ADVANCES IN TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGY* by Richard P. Brennan Cars, planes, - and trains, that's how we get around these days. (Oh, we take a boat now and then but that's mostly for fun.} What about the technologies involved in these means of transportation? fo we really know what makes them go? , Take cars, for instance. How many drivers understand the basic engineering principles governing engine operation or the means for transmitting power to the wheels? How important is aerodynamic drag to overall performance of our cars? Should ve be considering ‘alternative fuels or even alternative engines? What is the realistic potential for electric or hybrid cars? How is future technology likely to transform our cars? Next, take planes. When the British-French Concorde made its first flight sore than a decade ago, this sharp-nosed supersonic jet that could fly across the Atlantic in under four hours was the last word in high-tech passenger planes. That. is about to change. On the drawing boaré are the high-speed: civil transport aircraft with a capability of flying at speeds close to Mach 3, or three times the speed of sound (at sea level, the speed of sound is 74@ miles per hour or 1184 km. per hour). The Mach 5.5 “Orient Express" is designed to fly 300 passengers across the Pacific Ocean in two hours. Finally, the hypersonic NASP’ (for National Rero-Space Plane) is designed to fly into orbit. Should we plan dur future vacations around one of these concepts? A review of the technologies wiil help us decide. The term h-tech train has, for many of us, been an oxymoron. Train technology, at least in (ithe U.S.A.1, vas stopped in its tracks many decades ago, and orogress is not the word often used in, connection vith passenger train travel. There are those, however, who think this state of affairs is ahout to change. Those favoring a renewal in train transport anticipate a passenger-rail renaissance in the United states. They point to the growing congestion on the nation's roads and at its aizports, and to the pollution caused by petroleumi-burning engines. Can the success the Japanese, French, and Germans have with high~ speed trains be duplicated in this country? Shovld we give trains another chance? *REPRINTED FROM: Richard P. Brennan, Levitating Trains and Kamikaze “Genes: Technological Literacw’for the 1998s, (Harper Perennial: New York, 1991), Chapter 8, pp. 199-228.ADVANCED AUTOMOBILE TECIINOLOGY A) friend of mine once announced that he spoke three languages: American, Basebali, and. Cars. Caz buffs wnderstand this © completely. They devour the latest car magazines, attend the annual car shovs,-and in general can't get enough of the subject. The’ rest of ns have a tendency to fall behind, and ve have to play a little catch-up to understand what's happening to our favorite form of transportation. Fundamentals Fundamental scientific laws govern the ability of an automobile engine ‘to convert the energy in the fuel to a form that is “able to propel the caz.cown the road, These are referred to as the First ana Second Laws of. Thermodynamics. Thermodynamics is thet branch of physics that deals with the transformation of heat into work and other forms of energy. The First Law simply states that Menergy is conserved"; that is, it's undestructipie--there is always the same total amount of energy in the universe. Energy is neither created nor destreyed, it just changes form, such ase from chemica} eneray in fuel to heat er mechanical energy. The Senond Law is bit more complex. The Second haw states that "the entropy of the universe tends to a waximun.” Entropy is a measure of the total disorder, randomness, or chaos in 3 systen. The effect of increased entropy, then, is that things order. With progress from a state of relative order to one of di this progressive disoxder there is increasing complexity, Everytime we convert energy from one form to another we. lose on the deal. Some of the energy is wasted. It is not lest--that would «be contrary to the First Law; but it is converted to heat that is dissipated in the envirounent. The portion of the energy that is unavoidahiy dissipated 2s nonuset2l heat is reflected .in the measnrement of entropy. In our automobiles, this heat rejection oc mostly through the cooling system’s radiator and the exhaust pipe. In fact about 72 to 8G pexcent of the energy in gasoline flows out of the aittonobile in the form of rejected heat. much of this ls acceunted for by the Second Law. How does the Second Law affect our automobile engines? There are two types ‘of engines in common use today, the otto cycle, and the diesel. The "four-stroke" engine powering most of our cars today was invented by Nicholas Ottoj hence the name. discuss the differences hetween these engines further on, but the Second Law affects them all The specific effect of the lay on the of an engine varies with the compression ratio and the ratio of air to fuel. The compression ‘ratio is the ratio of the combustion chamber volnme with the piston at the bottom of the chamber versus the piston at the top. A typical gasoline engine tofay has a compression ratio of° 8:1 or 9:1 and an air-te-fuel ratio of15:1, That means 15 pounds of air enters the engine for every pound of fuel. A typical diesel engine hes a compression ratio of about 20:1 and an air-to-fuel ratio typically much leaner, about 18:1 (more air and less fuei) than gasoline engines. Today's gasoline limits us to compression ratios around 18:1, and gasoline engines are difficult to keep running . with air-to-fuel ratios more than about 20:1, The theoretical (Second Lav), maximum efficiency--that is, the efficiency with yhich the chemical energy inherent. in the fuel iS transformed to the mechanica) energy needed to propel the car;-is 4¢ to 45 percent, and that .is only achievable if all other losses (such as from friction) are eliminated. A more reasonable potential efficiency for gasoline engines is.35 percent, which is substantially better than today's engines, vhich achieve about 25 percent efficiency in typical driving. Today's automobiles have reciprocating internal combustion engines. That is, they have pistons that go up and down and combustion occurs intermittently. A combustible mixture -enters the cylinder chamber, is ignited by the spark plug, burns to produce energy that ‘drives the piston, and then leaves the Chamber as exhaust before the process is repeated. The Otto cycle is by:far the most common engine in use today. This engine has ‘four distinat strokes: intake, compression, power, and exhaust. Each stzbke represents a sweep of the piston from“top to bottom or vice-versa, and each stroke thus represents one-fourth of the cycle. The intake downstroke sucks in a new charge of aiz and fuel. Then the upstroke compresses the charge. Near the top,.the spark plug ig) the mixture, and, because it expands as it burns, the is forced down, profucing power. The exhaust stroke the cylinder of tHe spent, gases. (Figure 1 illustrates Otte cycle engine operation.) “ Two-stroke engi offer -some advantages, and maior auto makers have been “yorking to develop the technology. In the efficient two-stroke @esign, the piston moves up.ané down only once between firings. ' Today's two-stroke engines are smaller and run more smoothly than four-stroke engines of comparable power Small two-stroke engines have. been used for years ‘to power machines ‘from chain saws to outboard motors. Recent breakthroughs in fuel injection have created two-stroke models that are clean endugh for use,in cars. Two-stroke engines use less fuel, and their light weight helps to make érant-wheel-drive cars bettér balanced and easier to steer An internal combustion engine is essentially an air pump, an@é significant improvements in efficiency . result fron Streamlining the, flow of fuel and air into and out of ‘the cylinders. Turbocharging and multiple-valve techndlogies are two approaches to making engines breathe easier.