Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

AIM:

To observe an AM wave on CRO produced by standard signal generator

using internal and external modulation. The depth of modulation is to be
measured with the above experiment.

APPARATUS:

1. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation trainer kit.

2. C.R.O (20MHz
3. Function generator (1MHz).
4. Connecting chords & probes.

THEORY:

Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) is
varied about a mean value, linearly with the baseband signal. An AM wave may thus be
dscribed, in the most general form, as a function of time as follows.

S(t)=Ac{1+Kam(t)}cos(2πfct)

Where Ka- Amplitude sensitivity of the modulator

S(t) –Modulated signal Ac- carrier signal

m(t) –modulating signal

The amplitude of Ka m(t) is always less than unity, that is Ka m(t) 1 for any carrier wave
becomes over modulated ,resulting in carrier phase reversal whenever the factor 1+Kam(t)
crosses zero. The modulate wave then exhibits envelope distortion. The absolute maximum
value of Ka m(t) multiplied by 100 is referred to as the percentage modulation.

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
Or percentage modulation = x100
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏

1
 The carrier frequency fc is much greater than the highest frequency component ω of the
message signal m(t),that is fc >>W Where W is themessage bandwidth. If the condition is not
satisfied, and envelope cannot be visualized satisfactorily. The trainer kit has a carrier
generator, which can generate the carrier wave of 100 KHz when the trainer is switched on.
The circuit’s carrier generator, modulator and demodulator are provided with the built in
supplies, no supply connections are to be given externally

Circuit diagram:

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the trainer kit and check the O/P of the carrier generator on oscilloscope.

2. Connect around 1KHz with 2Volts .A.F signal at A.F I/P to the modulator circuit.
2
3. Connect the carrier signal at carrier I/P of the modulator circuit.

4. Observe the modulator output signal at AM O/p Spring by making necessary changes in A.F
signal

5. Vary the modulating frequency and amplitude and observe the effects on the modulated
waveform.

6. The depth of modulation can be varied using the variable knob provided at A.F input.

7. The percentage modulation can be calculated using the formula.

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
Percentage modulation =𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏x100

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
Modulation factor=𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏

8. Connect the output of the modulator to the input of the demodulator circuit and observe the
output.

VI. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

3
VII. RESULT:

4
VII. RESULT:

VIII. APPLICATIONS:

1. Tele communications.

2. TV Transmitters.

5
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621406

Double side band suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulated Signal.

AIM:

To generate and study double side band suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulated Signal.

I. APPARATUS:

1. Balanced modulator trainer kit

2. C.R.O (20MHz)

3. Connecting chords and probes

4. Function generator (1MHz)

II. THEORY:

1. RF Generator:

Colpitts oscillator using FET is used here to generate RF signal of approximately 100 KHz
Frequency to use as carrier signal in this experiment. Adjustments for Amplitude and
Frequency are provided in panel for ease of operation.

2. AF Generator:

Low Frequency signal of approximately 5KHz is generated using OP-AMP based wein
bridge oscillator. IC TL 084 is used as an active component; TL 084 is FET input general
purpose quad OP-AMP integrated circuit. One of the OP-AMP has been used as amplifier
to improve signal level. Facility is provided to change output voltage.
6
 3. Regulated Power Supply:
This consists of bridge rectifier, capacitor filters and three terminal regulators to provide
required dc voltage in the circuit i.e. +12v, -8v @ 150 ma each.

4. Modulator:
The IC MC 1496 is used as Modulator in this experiment. MC 1496 is a monolithic
integrated circuit balanced modulator/Demodulator, is versatile and can be used up to 200
MHz.

Multiplier:
A balanced modulator is essentially a multiplier. The output of the MC 1496 balanced
modulator is proportional to the product of the two input signals. If you apply the same
sinusoidal signal to both inputs of a ballooned modulator, the output will be the square of
the input signal AM-DSB/SC: If you use two sinusoidal signals with deferent frequencies
at the two inputs of a balanced modulator (multiplier) you can produce AM-DSB/SC
modulation. This is generally accomplished using a high- frequency “carrier” sinusoid and
a lower frequency “modulation” waveform (such as an audio signal from microphone).
The figure 1.1 is a plot of a DSB-SC waveform, this figure is the graph of a 100 KHz and
a 5 KHz sinusoid multiplied together. Figure 1.2 shows the circuit that we will use for this
experiment using MC 1496-balanced modulator/demodulator.

III. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

7
IV. PROCEDURE:

(i)-Frequency Doubler

1. Connect the circuit as per the given circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the power to the trainer kit.
3. Apply a 5 KHz signal to both RF and AF inputs of 0.1VP-P.
4. Measure the output signal frequency and amplitude by connecting the output to CRO.
5. Repeat the steps 3 and 4 by changing the applied input signal frequency to 100KHZ and 500
KHz. And note down the output signals.

NOTE:- Amplitude decreases with increase in the applied input frequency.

(ii)-Generation of DSB-SC
1. For the same circuit apply the modulating signal(AF) frequency in between 1Khz to 5Khz
having 0.4 VP-P and a carrier signal(RF) of 100KHz having a 0.1 VP-P .
2. Adjust the RF carrier null potentiometer to observe a DSB-SC waveform at the output terminal
on CRO and plot the same.
3. Repeat the above process by varying the amplitude and frequency of AF but RF maintained
constant.

V. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

8
VI. RESULT:

VII. APPLICATIONS:

1. Tele communications.

2. TV Transmitters.

9
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur
ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

PRE-EMPHASIS & DE-EMPHASIS

AIM:To perform the characteristics of Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis circuits.

APPARATUS:

1. Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis trainer kits.

2. C.R.O (20MHz)

3. Function generator (1MHz).

4. Patch chords and Probes

THEORY
Frequency modulation is much immune to noise than amplitude modulation and significantly
more immune than phase modulation. A single noise frequency will affect the output of the
receiver only if it falls with in its pass band.

The noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies than on lower ones. Thus, if
the higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the transmitter and correspondingly cut at the
receiver, improvement in noise immunity could be expected. This boosting of the higher
frequencies, in accordance with a pre-arranged curve, is termed pre-emphasis, and the
compensation at the receiver is called de-emphasis.

If the two modulating signals have the same initial amplitude, and one of them is pre-emphasized
to (say) twice this amplitude, whereas the other is unaffected (being at a much lower frequency)
then the receiver will naturally have to de-emphasize the first signal by a factor of 2, to ensure
that both signals have the same amplitude in the output of the receiver. Before demodulation, I.e.
while susceptible to noise interference the emphasized signal had twice the deviation it would

10
have had without pre-emphasis, and was thus more immune to noise. Alternatively, it is seen that
when this signal is de-emphasized any noise sideband voltages are de-emphasized with it, and
therefore have a correspondingly lower amplitude than they would have had without emphasis
again their effect on the output is reduced.

The amount of pre-emphasis in U.S FM broadcasting, and in the sound transmissions

accompanying television, has been standardized at 75 microseconds, whereas a number of other
services, notably CCIR and Australian TV sound transmission, use 50micro second. The usage of
microseconds for defining emphasis is standard. 75 microseconds de-emphasis corresponds to a
frequency response curve that is 3 db down at the frequency whose time constant is RC is 75 RC
and it is therefore 2120 Hz;microseconds. This frequency is given by f=1/2 with 50-
microseconds de-emphasis it would have been 3180 Hz. Figure I shows pre emphasis and de-
emphasis curves for a 7 microseconds emphasis, as used in the united states.

If emphasis is applied to amplitude modulation, some improvement will also result, but it is not as
great as in FM because the highest modulating frequencies in AM are no more affected by noise
than any others. Apart from that, it would be difficult to introduce pre-emphasis and deemphasis
in existing AM services since extensive modifications would be needed, particularly in view of
the huge numbers is receivers in use.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

11
PROCEDURE:

I-PRE-EMPHASIS

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. Apply a sine wave to the input terminals of 2 VP-P (Vi)
3. By varying the input frequency with fixed amplitude, note down the output amplitude (Vo)
with respect to the input frequency.
4. Calculate the gain using the formula Gain = 20 log (VO/ VI) db Where VO = output voltage in
volts. VI = Input voltage in volts. And plot the frequency response.

II-DE-EMPHASIS

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.

2. Repeat steps 2,3 & 4 of Pre-Emphasis to de-emphasis also

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:

APPLICATIONS:
1.FM transmitters.
2.FM Receivers.
3.FM Stereo systems.

12
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur
ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

AIM: To Study time-division multiplexing technique and observe cross-talk.

EQUIPMENTS AND COMPONENTS

(i) Apparatus:
1. TDM Trainer
2. Function generator
3. CRO
4. Bread Board
5. Power supply

(ii) Description of Apparatus:

CRO: The 20 MHz dual channel oscilloscope 201 is a compact, low line and light weight
instrument. It is a general purpose Dual Trace Oscilloscope having both vertical amplifiers
offering a bandwidth of DC- 20 MHz and maximum sensitivity of 2mv/cm.

The 201 offers five separate add-on modules.

- frequency counter
- Curve tracer
- Power supply
- Function generator
- Digital voltmeter

The add-on modules enhance measuring capabilities of instrument at low cost.

This instrument is meant for giving three types of periodic waveforms – SINUSOIDAL,
SQUARE and TRIANGULAR waveforms – where frequency can be selected from 0.1 Hz to 1
MHz and whose amplitude also can be selected from 0 to 20 volts peak to peak independently.
The power on switch in pressed position will connect supply to the instrument. The amplitude
switch varies the amplitude of output waveforms from 20 mv to 20 v(p-p). The function is a
interlocked 3 station push button which switches to select the desired waveform for output.

13
Wire Connections are usually carried out using a system called Bread Board. It is a rectangular
board divided into a number of nodes. This component has a provision on which any circuit can
be constructed by interconnecting components such as resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors
etc., for testing the circuit.

(iii). Components
1. 100K- resistor – 2 No.
2. 4.7K- resistor – 2 No.
3. 5.6K- resistor – 1 No.
4. 1K- resistor – 2 No.
5. 10K- resistor – 1 No.
6. 0.01 F capacitor – 1 No.
7. 0.1 F capacitor – 1 No.
8. BC 107 transistor – 1 No.

(iv) Description of Components:

a. 100K- resistor

Most circuits need contrast resistances. There are different types of resistors available fordifferent
applications. Typical specifications of resistor are

Rating : 10to 10M

Wattage : ¼ W to 2 W
Tolerance : Normally 5% and above

b. 4.7K- resistor
Same as above

c. 5.6K- resistor
Same as above

d. 1K- resistor
Same as above

e. 10K- resistor
Same as above

f. 0.01 F capacitor and 0.1 F capacitor

Capacitors are made by sandwiching an insulating material between two conductors which form
the electrodes. There are rated by their maximum working voltage. The breakdown
voltage depends upon temperature and hence upon the losses in the dielectric.

The factors to be considered in the choice of capacitors are

14
1. Required capacity
2. Working voltage
3. Tolerances

The specifications of 0.01F capacitor are

1. capacity – 0.01 F
2. 2. voltage range 16v to 3kv
3. 3. tolerance 10%

g. BC 107 transistor

A bipolar junction transistor has two junctions. The conduction through the device
involving two types of charge carriers holes and elements.

BJT’s are available in two varieties: PNP and NPN. Either type can be treated as
equivalent to two diodes connected back to back with three terminals leads, emitter,
base and collector. Width of the base region is smaller than that of emitter or
collector layers.

THEORY:-

Time division multiplexing enables the joint utilization of a common transmission

channel by a plurality of independent message sources without mutual inference.
The circuit has 555 timer which generates a square wave which is then fed to the
transistors to provide the bias current. Two message signals are square wave and
some wave generated from frequency generator and they are time division
multiplexed when square wave has ON and OFF Cycles. The multiplexed output is
viewed on the CRO.

15
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

16
17
PROCEDURE:
.
i.connections can be made as per circuit diagram

ii. Switch on the trainer kit and observe the multiplexed signal at transmitter data work output.

iii. Transmitter data output is connected to receiver data input of receiver TDM section.

iv. Observe the demultiplexed signal on individual channels Ch0, Ch1, Ch2,Ch3

v. Draw the graph for input signals, multiplexed signal , and demultiplexed signals.

OBSERVATIONS:

Input signals = ________________

Frequency = ________________
Amplitude = ________________
Multiplexed Output signal = ________________

GRAPHS:

RESULT:

Thus the time division multiplexing of a square wave and sine wave is generated and observed.

INFERENCES:
From the above observation, we can infer that it is possible to covey different signals in different
time slots using a single channel

PRECAUTIOS:

1. Power handling capacity of resistor should be kept in mind while selecting RL.

2. Contact wires must be checked before use

.
3. Maximum forward current should not exceed value given in data sheet.

4. Reverse voltage across diode should not exceed peak inverse voltage (PIV).

APPLICATIONS:

Telephone Channel

18
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

VERIFICATION OF SAMPLING THEOREM

AIM:

To verify the sampling theorem and to observe aliasing effect.

EQUIPMENTS AND COMPONENTS:

I. Apparatus:
1. Sampling theorem trainer kit
2. Function generator
3. CRO

4. Patch Cards

II. Description of Apparatus:

1. CRO:
The 20 MHz dual channel oscilloscope 201 is a compact, low line and light weight instrument.
It is a general purpose Dual Trace Oscilloscope having both vertical amplifiers offering a
bandwidth of DC- 20 MHz and maximum sensitivity of 2mv/cm.

The 201 offers five separate add-on modules.

- frequency counter
- Curve tracer
- Power supply
- Function generator
- Digital voltmeter

The add-on modules enhance measuring capabilities of instrument at low cost.

2. This instrument is meant for giving three types of periodic waveforms –

SINUSOIDAL, SQUARE and TRIANGULAR waveforms – where frequency can be
19
selected from 0.1 Hz to 1 MHz and whose amplitude also can be selected from 0 to
20 volts peak to peak independently.
The power on switch in pressed position will connect supply to the instrument. The
amplitude switch varies the amplitude of output waveforms from 20 mv to 20 v(p-p).
The function is a interlocked 3 station push button which switches to select the
desired waveform for output.

3. Wire Connections are usually carried out using a system called Bread Board. It is a
rectangular board divided into a number of nodes. This component has a provision on
which any circuit can be constructed by interconnecting components such as resistors, capacitors,
diodes, transistors etc., for testing the circuit.

THEORY:

When an analog signal message is conveyed over an analog communication system, the
full message is typically used at all times. To send the same analog signal over a digicom
system requires that only its samples are transmitted at periodic intervals. Because the
receiver can therefore receive only samples of the message, it must attempt to reconstruct
the original message at all times from only its samples. Methods exist whereby this desired end
can be accomplished which include the sampling theorem.

Sampling theorem can be stated as follows: A signal f(t) , band limited such that it has no
frequency components above fm , can be uniquely determined and reconstructed by its values at
regularly spaced intervals of Ts if and only if Ts < ½ Tm .

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

20
21
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the 2 KHz 5 V p-p signal generator on board to the analog signal input,by means of
the patch chords provided.

2. Connect the sampling frequency signal in the internal mode, by means of shorting
pin provided.

3. Connect the S/H output to the input of the 2/4th order LPF.

4. If the external sampling frequency signal is used ,then connect the signal generator
output to the sampling contrl input
.
OBSERVATIONS:

Message signal voltage = __________________

Message signal frequency = __________________
Sampling signal voltage = ___________________
Sampling signal frequency = ___________________

GRAPHS:

22
23
RESULT:

A signal is naturally sampled and the reconstructed signal is observed and plotted.

INFERENCES:

We infer that the use of sample and hold logic compensates for the poor amplitude at the input of
the low pass filter resulting in faithful reconstruction. Pulse amplitude modulated signal and
demodulated signals are observed.

PRECAUTIONS:

1.Power handling capacity of resistor should be kept in mind while selecting RL.

2.Contact wires must be checked before use.

3.Maximum forward current should not exceed value given in data sheet.

4.Reverse voltage across diode should not exceed peak inverse voltage (PIV).

Applications:

Broad Casting, Digital communication.

EXTENSION:

We find the signal is reconstructed more faith fully in the case of sample-and hold waveform rather in case
of natural sampled waveform where the reconstructed signal suffers an amplitude distortion.

Trouble Shooting:

S.No. Fault Diagnosis

1 Output signal is Absence of carrier
same as signal
input signal
2 Output appears and Check the contact
suddenly disappear wires whether
they are placed
properly

24
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation

Objective :

To Set-up circuits for pulse code modulation and demodulation and to study the modulator
and demodulator with the study of quantization noise.

Apparatus:: PCM kit, Dual traces CRO, Connecting leads.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig.1 : PCM Modulator

25
 Fig.2 : PCM De-Modulator
Theory:

Pulse code modulation pulse code modulation system comprises the following steps:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding
4. Formatting
Let these four steps should be detailed before circuit description
.
1. Sampling:

The input is first sampled according to Nyquist criteria. The Nyquist criteria state that a signal
must be sampled at a rate of >2fm, means the sampling frequency must become than the twice of
input information highest frequency. For a voice signal it must be 2 * 3.4 KHz=>6.8 KHz or say 8
KHz. The sampled signal is now in the form of pulse amplitude modulated signal. Thus in a pulse
code modulation first step is to obtain a PAM signal at Nyquist rate.

2. Quantization: The quantization means to compare the stepped PAM signal height with a
known reference value.

3. Encoding: The sampled input is compared and encoded into equivalent binary word .Here is to
note that a binary ‘0’ represent absence of pulse and ‘1’ presence of the pulse.

4. Formatting: The ready data is now transmitted through cables or being modulated by carrier
component. Let take the cable system .To send this data four lines of data stream and one
common line is required .If the encoded data eight word length than there must be nine and lines
and it is not economical same case it is not possible to modulate this data lines (4 & 8) with a
carrier component .Thus prior to send the parallel data is converted into serial form with
governing bits. The process is called data formatting. In the block diagram it is drawn as shown
below.

Waveforms:

26
Procedure:

1. Keep DC ADJ control to minimum (fully controlled –clock wise).Switch on the power.
2. Connect the CRO ground with the ground point provided between Tx CK and TX DO sockets.

27
3. Connect CRO live lead with the TP1, adjust CRO for 2V/div and 1 Microsecond/ div. Observe
the clock signal there. It is the clock signal which is used in conversion of analog to digital
function.
4. Connect the CRO at TP2; adjusting time 50 microsecond/div. It is the main clock signal which
is used performs all functions. Remain CRO one channel connected here.
5. Connect other channel of CRO with the TP3.Observe the signal there. Adjust
CRO time base to appear o ne complete frame upon the signal there .Adjust CRO time base to
appear one complete frame upon the screen. Trace the clock signal with the TP3 signal.
6. Disconnected TP2, probe and connect it with the TP4, TP5 and TP6 signals. Trace these all
signals as shown in the figure.
7. Connect the CRO with the TP7, while other input connected with TP3.Observe and trace this
signal.
8. Connect CRO with the TxDO output socket and observe the signal there
9. Trigger CRO with this signal and measure the time T between two successive
leading signals. It is the transmission frame time measure the start bit time.
10. Now increase the analog input (DC ADJ control) signal gradually till
LSB, LED(D0) glows. Observe the modulated signal.

Result:

Pulse Code Modulation & Demodulation has been studied.

Precautions:

1. Switch off the experimental kit during making connections.

2. Adjust the frequency of pulse trains carefully to get reasonable PCM waveforms.
3. Use the CRO carefully.

28
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

Phase Locked Loop as FM Demodulator

Objective : To Study phase locked characteristics and its application as FM demodulator

Theory:

There are many methods available for FM demodulation like slope detector, Foster-Seeley
discriminator, Phase Lock Loop detector, Quadrature method, Ratio detector. In our project we
are using the PLL demodulation method using IC LM565 which is FM demodulation IC. The
LM565 and LM565C are general purpose phase locked loops containing a stable, highly linear
voltage controlled oscillator for low distortion FM demodulation, and a double balanced phase
detector with good carrier suppression. The VCO frequency is set with an external resistor and
capacitor, and a tuning range of 10:1 can be obtained with the same capacitor. The characteristics
of the closed loop system—bandwidth, response speed, capture and pull in range—may be
adjusted over a wide range with an external resistor and capacitor. The loop may be broken
between the VCO and the phase detector for insertion of a digital frequency divider to obtain
frequency multiplication.

1. FM DEMODULATION

The process of removing the information signal from the carrier is termed demodulation. The
challenge is to design a circuit (or algorithm) that will achieve this task optimally in the presence
of noise, interference and varying signal strength, frequency and phase, whilst being compact,
power efficient and cheap.

To detect an FM signal, it is necessary to have a circuit whose output voltage varies linearly with
the frequency of the input signal. The slope detector is a very basic form of such a circuit,

29
although its linearity of response is not a good. The tuning circuit tune to receive the signal on the
slope of the response curve. The carrier amplitude is caused to vary with the frequency.

There are four methods for the frequency demodulation technique. These are as follows:

1. Foster-Seeley Discriminator
2. Ratio Detector
3. Phase Lock Loop Detector
4. Quadrature Detector

Here IC LM565 is used as a Phase Lock Loop Detector.

Mainly two sections are present as follows:

1. FM Demodulation by PLL.
2. Output audio amplifier section.

2. FM DEMODULATION BY PLL

An IC565 PLL is used for FM demodulation. It contain voltage controlled oscillator which
produces the frequency, which is proportional to the voltage applied to it. The frequency of
oscillation is determined by resistance and capacitance at pin 8 and 9 by 4k7 preset. IC TBA810
is used as output audio amplifier.

The block diagram for Phase locked loop demodulator is shown in fig. The phase detector which
is basically balance modulator, produce an average output voltage that is a linear function of the
phase difference between the two input signals .The frequency component is selected by the low
pass filter which also remove much of the noise. The filtered signal is given is amplified through
amplifier A and pass as a control voltage to the VCO where it result in frequency modulation of
the VCO frequency .When the loop is in lock the VCO frequency follows or track the incoming
30
frequency .For example when the instantaneous frequency increases. The control voltage will
cause the VCO frequency to increase.

3. OUTPUT AUDIO AMPLIFIER SECTION:

The Output audio amplifier consists of Pre-amplifier and output amplifier stage. This section is used to
amplify low-level audio signal coming from Mike/Loudspeaker and give it to the F.M. modulator section
for live F.M. modulation.
The pre-amplifier consists of one transistor Q1. Transistor Q1 is connected in C-E configuration. The input
signal from mike is connected to the base of Q1 through coupling capacitor 10/16 EC.
The amplified audio signal obtained at the collector of Q1 is given to the output driver amplifier consisting
of IC 810 at pin 10 through volume control pot P1.
The IC 810 performs the functions of the audio amplifier, driver and the o/p stage. The amplified signal
obtained from the transistor Q1 is given at the audio input (pin 10) of the IC.
This amplified by the IC and the o/p is available at the pin 16 of the IC. The feedback is given from the
output to the emitter of pre-amplifier transistor in the IC (through resistor 4k provided internally).The
feedback voltages develops over R6 (22Ω), C12 (220/10) being used for dc blocking at pin 8.the gain of
amplifier depends on this feedback. The amplified output is available at pin 16 and in turn at output
terminals.

4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

31
5. COMPONENTS

Resistor Capacitors
1) 100kΩ : 1 1) 47Nf dc :1
2) 22kΩ: 2 2) 1nf dc :1
3) 10kΩ: 1 3) 1nf ppc :1
4) 4k7Ω : 1 4) 330pf dc : 1
5) 1k5Ω : 1 5) 470pf :1
6) 47kΩ : 4 6) 10μf/16V : 2
7) 1Ω : 1 7) 220μf/16V : 3
8) 220kΩ: 1 8) 470μf/16V : 2
9) 1kΩ : 1
10) 22Ω : 1
11) 100Ω: 1
12) 1Ω : 1
13) 1Ω, 0.5w: 1
14)330k Ω : 1

PRESETS : 1) 10k pot

ICs:
2) 565( fm demodulator)
3) 741 ( amplifier)

6. SPECIFICATIONS
1) Power supply requirement : +5,-5,+15,-15 DC
2) On board RF carrier signal generator : 200 KHz to 1 MHz
(VCO) frequency range
3) Demodulator type : Phase lock loop
4) Vp-p 0 to 5v
5) On board input audio amplifier with volume control for modulating
external signal from mike.

7. EXPERIMENT RESULT

32
9. CONCLUSION

FM demodulation in which PLL demodulator is working up to 200 KHz to 6MHz frequency. The
output of the PLL demodulator is somewhat distorted so to get the proper output Low Pass Filter
is required. In the output FM demodulated wave in the form of sine wave is obtain.

33
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

Frequency Modulation Using the Voltage Controlled Oscillator and a

Function Generator Circuit

Aim:- To generator frequency modulated signal using VCO (Voltage controlled oscillator)

Theory:

The voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is a device whose frequency changes linearly with an
input voltage. It is used to perform direct frequency modulation on signals. VCO has a center
frequency fc and the input (control) voltage m(t) modulates the instantaneous frequency around
this center frequency.

Issues
The main issue is modulating the frequency around a center frequency that is within the
specifications made by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulation to avoid any
electromagnetic compatibility issues. The frequency of this VCO ranges from 2315MHz to
2536MHz. A band of frequencies around 2400MHz has been designated as the Industrial,
Scientific and Medical (ISM) radio bands and the devices using this band does not need to be
34
licensed for instance, cordless phones, WiFi and routers. The design must not exceed the allowed
band frequency.
Steps
A signal needs to be fed to the input of the VCO by the function generator circuit. The function
generator circuit can output either a sine, square or triangle wave depending on the designer.

Figure 2 shows the circuit for a sine, triangle or square wave generation with minimum harmonic
distortion. R1 at pin 7 provides the desired frequency tuning. R3 determines the output swing
which is the positive and negative peak of the waveform. The selection of R3 value can be done
by referring to Figure 3. RA adjusts the sine-shaping resistor and RB provides the fine adjustment
for the waveform symmetry.

35
Figure 4. Performance Data and Curves of ZX95-2536C-S+ Voltage Controlled Oscillator
Figure 4 shows the performance and data curves of the VCO. All of the parameters on the table are at
25°C (room temperature) unless mentioned otherwise. Voltage tune is the output voltage of the
waveform generator. The voltage tune corresponds to the desired frequency. Therefore, R1 and R3 on
the waveform generator circuit should be tuned to the list of voltage tune listed on the table in order to
get the corresponding frequency.
Example
This is an example of having the minimum voltage at 1V, average voltage at 2V and maximum
voltage at 3V. According to figure 4, 1V, 2V and 3V correspond to 2.334GHz, 2.408GHz and
2.481GHz respectively. Therefore the center frequency of the VCO is approximately 2.4GHz.

Figure 5. ZX95-2536C-S+ Frequency and Tuning Sensitivity

36
Hardware Developed
A hardware that was developed using this method is the radar kit that was done by a design team from
ECE480 Fall 2011 and modified by Design Team 5 from ECE480 Spring 2012 (Figure). This kit
produces a triangle waveform from the function generator circuit using Figure. The potentiometer R3
is tuned to get 3V as the max voltage and 1V as the minimum voltage and potentiometer R1 is tuned to
get 2V as the average voltage.

Figure 6. ZX95-2536C-S+ Voltage Controlled Oscillator and XR-2206cp Function Generator

37
Figure 7. Radar Kit Developed
Design parameters of the kit are as follows:
Frequency = 2.4GHz
Bandwidth = 80MHz
Waveform = Continuous wave triangle
Antenna isolation = 50dB
DC power is less than 1W
RF power is less than 1W

Conclusions

The function of VCO is to do direct frequency modulation at a specific center frequency that
is determined by the waveform produced by the function generator. The frequency of the
VCO depends on the voltage tune input of the VCO. The voltage output swing of the function
generator depends on the value of potentiometer at pin 3. When designing a device, it is
important to ensure that the frequency band of the device is permitted by the FCC
regulation.

38
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

Monochrome Television Receiver Fault Finding

Aim:- To find out various faults and trace circuits in monochrome TV receiver

Apparatus:- Monochrome TV receiver, CRO, CRO probe, digital Multimeter

Theory :-

The first step towards finding the cause of failure of a receiver is visual inspection of the
components, tubes, transistors and ICs mounted on various printed circuit boards, modules and
chassis of the receiver. Such an inspection sometimes leads quickly to the defective device or part
in the receiver. For example, burnt or charred resistors can often be spotted by visual observation.
Similarly overheated transformers, oil or wax filled capacitors and coils can be located by a
peculiar small caused by overheating and shorting. In addition a disoldered wire of a coil or
component, broken load of a transistor or other similar faults can be found out by a preliminary
visual inspection.

Fault Localization

1. The picture and sound signals have a common path from antenna to the video detector after which
the two separate out to their respective channels. Another section of the receiver provides necessary
signals for producing the raster and maintaining synchronism between the televised scene and
reproduced picture. Thus the known path of the video, audio, and sync signals together with the
symptoms observed on the screen and noted from the sound output can form a basis for localizing any
trouble in one or more sections of the receiver.

2. If a receiver exhibits a distorted picture accompanied by a distorted audio output, it becomes

obvious that the defect is in a circuit which is common to both the signals. Thus the fault is localized
to the RF and IF sections of the receiver. On the other hand, if only the sound output is missing or
appears to be distorted, the fault lies in the sound section following the point of separation of the two
signals.

3. Similarly if nothing but a white horizontal line appears on the screen, it becomes evident, that the
trouble lies somewhere in the vertical circuit. However, if the picture holds vertically but tears
diagonally, the trouble probably lies either in the horizontal sync or horizontal sweep circuit. Thus the
method of observing symptoms from picture and sound is very efficient for fault location and saves
much servicing time.

39
Signal Source for Observing Faults

1. Though any transmission from a local TV station can be used for observing possible faults but
continuous change of picture details on the screen makes it difficult to observe minor irregularities in
the reproduced picture.
2. A test pattern obtained either from a test chart generator or an analyst generator shows much more
than a picture and so is very useful for detecting all types of faults in the picture.
3. However, if these instruments are not available, a pattern generator set to produce a cross-hatched
pattern on the screen can be used as input signal source. In any case, an initial observation by tuning
in any one of the local channels is helpful for localizing trouble to one of the major functional areas of
the receiver.
4. Once this has been done, the normal trouble shooting tools can be used to isolate defective
component or components of that section.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN TELEVISION SERVICING

The following general safety precautions should be observed during operation of test equipment and
servicing of television receivers:
(i) A contact with ac line can be fatal. Line connected receivers must have insulation so that no chassis
point is available to the user. After servicing all insulators, bushes, knobs etc. must be replaced in their
original position. The technician must use an isolation transformer whenever a line connected receiver
is serviced.
(ii) Voltage in the receiver, such as B+ and EHT can also be dangerous. The service man should stand
or sit on an insulated surface and use only one hand when probing a receiver. The interlock and the
back cover of the receiver must always be replaced properly to ensure that the receiver’s high voltage
points are not accessible to the user.
(iii) Fire hazard is another major problem and must get the attention it deserves. Technicians should
be very careful not to introduce a fire hazard in the process of repairing TV receivers. The parts
replaced must have correct or higher power rating to avoid overheating. This is particularly important
in high power circuits.
(iv) The picture tube is another source of danger by implosion. If the envelope is damaged, the glass
may shatter violently and its pieces fly great distance with force. It can cause serious injury on hitting
any part of the body. Though in modern picture tubes internal protection is provided but it is
necessary to handle it carefully and not to strike it with any hard object.
(v) Many service instruments are housed in metal cases. For proper operation, the ground terminal of
the instrument is always connected to the ground of the receiver being serviced. It should be made
certain that both the instrument box and the receiver chassis are not connected to the hot side of the ac
line or any point above ground potential.
(vi) All connections with test leads or otherwise to the high-voltage points must be made after
disconnecting the receiver from ac mains. 26

40
(vii) High voltage capacitors may store charge large enough to be hazardous. Such capacitors must be
discharged before connecting test leads.
(viii) Only shielded wires and probes should be used. Fingers should never be allowed to slip down to
the meter probe tip when the probe is in contact with a high voltage circuit.
(ix) The receiver should not be connected to a power source which does not have a suitable fuse to
interrupt supply in case of a short circuit in the line cord or at any other point in the receiver.
(x) Another hazard is that the receiver may produce X-radiation from the picture tube screen and high
voltage rectifier. It is of utmost importance that the voltages in these circuits are maintained at the
designed values and are not exceeded.
Following flow chart (1) illustrates General procedure for trouble shooting a monochrome or colour
television receiver.
In this experiment we have localized five faults in monochrome TV system illustrated in flow chart
related with various circuits as listed below in Table 1.

Name of Faults in monochrome TV Related Circuits in monochrome TV

Sr. No
receiver system

1 No sound but picture normal Video pre amplifier and video amplifier

Sound IF circuit to the audio amplifier

2 No sound but picture normal
circuit

Vertical rolling of picture on TV Sync separator circuit to Vertical

3
screen frequency oscillator circuit

Power supply section / horizontal output

4 Set dead
stage
Sound IF section to the audio amplifier
5 No sound but picture normal.
circuit

Flow Chart (1) General procedure for trouble shooting a Monochrome or Colour Television
receiver.

41
Fault 1: White Raster with retrace lines
Stages: From video pre amplifier to video amplifier stage
Flow Chart (2) Fault White Raster with retrace lines

42
Fault 2 : No sound but picture normal
Stages: From sound if section to the audio amplifier section
Flow Chart (3) No sound but picture normal

43
Fault 3 : Vertical rolling of picture on TV screen
Stages: From Sync separator circuit to Vertical frequency oscillator
Flow Chart (4) Vertical rolling of picture on TV screen

44
Fault 4 : Set dead
Stages: Power supply section or horizontal output stage
Flow chart (5) Set Dead

45
Fault 5: No sound but picture normal.
Stages: From sound if section to the audio amplifier section.
Flow Chart (6) No sound but picture normal

46
Conclusion:

Thus in this experiment we have gone through procedure of troubleshooting of monochrome

television receiver localized five faults in monochrome television system.

47
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

Colour Television Receiver Fault Finding

Aim:- To study the trouble shooting of colour TV receiver with normal defects with their
remedy.

Apparatus:- PAL colour TV receiver, CRO, CRO probe, digital Multimeter.

Theory:-

The first step towards finding the cause of failure of a receiver is visual inspection of the components,
tubes, transistors and ICs mounted on various printed circuit boards, modules and chassis of the
receiver. Such an inspection sometimes leads quickly to the defective device or part in the receiver.
For example, burnt or charred resistors can often be spotted by visual observation. Similarly
overheated transformers, oil or wax filled capacitors and coils can be located by a peculiar small
caused by overheating and shorting. In addition a disoldered wire of a coil or component, broken load
of a transistor or other similar faults can be found out by a preliminary visual inspection.

In this experiment we have localized five faults in Colour TV system illustrated in flow chart
related with various circuits as listed below in Table 1.

48
Table 1 Faults in Colour TV system
Sr. No Name of Faults in Colour TV receiver
1 Colour Fading effect
2 Video Amplifier supply open (No color signal
only Luminance signal)
3 No Raster & No picture
4 Only Raster No picture & Sound
5 Luminance information disappears on screen
Fault 1: Colour Fading Effect
Stages: Luminance chrominance processor with horizontal & vertical oscillator,
Chroma section
Flow Chart (1) Colour Fading Effect
Related Circuits in Colour TV system
Luminance chrominance processor
with horizontal & vertical oscillator,
Chroma section, DS 5 switch
Chroma Section to video amplifier,
DS 8 Switch
Luminance Chrominance Processor
with horizontal and Vertical oscillator
stage, Horizontal output stage, Link L
17
Electronic Tuner, VIF & SIF section,
Luminance Chrominance Processor
with horizontal and Vertical oscillator
stage, Link L6
Luminance Chrominance Processor
with horizontal and Vertical oscillator
stage, Horizontal output stage, Link
L10
49
Fault 2 : Video Amplifier supply open (No color signal only Luminance signal)
Stages: Chroma section and video amplifier

Flow Chart (2) No Color signal only Luminance signal

50
Fault 3 : No Raster & No picture

Stages: Luminance Chrominance Processor with horizontal and Vertical oscillator stage, Horizontal
output stage

Flow Chart (3) No Raster & No picture

51
Fault 4 : Only Raster No picture & sound
Stages: Electronic Tuner, VIF & SIF section, Luminance Chrominance Processor with horizontal and
Vertical oscillator stage

Flow chart (4) Only Raster No picture & sound

52
Fault 5: Luminance information disappears on screen

Stages: Luminance Chrominance Processor with horizontal and Vertical oscillator stage

Flow Chart (5) Luminance information disappears

53
Conclusion:

Thus in this experiment we have studied trouble shooting procedure for colour television
receiver and localized five faults in PAL colour television system.

54
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

Study of CRO and its application

Objective :

Study of CRO, and its application for measurement of phase, frequency, and amplitude such that
it can be used for the communication System

Apparatus: CRO, Function generator, Digital Voltmeter, Connecting Wires

Circuit Diagram:

An oscilloscope is a measuring device used commonly for measurement of voltage, current,

frequency, phase difference and time intervals. The heart of the oscilloscope is the cathode ray
tube, which generates the electron beam, accelerates the beam to high velocity, deflects the beam
to create the image, and contains the phosphor screen where the electron beam eventually
55
becomes visible. To accomplish these tasks, various electrical signals and voltages are required.
The power supply block provides the voltages required by the cathode ray tube to generate and
accelerate the electron beam, as well as to supply the required operating voltages for the other
circuits of the oscilloscope. Relatively high voltages are required by the cathode tubes, on the
order of a few thousand volts, for acceleration, as well as a low voltage for the heater of the
electron gun, which emits the electrons. Supply voltages for the other circuits are various values
usually not more than few hundred volts.

The oscilloscope has a time base, which generates the correct voltage to supply the cathode ray
tube to deflect this part at a constant time dependent rate. The signal to be view is fed to you
vertical amplifier, which increases the potential of the input signal to a level that will provide a
usable deflection of the electron beam. To synchronize the that the horizontal deflection starts at
the same point of the input vertical signal each time it sweeps, a synchronizing or triggering
circuit is used. This circuit is the link between the vertical input and the horizontal time base.

Procedure:

Phase Measurement using Lissajous Patterns (X-Y Mode):

To Measure the phase difference of two sine waves their frequencies must be equal.

1. Connect a 1Volt peak-peak, 1KHz sine wave signal from the function generator to the
horizontal input of the CRO.
2. Connect the output of phase shift network to the vertical input as shown in figure.
3. Adjust the vertical and horizontal gains properly for good display.
4. Observe Lissajous Patterns for different combinations of R and C values.

56
Calculate the phase angle as
Sine θ = A/B

A: Distance between the points where the ellipse crosses the y-axis and the origin.
B: Distance between the origin and the y – co-ordinate of the maxima of the ellipse.
Calculate theoretical phase difference as
! = tan-1 (f1/f2)
Where f2 = 1/2"RC f1 = input signal frequency.

LISSAJOUS’ FIGURES

57
Conclusion:

58
 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB

Subject Code: 1621606

Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

Aim:

Observation of dependence of intersymbol Interference (ISI) on band- width of

the channel and the eye pattern due to noise in the channel

Apparatus Required:

1.pseudo random binary sequence (PRBS) generator

2.time domain viewing: snap shot and eye patterns

3.two generator synchronization and

4. alignment with the ‘sliding window correlator.

5.WIDEBAND TRUE RMS METER

6. NOISE GENERATOR

7. BASEBAND CHANNEL FILTERS module

59
Theory:

Digital Messsages

In analog work the standard test message is the sine wave, followed by the twotone signal for
more rigorous tests. The property being optimized is generally signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
Speech is interesting, but does not lend itself easily to mathematical analysis, or measurement.

In digital work a binary sequence, with a known pattern of '1' and '0', is common. It is more
common to measure bit error rates (BER) than SNR, and this is simplified by the fact that known
binary sequences are easy to generate and reproduce.

A common sequence is the pseudo random binary sequence.

Random Binary Sequences

The output from a pseudo random binary sequence generator is a bit stream of binary pulses; ie., a
sequence of 1`s (HI) or 0`s (LO), of a known and reproducible pattern.

The bit rate, or number of bits per second, is determined by the frequency of an external clock,
which is used to drive the generator. For each clock period a single bit is emitted from the
generator; either at the '1' or '0' level, and of a width equal to the clock period. For this reason the
external clock is referred to as a bit clock.

For a long sequence the 1`s and 0`s are distributed in a (pseudo) random manner.

The sequence pattern repeats after a defined number of clock periods. In a typical generator the
length of the sequence may be set to 2n clock periods, where n is an integer. In the TIMS
SEQUENCE GENERATOR the value of n may be switched to one of three values, namely 5, 8,
or 11. There are two switch positions for the case n = 8, giving different independent patterns.
The SYNCH output provides a reference pulse generated once per sequence repetition period.

This is the start-of-sequence pulse. It is invaluable as a trigger source for an oscilloscope.

Observation:

There are two important methods of viewing a sequence in the time domain.

The Snapshot
A short section, about 16 clock periods of a TTL sequence, is illustrated in Figure 1 below.

60
Suppose the output of the generator which produced the TTL sequence, of which this is a part,
was viewed with an oscilloscope, with the horizontal sweep triggered by the display itself.

As stated above, it gives a start-of-sequence pulse at the beginning of the sequence. This can be
used to start (trigger) the oscilloscope sweep. At the end of the sweep the oscilloscope will wait
until the next start-of-sequence is received before being triggered to give the next sweep.

Thus the beginning 'n' bits of the sequence are displayed, where 'n' is determined by the sweep
speed.

For a sequence length of many-times-n bits, there would be a long delay between sweeps. The
persistence of the screen of a general purpose oscilloscope would be too short to show a steady
display, so it may blink. Alternately, the oscilloscope may decide that it has waited too long and
automatically triggers resulting in an unstable display.

The Eye Pattern

A long sequence is useful for examining 'eye patterns'. These are defined and examined in the part
of this experiment entitled Eye patterns.

Applications

One important application of the PRBS is for supplying a known binary sequence. This is used as
a test signal (message) when making bit error rate (BER) measurements.

For this purpose a perfect copy of the transmitted sequence is required at the receiver, for direct
comparison with the received sequence. This perfect copy is obtained from a second, identical,
PRBS generator.

The second generator requires:

1. B bit clock information, so that it runs at the same rate as the first
61
 2. A method of aligning its output sequence with the received sequence. Due to transmission
through a band limited channel, it will be delayed in time with respect to the sequence at
the transmitter.

Bit clock acquisition

In a laboratory environment it is a simple matter to use a 'stolen carrier' for bit clock
synchronization purposes, and this will be done in most TIMS experiments. In commercial
practice this bit clock must be regenerated from the received signal.

EXPERIMENT

Since TIMS is about modelling communication systems it is not surprising that it can model a
communications channel.

Two types of channels are frequently required, namely lowpass and bandpass.

Lowpass (or baseband) channels

A lowpass channel by definition should have a bandwidth extending from DC to some upper
frequency limit. Thus it would have the characteristics of a lowpass filter.

A speech channel is often referred to as a lowpass channel, although it does not necessarily extend
down to DC. More commonly it is called a baseband channel.

Bandpass channels

A bandpass channel by definition should have a bandwidth covering a range of frequencies not
including DC. Thus it would have the characteristics of a bandpass filter.

Typically its bandwidth is often much less than an octave, but this restriction is not mandatory.
Such a channel has been called narrow band.

Strictly an analog voice channel is a bandpass channel, rather than lowpass, as suggested above,
since it does not extend down to DC. So the distinction between baseband and bandpass channels
can be blurred on occasion.

Designers of active circuits often prefer bandpass channels, since there is no need to be concerned
with the minimization of DC offsets.

The above description is an oversimplification of a practical system. It has concentrated all the
bandlimiting in the channel, and introduced no intentional pulse shaping. In practice the
bandlimiting, and pulse shaping, is distributed between filters in the transmitter and the receiver,
and the channel itself. The transmitter and receiver filters are designed, knowing the
characteristics of the channel. The signal reaches the detector having the desired characteristics.

62
Noise

A representative noisy, band limited channel model is shown in block diagram form in Figure 1 of
the following page.

Band limitation is implemented by any appropriate filter.

The noise is added before the filter so that it becomes band limited by the same filter that band
limits the signal. If this is not acceptable then the adder can be moved to the output of the filter, or
perhaps the noise can have its own band limiting filter.

Figure 1: Channel model block diagram

Controllable amounts of random noise, from the noise source, can be inserted into the channel
model, using the calibrated attenuator. This is non signal-dependent noise.

For lowpass channels lowpass filters are used.

For bandpass channels bandpass filters are used.

Signal dependent noise is typically introduced by channel non-linearities, and includes

intermodulation noise between different signals sharing the channel (cross talk). Unless expressly
stated otherwise, in TIMS experiments signal dependent noise is considered negligible. That is,
the systems must be operated under linear conditions.

Diagrammatic representation
In patching diagrams, if it is necessary to save space, the noisy channel will be represented by the block
illustrated in Figure 2 below.

63
This macro module is modelled with five real TIMS modules, namely:

1. An INPUT ADDER module.

2. A NOISE GENERATOR module.

3. A bandlimiting module. For example, it could be:

a. Any single filter module; such as a TUNEABLE LPF (for a baseband channel).

b. A BASEBAND CHANNEL FILTERS module, in which case it contains three filters, as well as
a direct through connection. Any of these four paths may be selected by a front panel
switch. Each path has a gain of unity. This module can be used in a baseband channel.

64
 The filters all have the same slot bandwidth (40 dB at 4 kHz), but differing passband
widths and phase characteristics.

c. A 100 kHz CHANNEL FILTERS module, in which case it contains two filters, as well as a
direct through connection. Any of these three paths may be selected by a front panel
switch. Each path has a gain of unity. This module can be used in a bandpass channel.

4. An OUTPUT ADDER module, not shown in Figure 1, to compensate for any accumulated DC
offsets, or to match the DECISION MAKER module threshold.

5. A source of DC, from the VARIABLE DC module. This is a fixed module, so does not require a slot
in the system frame.

Thus the CHANNEL MODEL is built according to the patching diagram illustrated in Figure 3
below, and (noting item 5 above) requires four slots in a system unit.

Figure 3: details of the macro CHANNEL MODEL module

Noise level

The noise level is adjusted by both the lower gain control 'g' of the INPUT ADDER, and the front
panel calibrated attenuator of the NOISE GENERATOR module. Typically the gain would be set
to zero [g fully anti-clockwise] until noise is required. Then the general noise level is set by g, and
changes of precise magnitude introduced by the calibrated attenuator.

Theory often suggests to us the means of making small improvements to SNR in a particular
system. Although small, they can be of value, especially when combined with other small
improvements implemented elsewhere. An improvement of 6 dB in received SNR can mean a
doubling of the range for reception from a satellite, for example.

65
Signal to noise ratio

This next part of the experiment will introduce you to some of the problems and techniques of
signal-to-noise ratio measurements.

The maximum output amplitude available from the NOISE GENERATOR is about the TIMS
ANALOG REFERENCE LEVEL when measured over a wide bandwidth - that is, wide in the
TIMS environment, or say about 1 MHz. This means that, as soon as the noise is bandlimited, as
it will be in this experiment, the rms value will drop significantly.

You will measure both , (ie, SNR) and , and compare calculations of one from a
measurement of the other.

The uncalibrated gain control of the ADDER is used for the adjustment of noise level to give a
specific SNR. The TIMS NOISE GENERATOR module has a calibrated attenuator which allows
the noise level to be changed in small calibrated steps.

Within the test set up you will use the macro CHANNEL MODEL module already defined. It is
shown embedded in the test setup in Figure 5 below.

As in the filter response measurement, the oscilloscope is not essential, but certainly good
practice, in an analog environment. It is used to monitor waveforms, as a check that overload is
not occurring.

The oscilloscope display will also give you an appreciation of what signals look like with random
noise added.
66
 Set up the arrangement of Figure 5 above. Use the channel model of Figure 3. In this experiment
use a BASEBAND CHANNEL FILTERS module. Before commencing the experiment proper
have a look at the noise alone; first wideband, then filtered.

Switch the BASEBAND CHANNEL FILTERS module to the straight-through connection -

switch position #1. Look at the noise on the oscilloscope.

Switch the BASEBAND CHANNEL FILTERS module to any or all of the lowpass
characteristics. Look at the noise on the oscilloscope. Probably you saw what you expected when
the channel was not bandlimiting the noise - an approximation to wideband white noise. But when
the noise was severely bandlimited there is quite a large change.

For example:

1. The amplitude dropped significantly. Knowing the filter bandwidth you could make an
estimate of the noise bandwidth before bandlimiting?

2.The appearance of the noise in the time domain changed quite significantly..

Observations

We are now going to set up independent levels of signal and noise, as recorded by the
WIDEBAND TRUE RMS METER., and then predict the meter reading when they are present
together. After bandlimiting there will be only a small rms noise voltage available, so this will be
set up first.

Reduce to zero the amplitude of the sinusoidal signal into the channel, using the 'G' gain control
of the INPUT ADDER.

Set the front panel attenuator of the NOISE GENERATOR to maximum output.

Keep the filter in its pass through state and adjust the gain control 'g' of the INPUT ADDER to
maximum. Adjust the 'G' control of the OUTPUT ADDER for about 1 volt rms. Record the
reading. The level of signal into the BASEBAND CHANNEL FILTERS module may exceed the
TIMS ANALOG REFERENCE LEVEL, and be close to overloading it - but we need as much
noise out as possible. If you suspect overloading, then reduce the noise 2 dB with the attenuator,
and check that the expected change is reflected by the rms meter reading. If not, use the INPUT
ADDER to reduce the level a little, and check again.

Switch to one of the filter positions and record the rms voltage level of the noise through the
filter.

Reduce to zero the amplitude of the noise into the channel by removing its patch cord from the
INPUT ADDER, thus not disturbing the ADDER adjustment.

67
 Set the AUDIO OSCILLATOR to any convenient frequency within the passband of the channel.
Adjust the gain 'G' of the INPUT ADDER until the WIDEBAND TRUE RMS METER reads the
same value as it did for the noise level in step T30.

Replace the noise patch cord into the INPUT ADDER. Record what the meter reads.

Calculate and record the signal-to-noise ratio in dB.

Measure the signal-plus-noise, then the noise alone, and calculate the SNR in dB. Compare with
the result of the previous Task.

Increase the signal level, thus changing the SNR. Measure both , and , and predict
each from the measurement of the other. Repeat for two additional SNR by changing the signal
gain.

EYE PATTERNS:
Pulse Transmission

It is well known that, when a signal passes via a bandlimited channel it will suffer waveform
distortion. As an example, refer to Figure 1. As the data rate increases the waveform distortion
increases, until transmission becomes impossible.

Figure 1: Waveforms before and after moderate bandlimiting

The effect of ISI becomes apparent at the receiver when the incoming signal has to be 'read' and
decoded; ie., a detector decides whether the value at a certain time instant is, say, 'HI' or 'LO' (in a binary
decision situation). A decision error may occur as a result of noise. Even though ISI may not itself cause an
error in the absence of noise, it is nevertheless undesirable because it decreases the margin relative to
the decision threshold, ie., a given level of noise, that may be harmless in the absence if ISI, may lead to a
high error rate when ISI is present.

68
EXPERIMENT
Set up the model of Figure 2. The AUDIO OSCILLATOR serves as the bit clock for the SEQUENCE
GENERATOR. A convenient rate to start with is 2 kHz. Select CHANNEL #1. Select a short sequence (both
toggles of the on-board switch SW2 UP)

Synchronize the oscilloscope to the 'start-of-sequence' synchronizing signal from the SEQUENCE
GENERATOR. Set the sweep speed to display between 10 and 20 sequence pulses (say 1 ms/cm).
This is the 'snap shot' mode. Both traces should be displaying the same picture, since CHANNEL
#1 is a 'straight through' connection.

The remaining three channels (#2, #3, and #4) in the BASEBAND CHANNEL FILTERS module
represent channels having the same slot bandwidth 3 (40 dB stopband attenuation at 4 kHz), but
otherwise different transmission characteristics, and, in particular, different 3 dB frequencies.

Change the oscilloscope synchronizing signal from the start-of-sequence SYNC output of the
SEQUENCE GENERATOR to the sequence bit clock. Increase the sequence length (both toggles
of the on-board switch SW2 DOWN). Make sure the oscilloscope is set to pass DC.

Select CHANNEL #2. Use a data rate of about 2 kHz. We should have a display on CH2-A
similar to that of Figure 3 below.

69
Figure 3: A 'good' eye pattern

Increase the data rate until the eye starts to close. Figure 4 shows an eye not nearly as clearly
defined as that of Figure 3.

Take some time to examine the display, and consider what it is what are looking at ! There is one
'eye' per bit period. Those shown in Figure 3 are considered to be 'wide open'. But as the data rate
increases the eye begins to close.

The actual shape of an eye is determined (in a linear system) primarily by the filter (channel)
amplitude and phase characteristics (for a given input waveform).

Conclusion:

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 Government Polytechnic,Muzaffarpur
ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

Aim of experiment:

To generate and Study wide band and narrow band noise

Theory:

A random process X(t) is bandpass or narrowband random process if its power spectral density
SX(f) is nonzero only in a small neighborhood of some high frequency fc Deterministic signals:
defined by its Fourier transform Random processes: defined by its power spectral density.

1. Since X(t) is band pass, it has zero mean: E[(X(t)] = 0.

2. fc needs not be the center of the signal bandwidth, or in the signal bandwidth at all.

Narrowband Noise Representation:

In most communication systems, we are often dealing with band-pass filtering of signals.
Wideband noise will be shaped into bandlimited noise. If the bandwidth of the bandlimited noise
is relatively small compared to the carrier frequency, we refer to this as narrowband noise. We
can derive the power spectral density Gn(f) and the auto-correlation function Rnn(τ) of the
narrowband noise and use them to analyse the performance of linear systems. In practice, we
often deal with mixing (multiplication), which is a non-linear operation, and the system analysis
becomes difficult. In such a case, it is useful to express the narrowband noise as n(t) = x(t) cos
2πfct - y(t) sin 2πfct.

where fc is the carrier frequency within the band occupied by the noise. x(t) and y(t) are known as
the quadrature components of the noise n(t). The Hibert transform of n(t) is n^ (t) = H[n(t)] = x(t)
sin 2πfct + y(t) cos 2πfct.

Generation of quadrature components of n(t).

x(t) and y(t) have the following properties:

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1. E[x(t) y(t)] = 0. x(t) and y(t) are uncorrelated with each other.

2. x(t) and y(t) have the same means and variances as n(t).

3. If n(t) is Gaussian, then x(t) and y(t) are also Gaussian.

4. x(t) and y(t) have identical power spectral densities, related to the power spectral density of n(t)
by Gx(f) = Gy(f) = Gn(f- fc) + Gn(f+ fc) (28.5)

for fc - 0.5B < | f | < fc + 0.5B and B is the bandwidth of n(t).

Inphase and Quadrature Components:

In-Phase & Quadrature Sinusoidal Components

From this we may conclude that every sinusoid can be expressed as the sum of a sine function
phase zero) and a cosine function (phase 2). If the sine part is called the ``in-phase'' component,
the cosine part can be called the ``phase-quadrature'' component. In general, ``phase quadrature''
means ``90 degrees out of phase,'' i.e., a relative phase shift of ± 2. It is also the case that every
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sum of an in-phase and quadrature component can be expressed as a single sinusoid at some
amplitude and phase.

Ideal BPF white noise:

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Wide-Band Analog White-Noise Generator:

Commercially available white-noise generators are rather expensive. The circuit presented here,
however, is an inexpensive version that produces frequencies up to about 300 MHz. Its operation
is based on the noise generated by the Zener breakdown phenomenon in the BJT inversely
polarized base-collector junction. In other words, such shot noise involves the statistical
fluctuations of the current flow present in the bipolar transistor.

The generator shown makes use of a common 2N2907 biased by the constant current source
supplied by a 2N2222 (Fig. 1). To increase the amount of shot noise attainable, the collector of
the 2N2907 is left open and the base-emitter is reverse-biased. That is, the BJT is connected as a
Zener diode to exploit the reverse breakdown phenomenon.

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With this configuration, the reverse breakdown voltage exhibited by the emitter-base junction can
be easily observed using an ordinary spectrum analyzer. The attainable bandwidth is about 300
MHz, and the power output is about -70 dBm.

To increase the noise power, one or more amplifiers, such as the monolithic MAV-11 from Mini-
Circuits, can be added. The 50-MHz low-pass filter (the PLP-50 from Mini-Circuits) inserted
between the generator and the first MAV-11 is necessary to maintain the amplifier output power
compression at an acceptable value. But, of course, with this configuration, the bandwidth is
restricted to the 0-50 MHz range, i.e., the power spectrum vanishes outside the cutoff frequency
of the filter.

In Figure 1, R4 is needed to limit the current delivered to the amplifier. L1 provides high
impedance to isolate the dc source from the RF signal. C3 removes any dc content from the

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output of the generator. The 20k trimmer connected between the base and ground in Figure 1
permits a wide range of the attainable output noise up to -60 dBm (Fig. 2).

At the Istituto di Radio astronomia del C.N.R., this circuit is currently being used to simulate
cosmic white noise, in which the radio astronomical signal (a coherent white noise) to be
extracted is buried.

Applications

Bit error rate and SINAD testing

Modem and receiver characterization

Channel impairment tests

Conclusion:

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 Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur

ADVANCE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LAB.

Subject Code: 1621606

Amplitude modulated Signal using a square-law modulator

Objective:
To generate an amplitude modulated Signal using a square-law modulator and study the
spectra of AM wave

Apparatus: a single diode, an inductor, a capacitor and two auto transformers ,CRO.

Theory:
The design was based on the square law approach which makes use of a single diode, an inductor,
a capacitor and two auto transformers to couple the modulating and carrier signals to the circuit,
as depicted in the circuit diagram in Figure 1 below.

When a small alternating voltage vd is applied across a forward – biased diode, the ac diode
current id will be a function of this voltage [5]. Expanding this function by the stirling’s or
macLaurin’s theorem and retaining up to the second order terms in the series expansion, we have:
(1)
where

A1 and A2 are the series expansion coefficients and id and vd are the instantaneous values of the
diode current and the voltage across it.
Let the carrier voltage be given by

(2)
and the modulating voltage by

(3)
where

vc and vm correspond to the instantaneous values

Vc and Vm are the corresponding peak values, and

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ωc and ωm are the respective angular frequencies.
The vd will be given by
(4)
since the two voltage sources are connected in series. Substituting equation (4) in (1) gives:

or

(5)

but

(6)
therefore substituting equation (6) in (5) gives:

(7)

The various frequency components in this equation are:

a. = carrier frequency component of the carrier wave

b. = modulating frequency component of the modulating wave

c.

There is a direct current (dc) component and a carrier frequency second harmonic component.

d.

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There is a dc component and a modulating frequency second – harmonic.

e.

The first part is the upper sideband term of frequency given by (ωc + ωm) and the second is the
lower sideband term of frequency given by (ωc – ωm).
Thus equation (5) gives rise to six terms of different frequencies in addition to the dc component.
The load in this case is a tuned circuit which is adjusted to the carrier frequency ω c. Hence it will
respond to a narrow frequency band centered about ωc. If ωm<< ωc, the tuned circuit load will
mainly respond to the frequency components (ωc– ωm), ωc and (ωc + ωm). The remaining terms in
the circuit expression will not produce enough output voltage across the load.
Hence the desired diode current (mainly effective to produce the output voltage across the load) is

(8)

Where the modulation index .

The modulated output voltage is then given by

(9)
where Rt is the impedance of the tuned circuit at resonance.
The modulation index of the signal can be calculated using equation (10) below:

(10)

Circuit Design Parameters:

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Calculating the Capacitance and Inductance

To calculate the values of the component used, a carrier frequency of 200 KHz and modulating
frequency of 1KHz were considered such that the tuned circuit load will mainly respond to the
frequency component

Considering the lower sideband, the resonant frequency of 199 KHz was considered.

Assuming L = 10 mH, C can be calculated thus

Using ω2 = 1 / LC

Figure 1. Circuit diagram of a Square – Law modulator using audio-transformer coupling

Signal Diode

An IN4148 signal diode was used. Signal diodes are so called because they are commonly found
in circuits like those in radios or televisions, to pass very low-power but high-frequency currents.
They pass current up to 100 milliamps, and are often used to process information found in
electrical signals. By allowing the current to flow only in one direction, they block half of the

80
oscillations of the radio wave, converting the alternating-current wave to direct-current and
allowing its varying strength to be read as an audio signal and converted to sound. This diode is a
silicon signal type which has a lower resistance and vulnerability to heat.
Audio Transformer

The audio transformers used are those specifically designed for use in audio circuits. They can be
used to block radio frequency interference or the DC component of an audio signal, to split or
combine audio signals, or to provide impedance matching between high and low impedance
circuits, such as between a high impedance tube (valve) amplifier output and a low impedance
loudspeaker, or between a high impedance instrument output and the low impedance input of a
mixing console.
Such transformers were originally designed to connect different telephone systems to one another
while keeping their respective power supplies isolated, and are still commonly used to
interconnect professional audio systems or system components.
Being magnetic devices, audio transformers are susceptible to external magnetic fields such as
those generated by AC current-carrying conductors. "Hum" is a term commonly used to describe
unwanted signals originating from the "mains" power supply (typically 50 or 60 Hz). Audio
transformers used for low-level signals, such as those from microphones, often include magnetic
shielding to protect against extraneous magnetically-coupled signals.
Results & Discussion:
It is pertinent to establish and ascertain some highly efficient testing techniques in order to
minimize cost. Testing involved trouble shooting the system to detect, isolate and correct internal
or external fault such as malfunction in the internal circuitry, input or output shorted to ground or
any open circuit.
The following results and waveforms were obtained from the oscilloscope.

Figure 2. Modulating Signal displayed at CRO

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The Time/Div was set to 0.5 ms and the period span through 2 division while the volt/Div was set
to 1 V.

The period is calculated thus:

The frequency is calculated as

Figure 3. Carrier Frequency displayed on CRO

The Time/Div was set to 20 µs and the signal span through 0.25 division while the volt/Div was
set to 0.5 V.

The period is calculated as

The frequency is calculated as

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 Figure 4. Modulated Signal at 50% modulation

The frequency and amplitude of the carrier were held constant while the frequency of the
modulating signal was varied. The result obtained is depicted in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Varying the modulating signal frequency while carrier frequency remains constant

The frequency and amplitude of the modulating signal were held constant while the carrier
frequency was varied. The results obtained were shown in Table 2 below

Table 2. Varying the carrier frequency while the modulating frequency remains constant

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The amplitude of both the modulating signal and the carrier signal was varied while the maximum
and minimum values of the modulated carrier wave were recorded as in Table 3.

Table 3. Maximum and Minimum value of the modulated carrier wave at varied amplitude

Using equation (10), the modulating index at various points was calculated from Table 3 above
and different percentages of modulating index were obtained. The various graphs of the
experimental results were depicted as follows:

Figure 5. The graph of Mod. signal (%) against peat to peak, Max. And Min. signal

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 Figure 6. The graph of Output against Carrier signal at constant Mod. signal

Conclusion:

In this experiment the performance of modulating scheme has been investigated using square law
approach. From the experimental results obtained in the Laboratory, it was observed that the
graphs of output against modulating signal and carrier signal keeping one of the parameters
constant showed that the output signal at 0.5 ms/div increased as the varying parameter increased
and vice-versa.

The experimental results also showed the different modulating index obtained at various values of
minimum and maximum values of the carrier signal with the modulating index ranging from
47.4% to 100%. This approach has proved experimentally to be the best way of analysing
Amplitude modulating scheme.

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