced the hydrogen required to run the fuel cell in-situ by reforming
57
ITM Power products brochure, accessed 25.11.11. Available on www.itm-
power.com/cmsFiles/products/HFuel_Brochure.pdf.
58
SUPERGEN XIV – Delivery of Sustainable Hydrogen, accessed 22.11.11. available on <http://www.supergen14.org/>.
26
Natural Gas. Its overall efficiency was also maximised by storing the heat produced
from the chemical reaction in a 600-litre water tank built next to the unit by the
researchers, which subsequently circulated hot water through conventional radiators
and to a hot water cylinder in the house.59
60
Figure 12: University of Birmingham’s five Microcab Hydrogen Fuel Cell (HFC) Vehicles.
Figure 13: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Combined Heat and Power unit (Photo courtesy of University of Birmingham
Fuel Cell Group).
According to Aman Dhir, Research Fellow with the University of Birmingham Fuel Cell
group, the two key barriers that need to be surmounted before hydrogen can become
a part of the UK energy mix are:
59
Olu Ajayi-Oyakhire, 2011. The up and coming hydrogen economy – Is the writing on the wall. Gas International (Oct
2011) pp 22 – 23.
60
Microcab Hydrogen Powered Cars, accessed 17.11.11. Available on
<http://www.greencarsite.co.uk/econews/microcab.htm>.
27
• The general perception of hydrogen as a dangerous gas which could be solved by

educating the general public about the properties of hydrogen
• The lack of a coherent set of regulations to govern the use of hydrogen gas as a
fuel.61
IGEM echoes the need for hydrogen safety education and encourages the
relevant organisations to develop schemes whereby the general public is
informed on the properties and potential benefits of hydrogen gas.
The Hydrogen Office
The Hydrogen Office project (see figure 14), set up by Business Partnership Ltd and
funded by the Scottish Communities Renewable Household Initiative, exists to support
the rapid development of renewable energy, hydrogen and fuel cell and energy
storage industries in Scotland. Based in Fife, on the east coast of Scotland, the offices
within the building are powered by an energy system incorporating a 750 kW wind
turbine used to generate electricity for powering lightings and computers. Any excess
electricity generated is also used to produce and store hydrogen from water for later
use. The offices’ wind turbine system generates on average 4000 kWh of electricity
per day - equivalent to the annual consumption of a typical four bedroom home.
During windy periods the turbine exports electricity to the electricity grid, however
when there is not enough wind power a 10kW hydrogen fuel cell is used to generate
the electric power needed. A Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP) is used to provide
heat to the offices.62
24
Figure 14: the Hydrogen Office in Fife, Scotland (L) and the Office system (R).
61
62
The Hydrogen Office, accessed 18.11.11. Available on
<http://www.pureenergycentre.com/pureenergycentre/Hydrogenofficecasestudy.pdf>.
28
The Hydrogen Centre
The Hydrogen Centre is a research and development centre developed by the

University of Glamorgan with part funding from the European Regional Development
Fund (ERDF). Its main function is to raise awareness of hydrogen as a clean and
sustainable energy carrier with the potential to overcome the UK’s dependence on
imported energy. The centre has a functioning range of renewable and hydrogen
energy technologies. These include a 20kW photovoltaic (PV) array installed on the
roof, an alkaline electrolyser used to harness power output from the PV by separating
water into hydrogen and oxygen, a compressed hydrogen fuel dispenser and a 12kW
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell.63
4.2 EU activities on hydrogen to date
In the last two decades interest in hydrogen and its use as a fuel has grown within the
European Union (EU). This interest has led to the allocation of more funds for
hydrogen research and demonstration projects in the region. Under the second
European Research Framework Programme (FP2, 1988-1992), the financial
contribution towards research, development and demonstration on hydrogen and fuel
cells was £6.3 million64. This increased to £216.3 million65 under the Sixth European
Research Framework Programme (FP6, 2002-2006). Further research in the EU is
being supported under the Seventh European Framework Programme (FP7, 2007-
2013). A review of the major projects, partnerships and associations is shown below.66
Table 1: Review of EU research projects and demonstrations
Project Time Summary

frame
The European 1st phase – Partnership between the European hydrogen industries set up
integrated 1998-2000 to provide inputs for harmonised procedures for approval of
Hydrogen Project 2nd phase – hydrogen fuelled vehicles.
(EIHP) 2001-2004 Draft proposals were developed on:
• regulations for hydrogen fuelled road vehicles
• design concepts for refuelling stations using course risk
assessments
• guidelines for design, installation, operation and
maintenance of gaseous hydrogen stations
63
The University of Glamorgan, Renewable Hydrogen Research & Demonstration Centre, Baglan Energy Park, South
Wales. The Hydrogen Centre, accessed 18.11.11. Available on
<http://www.h2wales.org.uk/Assets/Images/hydrogen_brochure.pdf>
64
Calculated at an exchange rate of €0.79 (<www.xe.com> 13.08.12).
65
Calculated at an exchange rate of €0.79 (<www.xe.com> 13.08.12).
66
Pritchard, D. K., Fletcher, J. E., Hobbs, J. W. A review of the regulatory framework around hydrogen refuelling. Health &
Safety Laboratory, 2007; NATURALHY – Using the existing natural gas system for hydrogen, accessed 24.11.11. Available
on <http://www.naturalhy.net/docs/Naturalhy_Brochure.pdf>
29
The European 2004 till date Set up to bring together all relevant stakeholders in an effort
Hydrogen and Fuel to co-ordinate hydrogen and fuel cell research, development
Cell Technology and deployment programmes on European, national, regional
Platform (HFP) and local levels.
Tasks carried out included:
• defined the technological and market developments to
create a hydrogen-oriented energy system by 2050
• published an implementation plan for the programme for
2007 to 2015
• created a European public-private partnership – Joint
Technology Initiative (JTI) which allows more efficient
organisation of research and development in Europe
HyApproval 2005-2007 Project was set up to make a handbook for the approval of
hydrogen refuelling stations that could be used to certify
public hydrogen filling stations in Europe.
HyFLEET:CUTE 2007 till date Successor to the CUTE project which closed in March 2006.
CUTE was executed to demonstrate the feasibility of creating
an innovative, high-energy efficient, clean urban public
transport system.
Objectives for the HyFLEET:CUTE project included:
• development, optimisation and testing of new and existing
hydrogen infrastructure
• operation of 33 fuel cell powered buses in nine cities on
three continents around the world including Amsterdam,
Barcelona, Hamburg, London, Madrid and Berlin
Hychain-Minitrans 2007-2012 Project was aimed at the deployment of 150 small urban
vehicles, including small utility vehicles, minibuses,
wheelchairs, scooters and cargo-bikes, in 4 regions of Europe.
Objectives included:
• developing an innovative logistic procedure of refilling
vehicles with hydrogen
HyLights 2006-2009 A co-ordinated programme set up to prepare European
hydrogen and fuel cell demonstration projects. Tasks
included:
• developing an assessment framework for concluded and
ongoing projects
• establishing a projects database and identifying necessary
financial and legal steps for new projects
HySafe 2004-2009 The Safety of Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier project was set
up by the European Network of Excellence to focus on the
safety issues relevant to the commercialisation of hydrogen.
The objectives included:
• integrating and harmonising the fragmented research base
in the EU and contributing to the development of safety
requirements, standards and codes of practice
30
HyWays 2004-2007 This project created a roadmap, based on country specific

analysis of the participating countries, for the introduction of
hydrogen in the European energy system. Some of the
conclusions from the project were:
• until 2030 hydrogen production from fossil fuel with CCS
is expected to be the most important production source in
Europe
• for the foreseeable future hydrogen infrastructure build up
is likely to be comprised of both central and onsite hydrogen
production
HarmonHy 2004-2006 Projects were set up to make an assessment of hydrogen and
fuel cell related regulations and standards activities, paying
particular attention to Europe. The main aim of the projects
was to encourage agreement on issues pertaining to
standards and regulations. Some of the conclusions from the
project were:
• to achieve global harmonisation, work on standards should
be performed at international level by recognisable
organisations i.e. ISO, IEC
• lack of standards on material compatibility for high
pressure systems and nothing on the operational aspects of
refuelling
NATURALHY 2004-2009 Project explored the potential of using the existing natural gas
transmission and distribution system, and end-user
appliances, to deliver hydrogen. Here are some of the major
findings from the project:
• effects on Natural Gas pipeline materials caused by
hydrogen can be mitigated by appropriate measures
• material investigations revealed that additional measures
would be required to ensure the integrity of steel pipelines;
when hydrogen is transported using the existing Natural Gas
system
• escapes of natural gas/hydrogen mixtures within buildings
behave in a similar way to Natural Gas
• gas concentration and accumulation increases are slight
for hydrogen addition up to 50% by volume
• the severity of explosions within buildings are slight for
hydrogen addition up to 20% by volume
• for pipeline operators the main hazard posed by the failure
of transmission pipelines is that of a large fire
31
4.3 Global outlook
USA
The US Department of Energy (DOE)67 published a strategic plan for the research,
development and demonstration of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. The report
reiterates the North Americans' commitment to hydrogen and fuel cells on the back of
a series of stalled projects. One such project is the California Hydrogen Highway
Network (CAH2Net), initially set up in 2004 to build 50-100 hydrogen refuelling
stations by 2010. The initial goals have since been scaled back due to federal budget
cuts and CaH2Net is to have only 8 stations completed by the end of 2012, a dramatic
decrease in the initial capacity.68
The DOE report, however, suggests that hydrogen and fuel cells could provide up to
900,000 new jobs in the US by 2030-2035. It stresses that growing global interest in
hydrogen and fuel cell technologies shows the need for continued investment in the
area for the US industry to remain internationally competitive.
Germany
Described by the National Organisation for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology (NOW
GmbH)69 as the leading European country in the field of hydrogen and fuel cell
technologies, Germany is investing heavily in technology that will see it become the
first country in the world with a nationwide hydrogen refuelling infrastructure. The
joint effort is by the federal government, industrial gas and auto manufacturers, and
various universities and research bodies. Construction will begin in 2012 for stations in
Stuttgart, Berlin, and Hamburg, as well as along 2 routes that cross the country
north-south and east-west.70
Germany’s accelerated interest in hydrogen also comes on the back of plans by the
government to phase out its 17 nuclear power plants by 2022. This has led to a step-
change in the demand for renewable energy sources with the renewable contribution
towards electricity generation expected to double by the end of 2012, bringing it to
35%. According to German Chancellor Angela Merkel, hydrogen is an alternative for
67
U.S. Department of Energy, the Department of Energy Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Plan. An integrated strategic
plan for the research, development, and demonstration of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies, September 2011, accessed
23.11.11. Available on <http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/program_plan2011.pdf>.
68
Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association. Europe, Asia plan hydrogen highways – U.S. should take note, 8th
September 2011, accessed 23.12.11. Available on <fchea.posterous.com/Europe-asia-plan-hydrogen-highways-us-
should>.
69
National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Innovation Programme (NIP), accessed 25.11.11. Available on
<www.bmvbs.de/ShareDocs/Artikel/UI/national-hydrogen-and-fuel-cell-technology-innovation-programme-nip.html.
70
should>.
32
clean energy storage that can be beneficial to both the power and transportation
sectors.71
Asia
Coordinated efforts are ongoing in Asia, specifically in the south-east regions, to

expand and mass-produce the next generation of green vehicles and the
accompanying infrastructure by 2015. According to the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy
Association (FCHEA), hydrogen is getting a lot of attention in China, Japan and South
Korea. Japan, for example, plans to build around 100 hydrogen supply stations in 4
metropolitan areas – Tokyo, Aichi, Osaka, and Fukuoka - by 2015. 10 of the major
automakers including Toyota, Nissan and Honda have also released a joint statement
on their plans to expand hydrogen powered fuel cell vehicles in Japan.72
5. Hydrogen – where is the market for it?

Developing a working hydrogen system requires the identification of potential markets
for the concomitant technologies which are not always easy to identify especially when
the technology is still in its infancy stage. However, hydrogen’s versatility through its
use in fuel cells makes it applicable in a wide variety of end-user applications. This
versatility also provides a basis for the assessment of the market requirements for
hydrogen discussed below.
The markets for hydrogen include fuel cell markets such as portable consumer
electronics, micro-CHP for power generation and transport. The American Institute of
Chemical Engineers (ALCHE)73 has suggested that the major future markets for
hydrogen as fuel will depend primarily on four factors;
• The future cost of hydrogen.
• The rate of advances of various technologies that use hydrogen.
• The cost of competing energy systems.
• Potential long-term restrictions on greenhouse gases.
5.1 Potential market for automotive hydrogen applications
Hydrogen has the potential to become a very important transport fuel. However, for
hydrogen to have a stable and long-term market share in the automotive sector a
71
www.hydrogenfuelnews.com/germany-poised-to-lead-the-world-in-renewable-energy/85783.
72
should>.
73
2005 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Spring Meeting, accessed 23.11.11. Hydrogen markets: Implications for
hydrogen production technologies. Available on <http://www.ornl.gov/~webworks/cppr/y2001/pres/122902.pdf>.
33
number of technological factors that influence the costs of vehicles will need to be
addressed.
The costs of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) are determined by their automotive
fuel cell systems i.e. the onboard storage tanks, the fuel cell stack itself, the electric
drive motor, etc. Although the costs of fuel cells have come down significantly over
the past decade, how they compare against other competing technologies such as
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) is a critical market driver.
If BEVs work well at low costs then end-users will tend to buy these vehicles and
there will be little incentive to make a transition to hydrogen powered vehicles.
Current research evidence suggests that BEVs will not be able to achieve the sort of
energy density that will give a sufficient range at a low enough weight and cost to
make BEVs a serious contender for an all-purpose vehicle (although it could be ideal
for a local urban ‘run-around’ commuter vehicle).
In addition to the costs and performance of competing technologies are the

behavioural uncertainties around the use of hydrogen powered cars. These
uncertainties are based on consumer behaviour towards new technology. This asks
important questions of whether vehicle users will accept low range vehicles and when
these vehicle owners will charge their vehicles (in the case of BEVs).
Low vehicle range is a delicate issue because current vehicular technology,

incorporating the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE), provides consumers with a
durable, cost-effective, safe, reliable and long range package that has been in-use for
a long time. Vehicle charge times, on the other hand, raises concerns over the long-
term impact BEVs could have on the electricity grid when owners charge their vehicles
at peak times (after work at 6pm). There are currently a small number of studies
looking into when BEV owners are most likely to charge their vehicles; the University
of Birmingham Fuel Cell group are currently conducting a number of simulation BEV
trials in the Midlands and have so far found that more people charge their vehicles at
peak times as opposed to the recommended off-peak times.74
Another even more critical factor that drives the market for hydrogen as a transport
fuel is the amount of greenhouse gas reduction achievable with hydrogen as opposed
to other low emissions fuel options e.g. bio-fuels. As a transport fuel, bio-fuels have
the potential to be the most cost-effective, low carbon option to conventional
transport fuels simply because they are easy to produce and use, and may not require
a radical infrastructure overhaul.
74
34
However, despite their massive potential, sources of bio-fuels are surrounded by

controversy. One of which is around issues of land conversion (unless sourced from
waste) which ignites the food vs. fuel debate. Some opponents to their use believe
land-use schemes – schemes that specifically set out land for growing energy feed
crops – potentially transform high carbon emission eco-systems to low carbon
emission systems, resulting in net emissions of carbon dioxide from bio-fuels when
evaluated on a ‘field to wheel’ basis. Research evidence to prove otherwise will have a
big impact negatively on the role hydrogen plays as a zero emission transport fuel in
the near future.
In addition to the points already highlighted is the factor around the politics of a
transition to hydrogen as a transport fuel. Will McDowall from the UCL Energy
Institute opines,75 “The market for hydrogen as a transport fuel will need to be driven
by a specific consumer case or demand. So far no key consumer need for hydrogen as
a transport fuel has been identified”.
The current automotive market for hydrogen is policy-driven and, looking back in
time, no major energy system transition has ever been driven by changes in policy. In
fact, the need for commuters to travel longer distances was the key driver behind the
transition from horse-drawn carriages to the internal combustion engine (ICE) in the
late eighteenth century.76 As there is no key consumer requirement for hydrogen, the
onus is on the government, industry representatives and advocates of hydrogen to
facilitate the transition to a hydrogen based transport system by proving:
• Behaviourally, hydrogen will be accepted by consumers.
• Technologically, hydrogen is ready for the market.
• Competitively, hydrogen will be miles ahead of its rivals.
Nevertheless, if all the uncertainties around hydrogen as a fuel are resolved, there are
still issues to do with aligning investment in refuelling infrastructure, investment in
new vehicle technology, and incentives to buy hydrogen vehicles to make them cost-
effective until mass-produced.77 IGEM understands that to achieve a successful
transition to hydrogen as a transport fuel, UK government will have to play a
prominent role by maintaining and augmenting incentives that can promote the
uptake and mass-market appeal of the next generation of zero-emission vehicles in an
effort to decarbonise the road transport system.
75
76
Bouwkamp, N., 2004. Understanding technological transitions in history and lessons learned for a hydrogen-refuelling
infrastructure. Hydrogen Pathways Program at the Institute of Transportation Studies at the University of California at
Davis.
77
35
5.2 Other niche markets for hydrogen
There are numerous niche markets for hydrogen in stationary applications, some of
which include medium scale stationary fuel cell systems (200-1000kW) and CHP or
CCHP (Combined Cooling, Heat and Power) plants that could be used for
neighbourhood scale power generation. These could also be useful for off-grid or
remote micro-generation of power. The Energy Savings Trust78 suggest that micro-
generation products such as fuel cell micro-CHP units could meet up to 30-40% of the
UK’s electricity needs and make a vital contribution to reaching targets of 80%
reduction in carbon emissions by 2050.
Early fuel cell activities are also creating new markets for hydrogen in the areas of
light duty vehicles (LDVs), forklifts, buses, scooters and back-up power units. Pike
Research79 has suggested that industrially used forklifts will be the largest drivers of
hydrogen fuel demand in the UK by 2020, as industry targets new energy efficiency
measures to curb costs.
5.3 Hydrogen in the gas industry
The gas industry is interested in hydrogen because of dwindling gas reserves and the
need to limit emissions of CO2 to meet target reductions in greenhouse gases. One
way of possibly incorporating hydrogen would be adding it to natural gas and
distributing it in the existing infrastructure.
Studies performed for the International Gas Union (IGU)80 indicate that replacing
10%v/v of a natural gas supply stream with hydrogen reduces CO2 emissions by 3%
and the NATURALHY study81 suggests CO2 reductions of up to 15% could be achieved
with hydrogen gas addition up to 50%v/v. This small CO2 reduction compared to the
volumetric amount of hydrogen added is due to the low density and low calorific value
of hydrogen. It is important to point out, however, from that UK GS(M)R will not
permit up to 50%v/v. This would be limited to 25%v/v on a Wobbe number basis
while the current limit on hydrogen outlined in the regulations is 0.1molar%.
It is useful to consider the effects of adding increasing quantities of hydrogen to

natural gas. These include:
78
Ceres power, accessed 24.11.11. Available on
http://www.publications.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmenvaud/159/159we23.htm.
79
PikeResearch, available at www.pikeresearch.com.
80
Slim K.B. Should we add hydrogen to the natural gas grid to reduce CO2-emissions? (consequences for gas utilisation
equipment). 23rd World Gas Conference, Amsterdam 2006, accessed 25.11.11. Available on
www.igu.org/html/wgc2006/pdf/paper/add11558.pdf.
81
NATURALHY – Using the existing natural gas system for hydrogen, accessed 24.11.11. Available on
<http://www.naturalhy.net/docs/Naturalhy_Brochure.pdf>.
36
• Effect on net and gross calorific value - hydrogen decreases the calorific value of
natural gas/H2 admixtures.
• Effect on Wobbe number - hydrogen very slightly decreases the Wobbe number of
natural gas/H2 admixtures (up until ~70%) (although it may not be outside regulatory
agreements in some European countries).
• Effect on ignition properties/knock propensity – hydrogen decreases the ‘knock
tendency’ of natural gas/H2 admixtures.
• Burning velocity – the burning velocity of natural gas/H2 admixtures increases
with H2 addition up to 30%.
IGEM recommends that the potential risks associated with adding hydrogen
to natural gas streams such as the risks to the integrity of the pipeline
network and gas processing sites for the operators, the lessened
performance of domestic appliances and the possible increase in frequency of
explosions during gas escapes for the general public, and the elevated
emissions of NOx from combusting, all be evaluated against the possible
carbon reductions that could be attained with utilising hydrogen and natural
gas admixtures.
Natural gas could also be used for neighbourhood scale power generation via
stationary CHP units capable of converting the gas to hydrogen in-situ. The UKHFCA82
have suggested that the adoption of fuel cell micro-CHP technology could save up to
2.5 tonnes equivalent of CO2 if it replaced conventional boilers used today. This would
equate to 40-50% of a typical UK home’s yearly carbon footprint.
83
Figure 15: Distributed energy generation utilising gas.
82
www.ukhfca.co.uk/the-industry/benefits/.
83
www.ukhfca.co.uk/the-industry/benefits/.
37
6. Hydrogen – how safe is it?

The concept of using hydrogen as a fuel is one that raises safety concerns in the
public psyche. It is also commonplace for the majority of the public to associate
hydrogen with disastrous events such as the Hindenburg airship incident (May 1937),
the ‘challenger/astronaut’ incident (January 1986) or the Hanau tank accident (1991).
According to the German Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association (DWV),84 the Hindenburg
accident was caused by the extremely flammable nature of the paint used to coat the
outer shell of the German passenger airship and not hydrogen – which burnt out
within 90 seconds. The ‘challenger’ incident that resulted in the death of 7 astronauts
was caused by a defective seal in the auxiliary boosters which led to a flame escape
that damaged tank fuel lines supplying liquid hydrogen and oxygen. DWV stress it
would have happened exactly the same way with any other fuel in the tank.
The Hanau tank accident saw a tank holding 100m3 of hydrogen gas at 45 bar burst
without apparent reason resulting in an explosion. The explosion was due to stresses
caused by cracks at the corners along the welding seams, enlarged by the presence of
hydrogen gas. The Hanau event resulted in significant progress in safety engineering
and the development of new test methods capable of detecting cracks at earlier
stages.
That said, it does not necessarily mean that hydrogen is completely safe. Aman Dhir
research fellow with the University of Birmingham’s fuel cell group opines, “It is a gas
with different properties that need to be understood”.
6.1 Hydrogen properties and characteristics
Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas that burns with a pale blue
flame that is virtually invisible in daylight. It is a small molecule and, thus, has a high
propensity to leak. Hydrogen would leak nearly 3 times faster from a leak of given
size than natural gas and over 5 times faster than propane.85
Hydrogen is the lightest of all elements; it is 14 times lighter than air. This causes it
to be buoyant and rapidly disperse when released in air. This can be an important
safety asset in the event of a leak where hydrogen would quickly diffuse through air
and hence from buildings compared to other fuel gases.86
84
Bain, A., Schmidtchen, U. Afterglow of a myth: Why and how the “Hindenburg” burnt, 2000, accessed 21.06.12.
Available on <http://www.dwv-info.de/e/publications/2000/hbe.pdf>.
85
Pritchard, D. K., Royle, M., Willoughby, D. Installing permitting guidance for hydrogen and fuel cell stationary
applications: UK version. Health & Safety Laboratory, 2009.
86
38
Hydrogen also has a high propensity to ignite; the range of hydrogen/air mixtures
that will explode is between 4% v/v hydrogen (Lower Explosive Limit) up to 75% v/v
(Upper Explosive Limit) at standard atmospheric conditions. This wide flammability
range is a disadvantage however the LEL, which is considered to be of greater
significance from a safety perspective, is only slightly different to that of methane
(5.3%) or propane (2.1%).87
For explosions, the energy needed to start a hydrogen/air explosion is diminutive;

small sparks such as those produced from dropping a plastic-cased pen is capable of
igniting hydrogen/air mixtures. The maximum burning velocity of a hydrogen/air
mixture is also high; it is about 8 times greater than that of natural gas mixtures. This
makes it difficult to confine hydrogen flames and explosions, particularly in closed
environments. However, on a positive note, this rapid rate of deflagration means that
hydrogen fires convey less heat to the surroundings than other gaseous fuel fires,
reducing the risk of creating secondary fires in neighbouring materials.88
The severities of a hydrogen and gasoline fuel leak were studied by Dr. Michael Swain
at the University of Miami.89 The two vehicles used were designed consistent with
existing manufacturer specifications for the two fuels. Dr Swain’s results showed that
when the fuel line in the gasoline fuelled car was punctured with a 1.6 millimetre hole
and the hydrogen fuelled car was subjected to an equivalent failure mode accident
scenario, the gasoline fuelled car suffered severe damage whilst the hydrogen fuelled
was undamaged (see figure 16). This was due to the rapid deflagration rate of
hydrogen compared to gasoline.
87
88
89
Swain, M.R., Fuel leak simulation. University of Miami, accessed 25.11.11. Available on
<http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells//pdfs/30535be.pdf>.
39
Figure 16: Fuel leak simulation of hydrogen fuelled car (L) and gasoline fuelled car (R) after
1min.
6.2 Regulations, codes and standards (RCS)
In the case of hydrogen, standards are needed to assure the safety of technology that
produce, transport, utilise, dispense and store it. The science behind the technologies
are well understood within the hydrogen industry, however there is a strong need to
standardise technical guidance for these products that can enable global widespread
deployment.
Several standards and regulations are under development internationally with

technology-specific standards being developed in parallel with technologies. This is
beneficial because it gives the relevant approval authorities a form of reference when
evaluating new demonstration projects or early commercial installations, as well as a
sense of confidence for operators that the information presented is based on hydrogen
industry best practices.90
Standards and regulations are the key to solving the ‘chicken and egg’ dilemma,
which asks the question of what to roll out first – hydrogen technologies and
equipment (chicken) or the infrastructure to distribute it (egg). The International
Standardisation Organisation (ISO) currently has a technical committee responsible
for developing standards on systems and devices for the production, storage,
transport, measurement and use of hydrogen – ISO/TC 197.91 This work involves 31
90
Hall, K. Informing industry on regulations, codes & standards (RCS) developments - UKHFCA overview. UKHFCA
Workshop, Sheffield. 04.10.11.
91
Safety Laboratory, 2007.
40
countries, with 20 involved actively in the ISO TC working groups and 11 following
progress on an observer level.
In the UK, the British Standards Institution (BSI) acts as a national mirror body and
information hub for the activities going on within the ISO community. The UK
Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association (UKHFCA) also facilitate industry involvement in
document reviews to prepare UK positions and feedback to ISO draft standards.
Gastec at CRE (part of KIWA Ltd) has provided CE marking services to a wide range of
hydrogen appliance manufacturers. However, for local installations there is a lack of
guidance for both the installers and permitting authorities, both of whom may not be
experts in hydrogen technologies.
One illustration is in the requirements for hydrogen refuelling stations. In the UK,
petrol station licensing is required under the Petroleum Act 1928,92 which is usually
issued by the Local Petroleum Authority (LPA). The LPAs, in addition to the
aforementioned requirement, typically have added conditions deemed necessary by
them – currently covered under the Dangerous Substances and Explosive
Atmospheres Regulations (DSEAR) – for permitting installation of petrol stations.
However, for hydrogen there are currently no equivalent licensing requirements for
refuelling stations and therefore installations have to comply with the same UK health,
safety and land use planning regulations as do petrol stations.93 This, in principle, is
not an issue. However, due to the chemical nature of hydrogen, this methodology
often leads to the over-exaggeration of safety requirements known as separation
distances.
This increase in separation distances puts severe restrictions on the locations of

hydrogen refuelling stations which prevents siting hydrogen stations within many
urban areas, areas where they are most needed.94 The main issue with assessing
separation distances is the need to indentify the hazard associated with the
installation. For example, in the case of a hydrogen leak into the air, controlling the
intake of a nearby building would be based on the distance at which the hydrogen
concentration falls below the LEL within the building.
The hydrogen industry has raised its concerns over the restrictions imposed by the
use of methodology originally designed for petrol stations in determining separation
distances. Several key stakeholders within the hydrogen industry shared their views
92
Petroleum (Consolidation) Act 1928. London: The Stationery Office.
93
94
41
at the UKHFCA workshop held in October 2011, calling for a re-assessment of the
scientific basis of the separation distances as such restrictions do not apply to other
hydrogen utilisation technologies such as FCEVs, scooters and hydrogen powered
buses.95
IGEM would welcome the opportunity to work with interested parties within
the hydrogen industry to develop standards that cover the general safety
requirements of hydrogen technologies in commercial and/or domestic
premises. With strong expertise in facilitating and producing standards that
cover the utilisation side of natural gas (the IGEM/UP series), IGEM has
identified a lack of voluntary standards in the area of hydrogen utilisation
here in the UK.
IGEM echoes the calls made by members of the UKHFCA for the re-assessment of
separation distances.
IGEM recommends that the technical measures used to determine the

separation distances for hydrogen installations are re-assessed through the
systematic identification and control of potential sources of ignition as done
for petrol filling stations. IGEM would welcome the opportunity to work with
interested parties within the hydrogen industry as well as the HSE to re-
evaluate a methodology for determining safety zones for hydrogen.
7. Summary of findings
1. IGEM believes additional support for technical hydrogen research here in
the UK is necessary so as to facilitate more UK input to the safety codes
and regulations work currently taking place internationally.
2. IGEM recommends that the UK government continually invest in

infrastructure linked to hydrogen transport applications and the
subsequent research that could permit significant technological
advancements. This would ensure infrastructure reliability and integrity
needed to achieve UK wide commercialisation of hydrogen powered
buses and other related automotive technologies.
3. IGEM echoes the need for hydrogen safety education and encourages the
relevant organisations to develop schemes whereby the general public
95
UKHFCA Workshop, Sheffield. 04.10.11.
42
especially young people are informed on the properties and potential

benefits of hydrogen gas.
4. IGEM recommends that the potential risks associated with adding

hydrogen to Natural Gas streams such as the potential risks to the
integrity of the pipeline network and gas processing sites for the
operators, the lessened performance of domestic appliances and the
possible increase in the frequency of explosions during gas escapes for
the general public, and the elevated emissions of NOx from combusting,
be evaluated against the possible carbon reductions that could be
attained with utilising hydrogen and Natural Gas admixtures.
5. IGEM would work towards producing standards for the construction and
testing of hydrogen gas distribution systems involving material selection,
pressure testing and operating conditions. These would include the mains
and service pipes, pressure control equipment and gas measuring
equipment to ensure safe system operation.
6. IGEM would welcome the opportunity to work with interested parties

within the hydrogen industry to develop standards that cover the general
safety requirements of hydrogen technologies in commercial and/or
domestic premises. With strong expertise in facilitating and producing
standards that cover the utilisation side of natural gas (the IGE/UP
series), IGEM has identified a lack of voluntary standards in the area of
hydrogen utilisation here in the UK.
IGEM echoes the calls made by members of the UKHFCA for the re-
assessment of separation distances.
7. IGEM recommends that the technical measures used to determine the

separation distances for hydrogen installations are re-assessed through
the systematic identification and control of potential sources of ignition
as done for petrol filling stations. IGEM would welcome the opportunity
to work with interested parties within the hydrogen industry as well as
the HSE to re-evaluate a methodology for determining safety zones for
hydrogen.
43
8. Glossary of terms
The American Institute of Chemical Engineers ALCHE

Battery Electric Vehicles BEVs
Department for Business Innovation & Skills BIS
British Standards Institution BSI
California Hydrogen Highway Network CAH2Net
Carbon Capture and Storage CCS
Combined Cooling, Heat and Power CCHP
Combined Heat and Power CHP
Cleaner Urban Transport for Europe CUTE
Calorific Value CV
Direct Current DC
Department for Energy and Climate Change DECC
Department of Energy DOE
Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations DSEAR
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council EPSRC
European Regional Development Fund ERDF
European Union EU
Electric Vehicles EV
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle FCEV
Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association FCHEA
Framework Programme FP
Gross Calorific Value GCV
Ground Source Heat Pump GSHP
Gas Safety (Management) Regulations GS(M)R
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle HFCEV
Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle HICEV
Health and Safety Executive HSE
Internal Combustion Engine ICE
International Energy Agency IEA
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle IGCC
International Gas Union IGU
International Standardisation Organisation ISO
Knowledge Transfer Networks KTNs
Light Duty Vehicles LDVs
Lower Explosive Limit LEL
Local Planning Authorities LPAs
44
Proton Exchange Membrane PEM

Photovoltaic PV
Supply Chain Research Applied to Clean Hydrogen SCRATCH
Scottish Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association SHFCA
Renewable Energy Foundation REF
Renewable Heat Incentive RHI
Renewable Obligation RO
UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association UKHFCA
45
9. Acknowledgements
IGEM would like to thank the following for providing interviews and
providing assistance.
Mrs Karen Hall, UKHFCA
Dr Aman Dhir, University of Birmingham
Professor Kevin Kendall, University of Birmingham
Mr Will McDowall, UCL
Mr Nick Hart, ITM Power
Mr Charles Purkess, ITM Power
Mr Mark Crowther, Gastec at CRE
IGEM is also grateful to the following for their assistance:
Ballard Power Systems, USA
Jonathan Wing, Fuel Cell Today
The Institution of Gas Engineers & Managers (IGEM) is the Chartered membership organisation
for the UK and overseas gas industries. Established in 1863, IGEM provides technical support and
publishes the UK’s favoured Technical Standards as well as independent expert reports covering
significant trends, developments and innovations. IGEM’s technical seminars and networking
conferences are attended by individuals and organisations from all parts of the gas value chain,
including onshore exploration and production, supply, distribution and utilisation. IGEM is also
licensed by the Engineering Council to assess and award Engineering Technician, Incorporated
Engineer and Chartered Engineer status to the next generation of gas industry talent. For further
information visit www.igem.org.uk, email technical@igem.org.uk or call 0844 375 4436.
46
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HYDROGEN

Copyright © 2012, IGEM. All rights reserved

Published by the Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers

2 Why do we need hydrogen in the energy system? 8

3 What is the hydrogen economy? 14

4 Current hydrogen activities 22

5 Hydrogen – where is the market for it? 33

6 Hydrogen – how safe is it? 38

Foreword from IGEM

IGEM believes that the development of technologies utilising hydrogen is relevant

2. Why do we need hydrogen in the energy system?

2.1 Harnessing energy from unrestrained wind farms

The UK is one of windiest countries in Europe and consequently wind energy is

Box 1: What are Constraint Payments?

2.2 Harnessing energy from other renewable sources

Figure 2: Hydrogen storage concept for renewable energy.

2.3 Energy security

2.4 De-carbonising the power generation and transportation sectors

In an effort to meet our statutory 80% reduction in emissions by 2050, it is easy to

IGEM believes hydrogen as an alternative energy carrier to electricity is

3. What is the hydrogen economy?

• The final end-use of hydrogen to produce heat (domestically and commercially)

3.1 Production – sources of hydrogen

Similar to electricity, hydrogen can be produced from a wide variety of primary

Figure 5: Hydrogen sources & production processes.

Pyrolysis, photo-biological and thermo-chemical processes are the less well-known

Photo-biological production of hydrogen is the process whereby photosynthetic

As mentioned previously, electrolysis is a production option mostly used in places with

3.2 Storing and distributing hydrogen

Theoretically hydrogen can be stored as a liquid, gas or solid. Liquid hydrogen is

• Teesside, UK, by Sabic Petrochemicals (3 × 70,000 m3 storage capacity)

Distributing hydrogen is another key element to its use. Pipeline transportation is

3.3 Hydrogen utilisation

Hydrogen is a raw material used extensively in industry, particularly in the chemical

35% Metal/Glass Industry

Box 2: How does a fuel cell work?

As a transport fuel, hydrogen can be used in hydrogen internal combustion engine

4. Current hydrogen activities

4.1 What is going on in the UK?

of research alliance involving the Universities of Birmingham and Warwick.50 Other

Below are some of the ongoing demonstration projects in the UK.

The Cleaner Urban Transport for Europe (CUTE) trial

IGEM recommends that the UK government continually invest in

SUPERGEN XIV – Delivery of Sustainable Hydrogen (DOSH2)

The University of Birmingham Fuel Cell group

The University of Birmingham Fuel Cell group currently runs a number of

• The general perception of hydrogen as a dangerous gas which could be solved by

The Hydrogen Office

The Hydrogen Centre

The Hydrogen Centre is a research and development centre developed by the

4.2 EU activities on hydrogen to date

Table 1: Review of EU research projects and demonstrations

Project Time Summary

HyWays 2004-2007 This project created a roadmap, based on country specific

4.3 Global outlook

Coordinated efforts are ongoing in Asia, specifically in the south-east regions, to

5. Hydrogen – where is the market for it?

5.1 Potential market for automotive hydrogen applications

In addition to the costs and performance of competing technologies are the

Low vehicle range is a delicate issue because current vehicular technology,

However, despite their massive potential, sources of bio-fuels are surrounded by

5.2 Other niche markets for hydrogen

5.3 Hydrogen in the gas industry

It is useful to consider the effects of adding increasing quantities of hydrogen to