When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.

Between
individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote communication takes place
over distance.

The term telecommunication, whichincludes telephony, telegraphy, and television, means

communication at a distance (tele is Greek for "far").

The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form oftransmission
medium such as a wire cable.

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics

delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

I. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.
II. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
III. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In
the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the
same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind ofdelivery is called
real-time transmission.
IV. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery ofaudio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every
3D ms.Ifsome ofthe packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result.

A data communications system has five components

I. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms

ofinformation include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
II. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a com- puter,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
 III. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on. –
IV. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
V. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood
by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Data Representation

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

Text

In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or Is). Different sets
of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process
of representing symbols is called coding.

Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or
character used in any language in the world. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII), developed some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first 127 characters in
Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin. Appendix A includes part of the Unicode.

Numbers

Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent
numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations.
Appendix B discusses several different numbering systems.

Images

Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of
pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the
resolution. For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case,
there is a better representation of the image (better resolution), but more memory is needed to store
the image.

Audio

Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music.

Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting ofa picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a
continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity,
arranged to convey the idea of motion.

Data Flow

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in Figure

Simplex

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive Keyboards and traditional monitors are
examples of simplex devices.

The key- board can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.

The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Half-Duplex

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. : When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa

The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at
the same time; the entire capacity ofthe channel can be utilized for each direction.

Full-Duplex

In full-duplex mode both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously

The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.

The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

Write a short note on networks?

A network is a set ofdevices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can
be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.

Network Criteria

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.

Performance

• Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
• Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
• The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number ofusers,
the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency
ofthe software.
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay.
• We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are often
contradictory. Ifwe try to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we
increase the delay because oftraffic congestion in the network.

Reliability

• In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure,

the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.

Security

• Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
What are the different types of connections available?

Type of Connection

• A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one device to another.
• For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between two points.
• For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at
the same time. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point

• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
• Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends,
but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible
• When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-
to-point connection between the remote control and the television's control system.

Multipoint

• A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link).
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
• If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users
must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
•
Write a short note on network topology?

The Network Topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and other devices are connected.
A network topology describes the layout of the wire and devices as well as the paths used by data
transmissions.

Mesh, Star, Tree, Bus, Hybrid are the different types of topologies

Mesh Topology

• The mesh topology connects all devices (nodes) to each other for redundancy and fault
tolerance.

• It is used in WANs to interconnect LANs and for mission critical networks like those used by
banks and financial institutions.

• Implementing the mesh topology is expensive and difficult.

• Total number of links are n(n-1)/2

Advantages:-

• A dedicated link guarantee that each communication can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating traffic problems.

• Mesh topology is robust i.e. if link becomes unusable it does not incapacitate the entire
system.

• Privacy or security is more because every message send travels along a dedicated line & only
the intended recipient see it.

Disadvantages:-

• Installation and reconfiguration becomes difficult because of the cabling involved.

• Hardware required to connect each link [i/p cable] can be expensive.

Bus Topology

• Commonly referred to as a linear bus, all the devices on a bus topology are connected by
one single cable.
• Multipoint configuration.
• One long cable acts like a backbone to link all the devices.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop line is a connection running between a device
and a main cable.
• A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the of a cable to
create a contact with a Metallic core.
• There is a limit to the no. of taps a bus can support & the distance between the taps.

Advantages:-

1) Easy to install.

2) Less cabling compared to Mesh, Star, Tree etc.

Disadvantages:-

1) Difficult to reconfigure and fault isolation.

2) It is difficult to add new device.

3) Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.

4) Adding new devices require modification or replacement of the backbone.

5) A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.

Star Topology

• The star topology is the most commonly used architecture in Ethernet LANs.
• When installed, the star topology resembles spokes in a bicycle wheel.
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to the central controllers HUB.
 • Devices are not directly linked to each other.
• If one device wants to send data to another it sends the data to the controller which then relays
the data to the other communicating devices.
•

Advantages:-

1) Less expensive than Mesh topology.

2) Easy to install & reconfigure.

3)Less cabling is involved & addition

and deletion involves only one connection i.e. between that device and HUB.

4) If one link fails only that link is affected [Robustness].

Disadvantages:-

1) Less privacy because it has to pass through HUB.

2) If the HUB is affected whole topology goes down.

Tree Topology

• It is Extended Star topology.

• Not every device plugs into the central HUB the majority of the device connect to secondary
HUB that in turn is connected to the central HUB.
• The central HUB in the tree is a active HUB.
• The secondary HUB may be active or passive HUBs.
 • The advantage & disadvantage of Tree topology are generally the same of that of star.
• The addition of secondary HUB brings two
advantages:-
• Allows more devices to be attached to the central HUB therefore increases the distance a
signal can travel between devices.
• It allows the Network to isolate and privatize communication from different computers.
•

Ring Topology

• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point line configuration only with 2 devices on the either
side of it.
• Each device in the ring incorporates the repeater.
• A frame travels around the ring, stopping at each node. If a node wants to transmit data, it adds
the data as well as the destination address to the frame.
• The frame then continues around the ring until it finds the destination node, which takes the
data out of the frame.
o Single ring – All the devices on the network share a single cable
o Dual ring – The dual ring topology allows data to be sent in both directions.
o
 Advantages:-

1) Each device is linked only to its immediate neighbours. Through to add or delete a device require two
connections.

2) Easy to install & reconfigure.

3) Fault isolation is simplified

Disadvantages:-

1) Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.

2) In a simple ring, a break in a ring can disable the entire network. this weakness can be solved using
dual ring.

Briefly explain THE INTERNET?

• The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives.

• It has affected the way we do business as well as the way we spend our leisure time.
• Count the ways you've used the Internet recently. Perhaps you've sent electronic mail (e-mail)
to a business associate, paid a utility bill, read a newspaper from a distant city, or looked up a
local movie schedule-all by using the Internet.
• The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical structure. It is made up of many wide- and local-
area networks joined by connecting devices and switching stations.
• It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the Internet because it is continually changing-
new networks are being added, existing networks are adding addresses, and networks of
defunct companies are being removed.
• Today most end users who want Internet connection use the services of Internet service
providers (lSPs).

Write a short note on protocol?

 • In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems.
• An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities can- not
simply send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood.
• For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set ofrules
that govern data communications.
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when Itis
communicated. The key elements ofa protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

Syntax

• The term syntax refers to the structure or format ofthe data, meaning the order in which they
are presented.
• For example, a simple protocol might expectthe first 8 bits ofdata to be the address ofthe
sender, the second 8 bits to be the address ofthe receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.

Semantics

• The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.

• How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation

Timing

• The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can
be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data
at only 1Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.

Write a short note on layered task?

• We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex
if there were no services available from the post office.
• Network model - A method of describing and analyzing data communications networks by
breaking the entire set of communications process into a number of layers
• Each layer has a specific function
• Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all
 aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was
first introduced in the late 1970s.
• A Model of How Protocols and Networking Components Could be Made
• “Open” means the concepts are non-proprietary; can be used by anyone.
• OSI is not a protocol. It is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture that
is flexible and robust.
• The OSI model describes how data flows from one computer, through a network to another
computer
• The OSI model divides the tasks involved with moving information between networked
computers into 7 smaller, more manageable sub-task .
• A task is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers.
• Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to each layer can be
implemented independently.
• A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture
• It refers to the physical and logical design of a network

Q.1

Ans Write a short note on OSI model.

◼ The OSI model describes how data flows from one computer, through a network to
another computer

◼ The OSI model divides the tasks involved with moving information between networked
computers into 7 smaller, more manageable sub-task .
 ◼ A task is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers.

◼ Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to each layer can be
implemented independently.

The Layers of an OSI model are as follows :

Layer 7 : Application Layer (User Interface)

Layer 6 : Presentation Layer (Translation)
Layer 5 : Session Layer (“Syncs And Sessions”)
Layer 4 : Transport Layer (Packets, Flow Control, Error Handling)
Layer 3 : Network Layer (Addressing, Routing)
Layer 2 : Data Link Layer (Data Frames To Bits)
Layer 1 : Physical Layer (Hardware, Raw Bit Stream)
Layer 7 : Application Layer:
➢ Defines interface to user processes for communication and data transfer in network.
➢ Provides standardized services such as virtual terminal, file and job transfer and
operations.
➢ Used for applications specifically written to run over the network.
➢ Allows access to network services that support applications.
➢ Directly represents the services that directly support user applications.
➢ Handles network access, flow control and error recovery.
➢ For example : file transfer, e-mail, NetBIOS-based applications.
Layer 6 : Presentation Layer
➢ Masks the differences of data formats between dissimilar systems.
➢ Specifies architecture-independent data transfer format.
➢ Encodes and decodes data; Encrypts and decrypts data.
➢ Compresses and decompresses data.
➢ Translates from application to network format and vice-versa.
➢ All different formats from all sources are made into a common uniform format that
the rest of the OSI model can understand.
➢ Responsible for protocol conversion, character conversion, data encryption /
decryption, expanding graphics commands and data compression.

Layer 5 : Session Layer

➢ Manages user sessions and dialogues.
➢ Establishes, maintains and ends sessions across the network.
➢ Reports upper layer errors.
➢ Responsible for name recognition (identification) so only the designated parties can
participate in the session.
➢ Provides synchronization services by planning check points in the data stream => if
session fails, only data after the most recent checkpoint need
 o be transmitted.
➢ Manages who can transmit data at a certain time and for how long.
➢ Examples are interactive login and file transfer connections, the session would connect
and re-connect if there was an interruption; recognize names in sessions and register
names in history.

Layer 4 : Transport Layer

➢ Additional connection below the session layer.
➢ Manages the flow control of data between parties across the network.
➢ Provides reliable and sequential packet delivery through error recovery and flow
control mechanisms.
➢ Provides connectionless oriented packet delivery.
➢ Divides streams of data into chunks or packets; the transport layer of the receiving
computer reassembles the message from packets.
➢ Train" is a good analogy => the data is divided into identical units.
➢ Provides error-checking to guarantee error-free data delivery, with on losses or
duplications.
➢ Provides acknowledgment of successful transmissions; requests re-transmission if
some packets don’t arrive error-free.
➢ Provides flow control and error-handling.

Layer 3 : Network Layer

➢ Determines how data are transferred between network devices.
➢ Routes packets according to unique network device addresses.
➢ Translates logical network address and names to their physical address
➢ Responsible for addressing and Determining routes for sending.
➢ Managing network problems such as packet switching, data congestion and routing.
➢ If router can’t send data frame as large as the source computer sends, the network
➢ layer compensates by breaking the data into smaller units.
➢ At the receiving end, the network layer reassembles the data.

Layer 2 : Data Link Layer

➢ Defines procedures for operating the communication links.
➢ Detects and corrects packets transmit errors.
➢ Turns packets into raw bits 100101 and at the receiving end turns bits into packets.
➢ Handles data frames between the Network and Physical layers.
➢ The receiving end, packages raw data from the Physical layer into data frames for
➢ delivery to the Network layer.
➢ Responsible for error-free transfer of frames to other computer via the Physical Layer.
➢ This layer defines the methods used to transmit and receive data on the network.
➢ It consists of the wiring, the devices use to connect the NIC to the wiring,
the signaling involved to transmit / receive data and the ability to detect signaling errors on
the network media.

Layer 1 : Physical Layer

 ➢ Defines physical means of sending data over network devices.
➢ Interfaces between network medium and devices.
➢ Defines cables, cards and physical aspects.
➢ Defines NIC attachments to hardware, how cable is attached to NIC.
➢ Defines techniques to transfer bit stream to cable.
➢ Transmits raw bit stream over physical cable.

Summary of Functions of Layers

To allow access to
Application network resources
To translate, encrypt
and compress data Presentation
To establish, manage
Session & terminate sessions
To provide reliable
end-to-end message Transport
delivery
To move packets from
Network source to destination
To organize bits into
frames Data Link
To transmit bits over a
Physical medium & provide
electrical specs.

Q.2 Explain TCP/IP model.

Ans TCP/IP is a suite of protocols, also known as the Internet Protocol Suite.
It is an application of The Standard OSI Model. The transmission control protocol and the
internet protocol are fundamental to the suite, hence the TCP/IP title.
Layer 5 : Application Layer
➢ This layer is broadly equivalent to the application, presentation and session layers of
the OSI model. It gives an application access to the communication environment.
➢ Examples of protocols found at this layer are Telnet, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), SNMP
(Simple Network Management Protocol), HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).
Layer 4 : Transport Layer
➢ The transport layer is similar to the OSI transport model, but with elements of the
➢ OSI session layer functionality. This layer provides an application layer delivery service.
➢ The two protocols found at the transport layer are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
and UDP (User Datagram Protocol). Either of these two protocols are used by the
application layer process, the choice depends on the application's transmission
reliability requirements.
➢ TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented protocol that provides error checking and flow
control through a virtual link that it establishes and finally terminates. This gives a
reliable service, therefore TCP would be utilized by FTP and SNMP - file transfer and
email delivery have to be accurate and error free.
➢ UDP is an unreliable, connectionless protocol that provides data transport with lower
network traffic overheads than TCP - UDP does not error check or offer any flow
 control, this is left to the application process. SNMP uses UDP - SNMP is used to
monitor network performance, so its operation must not contribute to congestion.
Layer 3 : Internet Layer
➢ This layer is responsible for the routing and delivery of data across networks.
➢ It allows communication across networks of the same and different types and carries
out translations to deal with dissimilar data addressing schemes. IP (Internet Protocol)
and ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) are both to be found at the Internet layer.

Layers 2 and 1 : Network Access Layer

➢ The combination of datalink and physical layers deals with pure hardware (wires,
satellite links, network interface cards, etc.) and access methods such as CSMA/CD
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection).
➢ Ethernet exists at the network access layer - its hardware operates at the physical layer
and its medium access control method (CSMA/CD) operates at the datalink layer.

Q.3 Describe the characteristics of sine wave.

Ans Sine Wave:

➢ The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.
➢ Each cycle consists of a single arc above the time axis followed by a single arc below it.
➢ A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the peak amplitude, the fre-
quency, and the phase.
 Characteristics of sine wave:

Peak Amplitude:
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity, proportional to the
energy it carries. For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts.

Period and Frequency:

Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 s.
Period is the inverse of frequency.
Period is formally expressed in seconds. Frequency is formally expressed in Hertz (Hz)
Phase:
It describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.It is measured in degrees or
radians.

Q.4 Compare an analog signal with digital signal.

Ans Signals can be either analog or digital.

An analog signalhas infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the wave
moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values
along its path.
A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of defined values. Although
each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.

The curve representing the analog signal passes through an infinite number of points. The
 vertical lines of the digital signal, however, demonstrate the sudden jump that the signal
makes from value to value.

Q.5 Explain the theoretical formulae to calculate the data rate.

Ans Data rate determines how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Two theoretical formulaes were developed to calculate the data rate:

one by Nyquist for a noiseless channel,
another by Shannon for a noisy channel.

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum
bit rate
BitRate =2 x bandwidth x log2L
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels
used to represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.
According to the formula, given a specific bandwidth, we can have any bit rate we want by
increasing the number of signal levels.
Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability of the system.
Noisy channel: Shanon Capacity
In reality we cannot have noiseless channel. The formula determines the theoretical highest
data rate for a noisy channel.
Capacity=bandwidth X log2(1+SNR)
Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel.
SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio and capacity is capacity of the channel in bits per second.

Digital
Analog

Signal Analog signal is a Digital signals are discrete

continuous signal which time signals generated by
represents physical digital modulation.
measurements.
Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves
 Representation Uses continuous range of
values to represent
information
Example Human voice in air, analog
electronic devices.
Technology Analog technology records
waveforms as they are.
Data transmissions Subjected to deterioration
by noise during
transmission and
write/read cycle.
Response to Noise More likely to get affected
reducing accuracy
Flexibility Analog hardware is not
flexible.
Uses Can be used in analog
devices only. Best suited
for audio and video
transmission.
Uses discrete or
discontinuous values to
represent information
Computers, CDs, DVDs,
and other digital electronic
devices.
Samples analog
waveforms into a limited
set of numbers and
records them.
Can be noise-immune
without deterioration
during transmission and
write/read cycle.
Less affected since noise
response are analog in
nature
Digital hardware is flexible
in implementation.
Best suited for Computing
and digital electronics.

Q.6 Write a short note on transmission impairment and its types.

Ans Transmission Impairment:
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes
signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same
as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received.
Three causes of impairment are
• attenuation,
• distortion, and
• noise
Attenuation
• Attenuation means a loss of energy.

• When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it loses some of

its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a wire
carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the
electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat.
 • To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.

Figure 3.26 shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.

Distortion

• Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can
occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
• Each signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium
and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination.
• Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not
exactly the same as the period duration.

Figure shows the effect of distortion on a composite signal.

Noise
Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced
noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal.

Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not
originally sent by the transmitter.

Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as a
sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna.

Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the
other as the receiving antenna. Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very
short time) that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on.
Figure shows the effect of noise on a signal.

Q) Write a short note on characteristics of line coding?

line coding is Converting a string of 1’s and 0’s (digital data) into a sequence of signals that
denote the 1’s and 0’s.

For example a high voltage level (+V) could represent a “1” and a low voltage level (0 or -V)
could represent a “0”.

Relationship between data rate and signal rate

• The data rate defines the number of bits sent per sec - bps. It is often referred
to the bit rate.
• The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in a second and is
measured in bauds. It is also referred to as the modulation rate.
 • Goal is to increase the data rate whilst reducing the baud rate

Baseline wandering
• a receiver will evaluate the average power of the received signal (called the
baseline) and use that to determine the value of the incoming data elements. If
the incoming signal does not vary over a long period of time, the baseline will
drift and thus cause errors in detection of incoming data elements.
• A good line encoding scheme will prevent long runs of fixed amplitude.

DC components
• when the voltage level remains constant for long periods of time, there is an
increase in the low frequencies of the signal. Most channels are bandpass and
may not support the low frequencies.
• This will require the removal of the dc component of a transmitted signal

Self synchronization

• the clocks at the sender and the receiver must have the same bit interval.
• If the receiver clock is faster or slower it will misinterpret the incoming bit stream

Error detection

• errors occur during transmission due to line impairments.

• Some codes are constructed such that when an error occurs it can be detected. For
example: a particular signal transition is not part of the code. When it occurs, the
receiver will know that a symbol error has occurred

Q.7 Write a short note on :

Ans a. Block coding b.Polar encoding

c. Unipolar encoding d. Bipolar encoding
e.Manchster and differential Manchester encoding?

Coding is digital-to-digital conversion.

We can represent digital data by using digital signals.
The conversion involves three techniques:
 ➢ line coding,
➢ block coding
➢ scrambling.
Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling mayor may not be needed.
Line Coding:
• Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. We assume that
data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in
computer memory as sequences of bits.
• Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data
are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated, by
decoding the digital signal.

Line Coding Schemes:

We can divide line coding schemes into five broad categories,
➢ Unipolar
➢ Polar
➢ Bipolar
➢ Multilevel
➢ Multitransition

Unipolar Scheme
In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis either above
or below.

Polar :
In polar schemes, ,the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis.
For example, the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for 1 can be negative.
Polar – NRZ
◼ The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.
◼ Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two voltages. E.g. +V for 1 and -V for 0.
◼ There are two versions:
 NRZ - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol and negative for the
other.
 NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in polarity determines
the value of a symbol. E.g. a “1” inverts the polarity a “0” does not.

Polar – RZ
◼ The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage values. +, 0, -.
◼ Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from high to zero or from low to
zero.
◼ This scheme has more signal transitions (two per symbol) and therefore requires
awider bandwidth.
 ◼ No DC components or baseline wandering.
◼ Self synchronization - transition indicates symbol value.
◼ More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has no error detection capability.

Biphase:Manchester and Differential Manchester

• In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two halves. The voltage
remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level in the second
half. The transition at the middle of the bit provides synchronization.

• Differential Manchester, In this there is always a transition at the middle of the bit, but
the bit values are determined at the beginning of the bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a
transition; if the next bit is 1, there is none.

Manchester and differential Manchester schemes are also called biphase schemes.

Bipolar Schemes:
In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three voltage levels:
positive, negative, and zero. The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage
level for the other element alternates between positive and negative.
In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative.
Bipolar Schemes
In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three voltage levels:
positive, negative, and zero. The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage
level for the other element alternates between positive and negative.
AMI and Pseudoternary
A common bipolar encoding scheme is called bipolar alternate mark inversion (AMI).
In the term alternate mark inversion, the word mark comes from telegraphy and means 1.
So AMI means alternate I inversion. A neutral zero volt- age represents binary O. Binary Is are
represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
A variation ofAMI encoding is called pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is encoded as a zero
voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive and negative voltages.

Q)explain Block Coding:

• We need redundancy to ensure synchronization and to provide some kind of inherent
error detecting.

• Block coding can give us this redundancy and improve the performance of line coding.
In general, block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n bits, where n is
larger than m.

• Block coding is referred to as an mB/nBencoding technique.

• The slash in block encoding (for example, 4B/5B) distinguishes block encoding
from multilevel encoding (for example, 8B6T), which is written without a slash.
• Block coding normally involves three steps: division, substitution, and combination.

• In the division step, a sequence of bits is divided into groups of m bits. For example, in
 4B/5B encoding, the original bit sequence is divided into 4-bit groups.

• The heart of block coding is the substitution step. In this step, we substitute an m-bit
group for an n-bit group. For example, in 4B/5B encoding we substitute a 4-bit code for
a 5-bit group. Finally, the n-bit groups are combined together to form a stream. The
new stream has more bits than the original bits.

Q8 Explain PAM.(Pulse Amplitude modulation)

Ans PAM:
➢ It is a sampling process.
➢ Sampling is the process of converting contineous time analog signal into descrete time
signal.
➢ Sampling can be achived by taking the sample values of the signal at the regular time
intervals.
➢ There are three types of sampling
➢ In ideal sampling all the values are plotted from the contineous analog signal.ideal
sampling is not practical approch for sampling
➢ In natural sampling, a high-speed switch is turned on for only the small period of time
when the sampling occurs. The result is a sequence of samples that retains the shape
of the analog signal.
➢ In flat top sampling the top of the curved voltage graph is flattened.
Q.9 Explain Pulse Code Modulation.(PCM)

Ans It is the most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data (digitization).
A PCM encoder has three processes, as shown in Figure 4.21.
1. The analog signal is sampled.
2. The sampled signal is quantized.
3. The quantized values are encoded as streams of bits.
• Quantization refers to the process of approximating the continuous set of values in the
image data with a finite (preferably small) set of values.
• The input to a quantizer is the original data, and the output is always one among a
finite number of levels
• The quantizer is a function whose set of output values are discrete, and usually finite.
• The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between the maxi-
mum and minimum amplitudes of the signal. The set ofamplitudes can be infinite with
non-integral values between the two limits. These values cannot be used in the
encoding process. The following are the steps in quantization:
• 1. We assume that the original analog signal has instantaneous amplitudes between
Vmin and Vmax' 2. We divide the range into L zones, each ofheight delta where
delta=Vmax-Vmin/2
• We assign quantized values of0 to L - I to the midpoint ofeach zone. 4. We approximate
the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized values.
• As a simple example, assume that we have a sampled signal and the sample ampli-
tudes are between -20 and +20 V. We decide to have eight levels (L = 8). This means
that delta=5
 \

Quantization Levels
• In the previous example, we showed eight quantization levels. The choice ofL, the
number of levels, depends on the range of the amplitudes of the analog signal and how
accurately we need to recover the signal.
• Ifthe amplitude of a signal fluctuates between two values only, we need only two
levels; if the signal, like voice, has many amplitude values, we need more quantization
levels.
• In audio digitizing, L is normally chosen to be 256; in video it is normally thousands.
• Choosing lower values ofL increases the quantization error if there is a lot of
fluctuation in the signal.

4.encoding
• Sampled values are then encoded using binary encoding scheme

Components of PCM encoder

Q.10 Compare Parallel transmission and Serial transmission.
Ans The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial
mode.

In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with
each clock tick.

While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are three subclasses of serial
transmission: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous

Parallel Transmission:
➢ In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick.
 ➢ Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups of n bits each.
➢ Computers produce and consume data in groups of bits. By
grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead. This is
called parallel transmission.
➢ The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. Parallel transmission can increase the
transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission.
Parallel transmission

Disadvantage: cost Parallel transmission requires ncommunication lines just to transmit the
data stream. Because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually limited to short
distances.

Serial Transmission:
• In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
• In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication
channel rather than n to transmit data between two communicating devices
Serial transmission
 • The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communication
channel, serial transmission reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a
factor of n.
• Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are required at the
interface between the sender and the line (parallel-to-serial) and between the line and
the receiver (serial-to-parallel).
Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways:
➢ asynchronous
➢ synchronous,
➢ isochronous
Q.11 Compare the Synchronous transmission and Asynchronous transmission.
Ans Asynchronous Transmission:

• Asynchronous transmission is so named because the timing of a signal is

unimportant. Instead, information is received and translated by agreed upon
patterns.
• Patterns are based on grouping the bit stream into bytes. Each group, usually 8
bits, is sent along the link as a unit.
• The sending system handles each group independently, relaying it to the link
whenever ready, without regard to a timer.
• Without synchronization, the receiver cannot use timing to predict when the next
group will arrive. To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, therefore, an extra
bit is added to the beginning of each byte. This bit, usually a 0, is called the start bit .To
let the receiver know that the byte is finished, one or more additional bits are
appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually 1s, are called stop bits.
• By this method, each byte is increased in size to at least 10 bits, of which 8 bits is
information and 2 bits or more are signals to the receiver.
• In addition, the transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap of varying
duration. This gap can be represented either by an idle channel or by a stream of
additional stop bits.
Disadvantage:

• The addition of stop and start bits and the insertion of gaps into the bit stream make
asynchronous transmission slower than forms of transmission that can operate
without the addition of control information.

Advantage: It is cheap and effective, hence used for low-speed communication.

For example, the connection of a keyboard to a computer .

 Asynchronous transmission

Synchronous Transmission:
• In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into longer "frames," which
may contain multiple bytes, Each byte, however, is introduced onto the transmission
link without a gap between it and the next one.

• It is left to the receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes for decoding purposes.
• In this, we send bits one after another without start or stop bits. It is the responsibility
of the receiver to group the bits.

Advantage:

• The advantage of synchronous transmission is speed.

• With no extra bits or gaps to introduce at the sending end and remove at the receiving
end, and, by extension, with fewer bits to move across the link,synchronous
transmission is faster than asynchronous transmission. For this reason, it is more useful
for high-speed applications such as the transmission of data from one computer to
another.
Isochronous Transmission:
• In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between frames are not accept-
able, synchronous transmission fails.
• For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they must
be viewed at the same rate. If each image is sent by using one or more frames, there
should be no delays between frames.

• For this type of application, synchronization between characters is not enough; the
entire stream of bits must be synchronized. The isochronous transmission guarantees
that the data arrive at a fixed rate.

asynchronous transmission
 synchronous transmission

Q.12 Give different types of Keying methods and explain each of them.
Ans A sine wave is defined by three characteristics: amplitude, frequency, and phase. When we
vary anyone of these characteristics, we create a different version of that wave.
So, by changing one characteristic of a simple electric signal, we can use it to represent digital
data. Any of the three characteristics can be altered in this way, giving you at least three
mechanisms for modulating digital data into an analog signal:
➢ amplitude shift keying (ASK),
➢ frequency shift keying (FSK), and
➢ phase shift keying (PSK).
➢ quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) that combines changing both the
amplitude and phase.It is the most efficient option and is the mechanism
commonly used today .
Amplitude Shift Keying:
• In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements.

• Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.

Frequency Shift Keying:

• In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data.
 The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal ele-
ment, but changes for the next signal element if the data element changes.

• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements.

Phase Shift Keying:

• In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more differ-
ent signal elements.

• Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase changes. Today, PSK
is more common than ASK or FSK.

QAM :Itcombines ASK and PSK, is the dominant method of digital to-analog modulation.

Q.13 Write a short note on

a.amplitude modulation b.Frequency modulation
Ans: c.Phase modulation
Analog-to-analog conversion, or analog modulation, is the representation of analog
information by an analog signal.
Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways:
➢ Amplitude modulation (AM),
➢ Frequency modulation (FM), and
➢ Phase modulation (PM).
Amplitude Modulation:
• In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the
changing amplitudes of the modulating signal.

• The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same: only the amplitude changes
to follow variations in the information.

• The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier.

Amplitude modulation

• As Figure shows, AM is normally implemented by using a simple multiplier because the

amplitude of the carrier signal needs to be changed according to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
Frequency Modulation:
• In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the
changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.

• The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the
amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the carrier changes
correspondingly.

Figure Frequency modulation

 Phase Modulation:
• In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing
voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.

• The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the
amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the carrier changes
correspondingly.

• In PM the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to the

derivative of the amplitude of the modulating signal.

Figure Phase modulation

• As Figure shows, PM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator

along with a derivative. The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the
derivative of the input voltage which is the amplitude of the modulating signal

Q.14 Write a short note on

Ans a. Multiplexing b.FDM c.TDM d.WDM.
Explain interleaving & synchronization in TDM.
Multiplexing:
➢ Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the band-
width needs of the devices, the link can be shared.
➢ Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals acrooss a single data link.
➢ As data and telecommunications use increases, so does traffic. We can accommodate
this increase by continuing to add individual links each time a new channel is needed;
or we can install higher-bandwidth links and use each to carry multiple signals.
➢ In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link.
 Figure 6.1 shows the basic format of a multiplexed system.

• The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which
combines them into a single stream (many-to-one).
• At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates
the stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to
their corresponding lines.
• In the figure, the word link refers to the physical path. The word channel refers to the
portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. One link can
have many (n) channels.
There are threebasic multiplexing techniques:
➢ frequency-division multiplexing,
➢ wavelength-division multiplexing,
➢ time-division multiplexing.
The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing:
➢ Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied
when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the
signals to be transmitted.
➢ In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier
frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal
that can be transported by the link.
➢ Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the
modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various
signals travel.
➢ Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent
signals from overlapping.
➢ In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.

Figure 6.3 gives a conceptual view of FDM. In this illustration, the transmission path is divided
into three parts, each representing a channel that carries one transmission.
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing:
➢ WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optital signals.
➢ It is designed to use the high-data-rate capabjlity of fiber-optic cable. The optical fiber
data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable. Using a fiber-optic
cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to
combine several lines into one.
➢ WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
➢ Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider band
of light. At the receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.

Time-Division Multiplexing:
➢ Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to
share the high bandwidth of a link. Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in
FDM, time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
➢ In the figure, portions of signals 1,2,3, and 4 occupy the link sequentially.

Figure 6.12 gives a conceptual view of TDM.

➢ TDM is, in principle, a digital multiplexing technique. Digital data from different
sources are combined into one timeshared link.
➢ TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels
into one high-rate channel.
 TDM can be divided into two different schemes:
➢ synchronous
➢ statistical
Synchronous TDM:
➢ In this each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is not sending
data.
➢ In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is collected into
a frame. If we have n connections, a frame is divided into ntime slots and one slot is
allocated for each unit, one for each input line. If the duration of the input unit is T, the
duration of each slot is TInand the duration of each frame is T .
InterleavingTDM:
• TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side and
the other on the demultiplexing side.
• The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite
directions. On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that
connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path.
• This process is called interleaving. On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in
front of a connection, that connection has the opportunity to receive a unit from the
path.
Figure 6.15 shows the interleaving process for the connection shown in Figure 6.13.

Interleaving

Q.15 Write a short note on transmission media.

Ans: Transmission Media:
➢ Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly
controlled by the physical layer.
➢ A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information
from a source to a destination.
➢ The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable. The
information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from another
form.
➢ Computers and other telecommunication devices use signals to represent data. These
signals are transmitted from one device to another in form of electromagnetic energy,
which is propagated through transmission media.
➢ Electromagnetic energy includes power, radio waves, infrared light, visible light,
 ultravio light, and X, garnrna, and cosmic rays. Each of these constitutes a portion of
the elect magnetic spectrum.
In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into twobroadcategories:
➢ guided and
➢ unguided
Q.16 Write a short note on Guided media .Explain one type.

Ans: Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, a! fiber-optic cable.
Unguided medium is free space.
Classes of transmission media

GUIDED MEDIA:

➢ Provide a conduit from one device to another

➢ Include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
➢ A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical
limits of the medium.
➢ Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts
and transports signals in the form of light.
For example: Twisted-Pair Cable
It consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together.

Figure Twisted-pair cable

➢ One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a
ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
➢ In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise)
and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
➢ Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences
(noise or crosstalk).
The number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable.
Coaxial Cable (coax)
◼ Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted pair cable.
◼ It has a central core conductor of solid or standard wire enclosed in an insulating
 sheath which is in turn encased in an outer conductor of metal foil.
◼ The outer metal wrapping serves both as a shield against noise & as a second
conductor which completes the circuit.
◼ This outer conductor is enclosed in a insulating sheath & the whole cable is protected
by a plastic cover
Applications of coaxial Cable
◼ Analog Telephone Networks.
◼ Digital Telephone Networks. (up to 600 Mbps)
◼ Cable TV Networks. (RG-59 coax)
◼ Traditional Ethernet LANs.
◼ (10 Base 2 or thin Ethernet uses RG-58 coax.
◼ 10 Base 5 or thick Ethernet uses RG-11 coax.)

Q.17 Write a short note on unguided media? Explain its one type.
Ans Unguided media: wireless
➢ Unguided media transports electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
➢ Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone
who has a device capable of receiving them.
Figure Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Radio Waves:

➢ Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and I GHz are

normally called radio waves.
➢ Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio
waves, they are propagated in all directions. The omnidirectional property has a
disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to
interference by another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or
band.
➢ Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long
distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting
such as AM radio.
➢ Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls.
This characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage
 because, for example, an AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvan-
tage because we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or outside a building.
➢ Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and
paging systems.

Q.18 Which are the several ways in which unguided signals can travel from the source to
destination ?
Ans Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways: ground
propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation.
In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere,
hugging the earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting
antenna and follow the curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in
the signal: The greater the power, the greater the distance.
In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (the
layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to earth. This
type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.
In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines
directly ftom antenna to antenna.
Q.19 List and explain three broad groups in which wireless transmission/unguided media can be
divided into .
Ans We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups:
➢ radio waves,
➢ micro waves, and
➢ infrared waves.
Radio Waves:
➢ Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and I GHz are
normally called radio waves.
➢ Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio
waves, they are propagated in all directions. The omnidirectional property has a
disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to
interference by another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or
band.
➢ Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long
distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting
such as AM radio.
➢ Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls.
This characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage
because, for example, an AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvan-
tage because we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or outside a building.
➢ Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and
paging systems.
 Microwaves:
.
Q.20 List the characteristics of microwave propagation.

Ans Characteristics of microwave propagation.

◼ Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas
need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
The curvature of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short
towers to communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for long
distance communication.
◼ Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
◼ Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
◼ Frequency Range 1GHz to 300 GHz.
◼ Unidirectional
◼ Sending and receiving antennae need to be aligned
◼ Propagation is Line of Sight
◼ Free from Interference
◼ Repeaters needed for long distance communication

Infra Red
◼ Frequency Range 300GHz to 400 THz.
◼ Used for short range communication
◼ Line of sight propagation
◼ Cannot penetrate walls
◼ No Interference
Application of Infrared
◼ Transmitting digital data with a very high data rate
◼ IrDA (Infra Red Data Association) Standards
◼ Communication between keyboards, mice, PCs and printers.

Q.21 Write a short note on Fibre-Optic Cable.

Ans: Give the advantages & disadvantages of optical fiber.
Fiber-Optic Cable:
➢ A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
➢ Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
➢ A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The
difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected fromthe cladding instead of being refracted into it.
Figure 7.11 Optical fiber
 Advantages of Optical Fiber:

Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted pair or coaxial).
1.Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence
data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable.
2.Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of
other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need
repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
3. Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber- optic
cables.
4. Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials
than copper.
5. Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
6. Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than
copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.

Disadvantages :
1.Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its
Installation & maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
2. Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need
bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
3. Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided
media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be
justified.
Q.22 List and explain three methodsof switching .
Ans: Three methods of switching are:
➢ circuit switching
➢ packet switching
➢ message switching.
Circuit Switching:
➢ It takes place at physical layer.
➢ In circuit switching,the resources need to be reserved during the setup phase;the
resources remain dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown
phase.
➢ Switching at th physical layer in the traditional telephone network uses the circuit-
switching approach.
Packet Switching:
➢ In a packet switching there is no resource allocation for a packet. This means that there
 is no reserved bandwidth on the links, and there is no scheduled processing time for
each packet. Resources are allocated on demand.
➢ The allocation is done on a firstcome, first-served basis. When a switch receives a
packet, no matter what is the source or destination, the packet must wait if there are
other packets being processed.
➢ Packet switching is used in datagram networks,virtual circuit networks.
Message Switching:
➢ In message switching, each switch stores the whole message and forwards it to
the next switch.
➢ Although, we don't see message switching at lower layers, it is still used in some
applications like electronic mail (e-mail).
Q.23 Write a short note on a switched network? List and explain three types of it.
Ans: A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are
devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or more devices linked to the
switch.
In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems (computers
or telephones, for example). Others are used only for routing.
Figure Switched network

The end systems (communicating devices) are labeled A, B, C, D, and so on, and the switches
are labeled I, II, III, IV, and V. Each switch is connected to multiple links.
Based on three methods of switching we can divide networks into three broad categories:
➢ circuit-switched networks
➢ packet-switched networks
➢ message-switched networks
Packet-switched networks can further be divided into two subcategories
➢ virtual-circuit networks and
➢ datagram networks .
Circuit-switched networks:
➢ A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links.
➢ A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link.
➢ Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM .
➢ A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical links in
which each link is divided into n channels.
Message Switced Network: In message switching, each switch stores the whole
 message and forwards it to the next switch.It is used in applications like e-mail.
Q.24 Explain the working of a circuit-switched network.
Ans: ➢ Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.
➢ Before starting communication, the stations must make a reservation for the resources
to be used during the communication. These resources, such as channels (bandwidth in
FDM and time slots in TDM), switch buffers, switch processing time, and switch
input/output ports, must remain dedicated during the entire duration of data transfer
until the teardown phase.
➢ Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized . The data are a
continuous flow sent by the source station and received by the destination station,
although there may be periods of silence.
➢ There is no addressing involved during data transfer. The switches route the data
based on their occupied band (FDM) or time slot (TDM).
➢ In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during the setup phase; the
resources remain dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer .
Q.25 List and explain the three phases of communication in a circuit-switched network.
Ans: Three Phases:
The actual communication in a circuit-switched network requires three phases:
➢ connection setup
➢ data transfer
➢ connection teardown
Setup Phase:
Before the two parties (or multiple parties in a conference call) can communicate, a dedicated
circuit (combination of channels in links) needs to be established. The end systems are
normally connected through dedicated lines to the switches, so connection setup means
creating dedicated channels between the switches.
➢ In the next step to making a connection, an acknowledgment from one system needs
to be sent to the other system in reply to its request for connection. Only after system
receives this acknowledgment is the connection established.
Data Transfer Phase
After the establishment of the dedicated circuit (channels), the two parties can transfer data.
Teardown Phase
When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to release
the resources.
Q.26 Write a short note on Delay in a circuit-switched network.
Ans Delay in a circuit-switched network:

➢ Although a circuit-switched network normally has low efficiency, the delay in this type
of network is minimal. During data transfer the data are not delayed at each switch;
the resources are allocated for the duration of the connection.
➢ There is no waiting time at each switch. The total delay is due to the time needed to
 create the connection, transfer data, and disconnect the circuit.
➢ The delay caused by the setup is the sum of four parts: the propagation time of the
source computer request , the request signal transfer time , the propagation time of
the acknowledgment from the destination computer , and the signal transfer time of
the acknowledgment .
➢ The delay due to data transfer is the sum of two parts: the propagation time and data
transfer time , which can be very long.
Q.27 Explain the advantage of Time- and Space-Division Switch Combinations
with the help of a diagram.:
Ans Advantages:
➢ It is that it is instantaneous. Its disadvantage is the number of cross points
required to make space-division switching acceptable in terms of blocking.
➢ The advantage of time-division switching is that it needs no crosspoints. Its
disadvantage, in the case of TSI, is that processing each connection creates
delays. Each time slot must be stored by the RAM, then retrieved and passed on.
➢ We combine space-division and time-division technologies to take advantage of the
best of both. Combining the two results in switches that are optimized both physically
(the number of crosspoints) and temporally (the amount of delay). Multistage switches
of this sort can be designed as time-space-time (TST) switch.
➢ Following Figure shows a simple TST switch that consists of two time stages and one
space stage and has 12 inputs and 12 outputs.
➢ Instead of one time-division switch, it divides the inputs into three groups (of four
inputs each) and directs them to three timeslot interchanges.
➢ The result is that the average delay is one-third of what would result from using one
time-slot interchange to handle all 12 inputs.
➢ The last stage is a mirror image of the first stage. The middle stage is a spacedivision
switch (crossbar) that connects the TSI groups to allow connectivity between all
possible input and output pairs (e.g., to connect input 3 of the first group to output 7
of the second group).
Figure Time-space-time switch