University of Nigeria

Research Publications

NKWOEMEZIE, John Nwafor C

Author

PG/MA/97/24564

Religious Interaction in Igboland : A Case Study of

Title

Christianity and Traditional Culture in Orumba

(1896-1976)
Faculty

Social Sciences
Department

Religion
Date

December 2003

Digitally signed by Ojionuka Arinze

Signature

Ojionuka DN: CN = Ojionuka Arinze, C = US, O =

University of Nigerian, OU = University
Library

Arinze Reason: I have reviewed this document

Location: Enugu State
Date: 2010.05.24 12:32:23 -07'00'
 RELIGIOUS INTEPACTIOM IN BGROLAND:

A CASE STUDY O f CHRISTIANITY.AND TRADITIOYAL

-
CULTURE IN ORUMBM (1896 1976)

'NKWQEMEZIE, JOHN NWAFOR CHUKWUMAOBI

[REVD. C A W N )

-ATHESIS PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION,

FACULTY OF THE SOClAk SCIENCE,

UNIVERSITY QF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.

SUPERKSOR: DR. S.9.QNYEfDU

DECEMBER, 2003.
 ApBROVAL PAGE

This '4-oject Report has been approved for the Department of Religion,

University of Nigeria, Nsakka

.&a .f.
.&a. ..t.r - =
.a:
Hnhrnah Examiner

...................................... .............
Yxternal Examiner Mead o

D& of the Faculty

 iii

DEDICATION
Thk work is dedicated 10 Ihe glory and honour of God Almighty,
. ttw Alpha an6 the Omega. You am tho source of my being; the Klna
of Kings and Lord of Lords, Irnrnorte\. hvidMe, God only wise, mop
blessed, most glorious, the Anclmt of Days. Almighty, victorious, thy
gr& name we praise.
I ~ C E L U I A H! AMEN
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To bring this work successfully to an end is never an adventure
through the jungle devoid of thorns. God is the architect of my success
so I acknowledge Him first.
I wish to acknowledge the invaluable assistance and
encouragement of my supervisor, Dr. S. 0. Onyeidu. His intellectual
brilliance, constructive criticisms and constant support have always
I
spurred me on. Despite his numerous engagements, he could make i)
possible for me to produce this work. I am really grateful sir.
I also wish to express my profound gratitude to all the members
of academic staff of'the Department of Religion, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka who have helped to thrill me academically. I cannot mentiorr
your names here but the following will never go unmentioned. They
are Revd. Fr. Dr. A. N. 0. Ekwunife, (Acting Head), Revd. Prof. E. M.
Onwu, Revd. Canon Dr. S. N. Nwigwe, Revd. Dr. .Agha. U. Agha, Dr..
C. 0. T. Ugwu, Dr. J Obeta, Dr. M. I. Okwueze and Rev. Fr. Dr. H. C.
Achinike. May God reward you accordingly.
I am no less grateful to my colleagues in the Holy Order with
whom I am pursuing academic excellence in this great citadel of
learning. Amongst who are Revd Canon B. G. Ezeabii and R w d
Ekwuluno (my course mates). Others are Revds. G. 0. Madubuike, I,.
0 . Ukpeke, E. I. Eriusionwu, E. C. Anozie, C. U. Ofonakara, Canons h.
N. C. Orah, T. N. Chigbo, Revds B. 0. Udezo Rex Kanu, Vens. S. 0.
C. Onuigbo and B. C. Okeke. They are sources of encouragemen! to
me.
Special thanks should go to the entire members of my family,
immediate and extended for their wonderful support; my mother,
Elizabeth, who has continually upheld me through ceaseless prayers,
wife,'~hinwe, brother, Josiah, sisters. Virginia and Agnes, my children,
TukwasiChukwuobi E. C., Chukwumaobi (Jnr) 6. 0 and
Chukwubuikem J. O., Chinedu my niece. Your sincere wishes and
prayers for my success in life have never and will never be in vain.
What of Sir Chuma and Lady Joy Orah's family? You are a source of
blessing to many people, myself in particular. God will surely reward
you in abundance. Ordinand Franklin Maduka Obi of St Paul's
University, College, Awka deserves recognition and I hereby do that. I
also thank Miss Anulika Oranekwulu whose efforts made this work to,
I!
pass through the computer and to see the light of the day. I say Bravo!
Those who granted me interview and those who helped me in getting
facts and figures especially Revd. John Onuorah and Mrs Rose
Anyaoku (Nee Ezueh) I urge you to accept my thanks too.
1 most humbly and with sincerity of heart wish to express rrly
immense gratitude to His Lordship, Rt. Revd Ken S. E. Okeke, Bishop
'On The Niger and wife Dr. (Mrs) Ngozi Okeke (Nne Obioma) for
supporting.me in one way or the other in furthering my education; may
God bless your ministry abundantly. Then comes my source of
inspiration, mentor and motivator, His Grace, Most Revd. Dr. J. A.
Onyemelukwe, (Rtd.) Dean Church of Nigeria (Anglican Communion),
Archbishop Province I1 and Bishop On The Niger and wife Mrs. 6.0.
Onyemelukwe, Mama Province II, Nned~orammaa wonderful, beloved
and benign couple God used mightily to make name for Himself bct:h
within and outside Diocese On The Niger. I lack words to express rrly
appreciation for your support and encouragement to me. My prayer is
that God will surely meet you at your own points of need. Well done
Doyen, what you have done in my life is indelible and I am really
grateful.
All the contributions and help by different people as here-in-
above mentioned (and the unmentioned ones as a result of time and
1
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...

CERTIFICATION .
DEDICATION ...

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...
ABSTRACT ...

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study ...
Statement of Problem
Aim of Study ...
Significance of the Study ..
Scope of the Study
Methodology
'1.f ' ~ssumptionsof the Study ...
1.8 Limitations of the Study .,

Definition of Some Terms ...

End Notes

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
End Notes ... ...
CHAPTER THREE
ADVENT OF CHRISTIANITY IN ORUMBA AREA'
3.1 Advent of Church Missionary Society
(C. M. S Anglican) .. . ... ... ... ...
3.2 Advent of Roman Catholic Church (R. C. C)
3.3 Advent of Assemblies of God Church (A. G. C.) ...
3.4 ~enominational'Strategies of Evangelisation. ...

3.4.1 Alliance with the Local Rulers and Chiefs

3.4.2 Gifts ...
3.4:3 Hospital or Health Care Centres ...
3.4.4 Building of SchoolsIEducational Institutions
3.4.5 House to House Evangelism
End Notes

CHAPTER FOUR:
CHANGES BROUGHT BY CHRISTIANITY
4.1 Cultural Change ... ... ... ,..
4.2 Economic Change .. .
4.3 Educational Change
4.4 Political Change .
4.5 Social Change
4.6 Religious Change ... ... ... ...
4.7 Problems Encountered by the Missionaries
4.7.1 LanguagelCommunication Problem
4.7.1 Cultural Problem . .. ...
4.7.2 Political Problem ... ,..

4.7.3 Transportation Problem ..

4.7.4 Traditional Problem ...
4.7.5 Financial Problem ...
space) would not have been possible if God had not motivated them.
And so I continually praise and thank Him for the success of this work and
all other successes in life, for dreams come true and things hoped for, let all
who come across this work join me saying: TO GOD BE THE GLORY,
GREAT THINGS HE HAS DONE. AMEN.

Nkwoemezie, John. N. C. (Revd Canon).

Department of Religion
University of Nigeria, Nsukka
December, 2003.
 C

CERTIFICATION PAGE
-9.-
NKWOEVEZIE, JOHN. NWAFOR CHUKWUMAOBI (REVD. CANON) a

post-graduate student of De~ar!mentof Religian, with registration number $ -

PGlMN97124564 '7as satisfactor!ly completed ihe requirements for the

course a ~ research
d workfor the award of the Degree of Master of Arts in

Religion.

The work embodied in this thesis Is original and has not been

l any other Degree or Diploma of this or any other

svbmitted ir, par! or f l ~ lfor
 4.7.6 Local Factors
End Notes ... ... ..

CHAPI'ER FIVE
AREAS OF CONFLICT RKTWEEN CIIRISTIANITY
AND TRADITIONAL CULTURE ... ... ...
Rites of Passage ..
5.1.I Birth Rites ..

5.1.2 Puberty Rites .. .

5.1.3 Ozo Title Taking Rites ...

5.1.4 Death, Burial and Funeral Rites

5.1.5 Widowhood Rites . ..
Osu Caste System . . .
Masquerade Society
Taboos
Polygamy
Divination . ..
Reincarnation . .. .
Charms and Medicines .. . ..
Twins Killing and Human Sacrifice
System and object of Worship ..
Secret Societies . .. ...
5.12 The Result of the Conflict ...

End Notes ...

CHAPI'ER Slx
INDIGENISATION OF CllRlSTlANlTY AND
CONCLUSION ... ...
.* me.

6.1 Areas of Indigenisation . .. , .

6.1.1 Language and Personnel .
 ' 6.1.2 Liturgy and Worship ...
6.1.2 Marriage ... .. .
6.1.3 BaptismlNaming Ceremony
6.1.4 Death and Burial ... ...

6.2 \. CONCLUSION .. . ...

Suggested Areas for Further Research ...
End Notes ... ... ...
Bibliography . . .
Oral Interview
woraip but in their African way devoid of idolatry and or syncretism.
Christianity is a veritable agent of change. It has not come to eliminalu
the traditional culture of the people but to prune and influence it
positively.
The researcher does not in any way claim perfection as far izls
writing on this topic is concerned. Neither does he claim exhaustive
'treatment of the topic. Only an attempt has been made to preset-11
some salient pointslf&s as much as possible. It is hoped that this
work will serve as a "launching pad' for a systematic and deeper
I
research on the subject-matter
 To cover all these, this work is divided into six chapters
Chapter one which is the introduction deals with the background of the
study statement of problem, aim of study, significance of the study, the
scope, methodology, assumptions of the study, limitations of the study
and definition of some terms.
Chapter two is a critical review of some available literature
books, which provide some interactions between Christianity and
Traditional Culture of Igbo.onearliest arrival of Christianity. I
!I
Chapter three deals with the advent of Christianity with
particular reference to three denominations namely: the Church
Missionary Society (the Anglican Evangelical wing), the Roman
Catholics and the Assemblies of God Church. This chapter also look.-s
at their denominational strategies for successful evangelisation of the?
people.
Chapter four delves into the changes that occurred as a result
of the introduction of Christianity to this area and also the problems
encountered by these missionaries in the course of their missionary
activities.
Chapter five discusses some areas ,of conflict between
Christianity and lgbo Traditional culture. Such areas include rites of
passage, birth rites, puberty rites, Ozo title taking rites, death, burial
and funeral rites, widowhood rites, Osu caste system, masquerade,
taboos, polygamy, divination, reincarnation, charms and medicine, twin
killing and human sacrifice, system and object of worship, secr'tz!t
societies and the result of the conflict.
Chapter six, which is the last chapter, talks about indigenisation
of Christianity and conclusions of the work. For Christianity to be well
rooted in the life of the African, it must be 'Africanised'. The Africans
must be allowed to worship the same Almighty God the Europearif;
I
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
"The lgbo inhabit an area of South Eastern Nigeria between
1
Latitude 5 to 7 degrees North and Longitude 6 to 8 degrees East".
The bulk of the area falls within the equatorial rain forest region. The
lgbo cultural area exhibits a variety of ecological features. The region
.has a tropical climate. Ekwunife goes on to say that, "the average
. ,*' . " , .
annual temperature is about 80' F, with an annual range of between 5'
and 10011 2 . There are two marked seasons of the year, the dry
season and rainy season.
Politically and socially, the traditional lgbo society is rmv
coming of age to have a centralised form of government with formalion
of "OHANAEZE NDi iGBO".
In this project, our concentration is on Orumba Area ef
Igboland. - When one talks of Orumba one talks Of a people in
Anambra State whose land lies about 50 kilometres South East (:if
Awka, (the capital of Anambra state) and spreads on both sides of t k r
Trunk 'A' road leading from Nnewi to Okigwe.
Orumba is part of the lgbo geographical area. According tl:)

Ekwunife,
Modern scholar-s call a geographical area a
culture area. By culture area is meant a
geographical area occupied by people whose
culture exhibits a significant degree of similarity with
each other as well as significant degree of
dissimilarity with the culture of others' .

Orumba situates at the most North-West part of Igboland; Besides tt-~c?

area is bounded on the East by Awlaw in Oji River local Government
Area of Enugu State, on the West by Umuchu in Aguata Localr
Government Area of Anambra State, on the North by Agulu in Anioch.3
 ABSTRACT
Curiosity concerning the past has long characterised marl.
Without the knowledge of the past, the present cannot be understootl
and the future not properly planned for. The history of Christianity is
not just the history of what the missionaries did. The response of ttw
people they met is a very crucial part of the history.
I
The attempt to write on the topic "Religious Interaction Ir)
Igboland: A Case Study of Christianity and Traditional Culture i r i
Orumba (1896 - 1976)"was necessitated by the interest the writer has
in Christianity and its influence on the culture of the Igbos. 'l'he
researcher is a man of "two cultures" because he is a born and bred
lgbo man and also a minister of the Christian religion. He needs to
balance his knowledge on the lgbo traditional culture and Christiariity
and the interaction that took place on arrival of the latter. Tt.:is
knowledge will be beneficial not only to the researcher but to any otl-ler
person who comes across this work. As far as history of Christianity is
concerned, lgboland is still a virgin soil that calls for research arid
standard work.
This work centres on the interaction between Christianity, which
could be regarded as an alien, and the Traditional Culture of the Igt~o
people with particular reference to Orumba people of Anambra State-
The coming of Christianity to lgboland influenced the socio-economic:,;
the political, religious and every other aspect of the people's life. As a
result of the interaction, ltie lgbos witnessed the penetration and the
revolutionary forces of Western education, Western commerce mocferr.i,
communication media., western system of government, western
system of worshipping God and the rest of them. Nurnerou:~
.'
innovative changes took place.
 Local Government Area also of Anambra and on the South by
IbintalArondizuogu in ldeato Local Government of Imo State. 4
Culturally, the area describes a people who share similar.
pattern of life and dialect of the lgbo people. There are some basic
traits for identifying them as one. These include the linguistic, the
social, the political, the economic, the ritual and cultural traits. The
totality of these traits is the same.
Orumba area is made up of more than thirty autonorno~.~s
communities. Each community has its traditional ruler called Igv~e
Among the towns sampled in the project are Umunze, Ajalli, Ogbunlm,
. Owerre-Ezukala, Isulo, Ezira, Nawfija, Ndikelionwu, Oko, Nanlw,
Ufuma, Ama-Okpara, Ndiowu, Agbudu, Awgbu, Ogboji, Akpu, Ihite,
Nkerehi, Onneh, Umuomaku. Though all the towns in Orumba arei.1
have some basic traits for identifying them as one but each still retairx
her identity, which makes it different from others, so very minute.
The area lies on a level plain land. It is within the equator.ial
region hence the vegetation consists of luxuriant evergreen type. T h i !
soil is very fertile and is drained by a number of brooks and stream,
the principal
-. of which is Unyoo. The result of this is that the majority of
the population practise farming as their major occupation. These
farmers are able to produce enough subsistence crops like yarns,
cassava, coco-yams, maize, rice, beans, melon, okro and the rest uf
them.
The origins of the people of Orumba are still clothed in
mythology and oral tradition. This is not surprising as lsichei observed
when she asserts that "the histories of many lgbo towns begin with
migrations of founding fathers." According to Oral Tradition and little
information put down by the colonial masters in the Intelligence reports
of 1929 and 1934, the towns of Orurnba have little to offer regardrng;
I'
their historical origins. Though this weakness is not peculiai 11:)
Orumba people alone. It is common to almost if not all the
communities in lgboland who claim to have descended from a mythical
ancestor but unable to say exactly where from. Some have two or
more sources of information of their origin and this has posed a big
problem on the authenticity of their origin. For example Umunze has
two oral traditions of her origin. One tradition posits that the ancestral
father of Umunze, Nze Izo Ezema came from Ndi Uduma Ohafia. He
was a great warrior and hunter. Umunze was therefore derived froro
his name. Umunze literally means "Children of Nze." Another
tradition has it that the founding ancestor of Umunze came frorn Nri.
According to Ilogu, Nri is the acknowledged original home of msrny
lgbo villages and clans, the source of many religious rites among thc
lbos of Northern area or the Onitsha Ibo."
However, lfemesia explains the coming together of every clan
thus:
Long before the colonial era, all lgbo groups
occup~edtheir contiguous ancestral abode.. . The
majority of these groups retained traditions of early
migration from a common track of country... The
component units of the clan would seem to have
been held to ether by ties of geography, local
association. . . B
The towns are kept together by both inter-group and blood
relationship. There are many evidences of oneness. and corporate
existence of Orumba people, which can be seen in their &very day li,flr!
activities ranging from social, religious, economic and political spheres
of life. They are largely of the same stock, speaking a cornmc)n
language and have the same name for it. They enjoy a commori
sense of identity through short and long distance communicatic~ri
contact and co-operation. Ageless kinship and cultural relations
existing among numerous villages, village groups, clans and other
agglojnerations are celebrated in common traditions and legends in
myths and songs, in maxims and adages. Ali these provide f u r l t w
universality of interest and of outlook on the life of the people uf
Orumba Area of Anambra State.

. '.
1..1 BACKGROUND O F T H E STUDY
We do not speak of accomplishing great things
for we must expect difficulties but the work is the
Lord's who has graciously promised; 'My word shall
not return to me void'; therefore we believe that in
r
the Ibo countr also as in other parts, the Lord has
much people.

The history of the christianisation of lgbolarld began in 104 1

,
when Simon Jones, an lgbo who had been sold into slavery and
rescued and resettled in Sierra Leone spent three weeks at Aboh at-~cl
preached to the children who flocked around him. The first permancwl,
I ;
mission in lgboland was established at Onitsha in 1857. This was
under the leadership of the Reverend John Christopher Taylor and
who was born in Sierra Leone of lgbo parentage. For almost thirty
years, all the missionaries on the Niger and in the Delta - the two
frontiers of lgboland most exposed to mission influence were Africans
from Sierra Leone, often though not always of lgbo descent. As time
went by, the local converts joined in the work of evangelisation.
Christianity spread to many towns from Onitsha where the first early
missionaries settled. At the fullness of time, Orumba people became
among the beneficiaries.
Christianity is no longer a new phenomenon in Orumba in
particular and lgbo land in general. The evangelisation of the Eastern
states of Nigeria was not an isolated event but very much linked with
the eighteenth (18th) century enlightenment and ideological change
 competitors who are both expanding with undue hast,
merely in order to stake out chains in every village
even though they have neither the European nor
Native staff available to adequately instruct or guide
their great flocks of normal adherents! l 5

The process of evangelisation and christianisation in Africa

which brought the two different religions/cultures into contact and
conflict experienced reciprocal shocks. Agha in his book, "Christianitly
and Culture: A Case Study of Unwara" agrees that "conflict is bound to
occur when the old and the new meet because each will claim
superiority over the other." l6 ow ever, after all said and done, there
was good atmosphere for evangelisation and the process of
evangelising and christianizing the lgbo land took off in earnest.,
Orumba area inclusive. Christianity in its various institutional arid
social forms and manifestations is a human and moral, spiritual and
cultural, national and international force to be reckoned with. As i3

..
religion,
. its claims are both human and divine. Its incarnate nattrti.
and foundations give it an inescapable and essential hurnat-I
dimension.
The people of Orumba gradually embraced Christianity. This
religion has demonstrated in its human character that it is tho
custodian and promoter of human values; though one may not rightly
assert that Christianity has always played this role flawlessly. Ii

Indeed prior to the advent of Christianity to Igboland, the lgbo

people were very religious, and this view was aired by Leonard when
he says,
'

They are in the strict and natural sense of the

word, a truly and deeply religious people of who it
can be said, ... that they eat religiously, drink
religiously, bath religiously and dress religiously. In
a few words, the religion of these natives, as I have
 that swept through Europe and America. 'O The conversion of the
. Orumba people, which entered the annals of history at the verge of the
nineteenth century, was the great work of missionary activities in
Orumba area.
Initially, the early missionaries were given a cold reception on
arrival because most of the people they came to evangelise saw the
introduction of this new religion as the importation of the white man's
culture which could not easily mix well with their own culture.
For centuries before the coming of Christianity into Igboland,
the lgbo people and Orumba in particular were governed generally by
their time honoured traditions and customs in the name of which some
atrocities were committed. There was internecine warfare between
nei'ghbouring towns, villages or even families within a town.
Most of the fighting was due to boarder disputes with each
village or town fighting to keep, establish or extend its own area cf
authority. In some cases the warlike communities of Abam, Abririba or
Ohafia at the extreme northeast of lgboland were hired. l 1
There was slave trade also. Slavery in itself encouraged and
sustained a number of inhuman practices such as sacrifice, the
I
burying of prominent men together with human skulls and blood feuds
Other related evils rampant in the society then included murder, head
hunting by age grades, the killing of twins, rejection of children who at
birth arrived in abnormal ways and those who cut first the upper jaw
teeth, the tattooing of faces or forehead (especially by male adults).
All these were done in the name of tradition and culture.
There was the fear of cultural clash; it m u d be understood as;
the conflict between the Western Cultural vessel in which Christiar~ity
has been conveyed to lgbo land and the authentic values and hones1
institutions of the lgbo culture. The ~hristianitythat was brought was
 (1
1
I
in general fully steeped in Western culture, Western philosophy
Western theology and cultural values such as monogamy, rituals and
ceremonies as well as Western names and concept of authority. Pill
these did not augur well for the firm rooting of Christianity at the early
stage. The Africans mistakenly saw Christianity as opposing ttieir
culture especially when the missionaries came to lgbo land.
The European missionaries did not help majters at all because
they made no efforts to understand Africans nor to seek ways (21:

incorporating African concepts of Christianity and culture. According

to Iwe, "they never appreciated effectively the positive elements of our-
culture and religion." l2 They erroneously believed the African
continent as being in 'darkness', lacking the rightful religion and more~l
sounds. Hence many people would agree with Kenyatta when tic:!
opines that:
In the early days of European colonisation,
many white men, especially missionaries landed in
I Africa with pre-conceived ideas of what they would find
there, and how they would deal with the situations. As
far as religion was concerned, Africa was regarded as
a clean slate on which anything could be written. It
was supposed to take whole heartedly all religious
dogmas of the white man and keep them sacred and
'.. unchallenged no matter how alien to its mode of life! l 3
~ c c o r d i nto~ Ayandele, 'the Europeans saw their own forms of
marriage and burial, their narrow concept of family and individualisn-I
as in the main best for the Nigerian converts as well." l4
Stories have been told of the scrambling for spheres of
influence by various missions. The missionaries of different
denominations never related very well and this brought fear into the
indigenes. In 1919, a District officer commented that,
It is unfortunate that the church of England and
the Roman Catholic Mission are antagonistic
 all along endeavciured to point out, is their
existence, and their existence is their religion. 17

If the early missionaries had given enough time to the study of tho
African culture and customs especially as it affects the Igbos, they
would have noticed that they had been worshipping God, though in
their own way and as they understood. Total condemnation of what
the Africans were doing by the whites provoked those they had corne
to evangelise. The indigenes were very reluctant to have anything to '
cjo with the Europeans since the Europeans believed that they (tho
Igbos)
. - ..
knew nothing.
However, as time went on, there were gradual changes on both
sides, each trying as much as possible to soft-pedal in order to
accommodate themselves. As they continued to understand and
accommodate themselves, good rapport for evangelism was created
The Africans in general and lgbos in particular have been very
generous and open to any one who wished to co-operate. To support
the point made above, Iwe has this to say,
We notice the remarkable and corporate
generosity of the Africans towards the Christian
missionaries. The early conflicts and bloody disputes
with the European colonialists did not contaminate the
good will and friendliness of the African natives towards
the missionaries. 10

For the confirmation of the above attestation to the credit of the

Africans, Revd. Reginald F. Walker in his account of the Apostolate of
the Holy Ghost Fathers in Africa remarked that the natives always
maintained the friendliest relations with the missionaries, never
molesting them in any way, but on the contrary, showing the greatest
19
eagerness to be on the most cordial relations with them.
It was this singular and profound kindness of the Africans
towards the Christian missionaries that prompted them to make liberal
grants of traits of land and other donations and gifts in cash and kind
to them for the success of their mission. Despite the initial negative
approach towards evangelism, the Europeans later developed keen
interests towards the winning of African souls. ~ay'observersare at e
loss why West Africa received so much attention from the Europeans
Scholars have proffered various theorieslreasons to justify such
change of heart. They include. -
(A) Obedience to the great commission. "Go ye therefore and
make disciple of all nations." This command was given ty
Jesus Christ himself. The injunction is reflected in all the four
Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. It was one of the last
instructions before his ascension. Though distorted and
!
prejudiced information given to the Europeans about Africa bur
some celebrated globetrotters, the white regarded the continent
as "one universal den of desolation, misery and crime" Aga~nst
this background, they thought Africa needed the Gosp?l
message and salvation more than any other human race, he~ws!
the need to evangelise the continent. The whites therefore felt
that Africa offered more opportunity for Christian activity than
any other area. 21 .'.I I. '

* B.. ,', ! I

(B) Another reason had to do with the wrongs of the past. After'
seeing the inhumanities vented upon Africans during the trans-.
Atlantic slave trade, some sincere European Christians who
were pricked by excruciating guilty conscience therefore felt
that the best they could do'to the Africans to expiate their guilt
was to bring the Gospel to the people - an offer they
I
considered to be the greatest atonement. 22
Still others believe that Christianity came to West Africa as an
accompaniment of Colonialism and Commerce. Sinc:(i!
 Christianity, Colonialism and Commerce were i n e ~ t r i c a b l ~ ~ ~
linked, the spread of Christianity was therefore a phase o-f
Western expansion. According to Spencer,
The three institutions were said to have favoured
the aims of their countries... the glory of God and
the glory of the motherland were bound up in the
missionary's thought of the age, and many
missionaries saw salvation for Africa in terms of
Western civilisation of which they regard Christianity .
as an integral element. 23

As regards to how the lgbo blend with alien European values, Ros::;
has the following assertion to make
An lgbo attends communion at the same time as
he believes in the potency of traditional magic, he
ties up in the same handkerchief the rosary and the
traditional talisrnan and plants side by side in the
garden round his new cement and pan-roofed
house the hibiscus of 'civilisation' and the Ogiri tree
of pagan family rites. 24
. ,
The- fact is that the lgbos were probably not unaware of the!
elementary fact that the acceptance of "new forms" may only increase
the range of alternatives available to them. This unfortunate
uneasiness of being a Christian and at the same time having
unrestrained attraction to "pagan" practices has to be properly
addressed. This led Chikwe to remind us thus.
Every serious evii~igeliseris therefore called upon to make the
message of Christ at home with the culture of the evangelised and at
the same time bring the culture of the people in the time with the
gospel message. This is not an easy task. It requires serious study
and suggested approaches by experts and theologians. 25
In fact, this is a clarion call to have a serious, sincere and deep
look at the traditional culture, to situate it in the context of the gospel of'
Jesus Christ, and to objectively allow it to be transformed by the
radiance of Christianity. The synopsis of all these provides one with
the relationship between Christianity and Traditional Culture, the resurt
of their interaction. The lgbos have been responding both positively
and negatively since their contact with the 'white man's' religion --
Christianity. The interaction between the traditional culture of the
people and Christianity brought about drastic changes in the lives of
the people. There was confrontation between traditional moral values
and Christian ethics, between Western norms associated wilh
Christianity and lgbo concepts of norms and value concepts appeared
for the first time to start the rapid socio-religious change. The arrival cl.f
Christianity and its encounterlinteraction with the traditional culture clf
the people gave rise to various situations. The researcher being ~CII-I

indigene of Orumba Area and a minister of the Christian religion, in his

quest to know actually what transpired when Christianity and ~J'IIE!
religionltraditional culture of his forefathers came into contact, dabbl~8t:l
into the case of Orumba Area of Anambra State.
I

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The first rrlove by the Christian missionaries to evangelm
Nigeria in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries did not in fact extend tcr
the Eastern part. The move began with the early Portuguese voyage::;
to the West Africa coast to establish trade. The missionaries were tliti!

Portuguese Catholics and their areas of operation were Warri i31~1

Benin. According to Adiele, "owing to serious logistic and ecological.

problems, the mission could not realise its desired objective ancl
therefore fizzled out." 26
. '.
The activities of subsequent missionaries from the nineteenth
century have not only reactivated and sustained the Christian
presence but have also increased same, creating 'ipso facto' a no little
impression on the traditional life of the people, so much's0 that it has
influenced if not determined her cultural heritage.
In 1857, the British government in collaboration with Mac
Gregor Laid sponsored an expedition under the leadership of Williim
Balfour Baike. The expedition was significant for the history of
Christianity in Igboland. According to Onyeidu, "this was the most
I
successful Niger expedition that opened lgboland for Commerce and
Christianity". 27 The missionaries landed at Onitsha in July 18!5'7
Ryder in his own view says that since the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, the activities of the Portuguese missionaries have been at
least a vestige of Christian presence on African soil. 28 The Orumbi:~
qrea came into contact with Christianity around 1890s.
The Africans including the lgbos in particular and Orumbe
people in particular have over the years reacted and responded to the
missionary situation in various ways and forms involving a comple:~
process of adjustment and re-adjustment which never occurred in ia

stereotyped manner but rather on a wide spectrum which the

missionaries did not find amusing. The lgbos should never be
regarded as passive recipients of all the Christian teachings arid
tenets. They did not accept Christianity hook, line and sinker without
enquiries and hesitations. They queried certain teachings by the early
missionaries before they would accept and believe them. As one
James Ike puts it in Igbo, "ajughi aju erie, butere ariaghi aria anwua':
29, meaning, eating without asking causes dying without sickness.
As one studies the history of Christianity one does not just
concentrate on the activities of the missionaries. One should as well
study how the people responded either positively or negatively. No,
I
wonder Ogbu Kalu states that the history of Christianity is not just the1
story of what the missionaries did, the response of the lgbo people is a
crucial part of the history. 30 The summary of the niissionary activities
in IgbolandIOrumba could be said to be very successful, not just in
terms of the number of converts made and the number of churches
builtlestablished but also to the extent Christianity has domesticatcad
its value.
The question, which this paper explores though, a localised one
(Religious Interaction in Igboland: A Case Study of Christianity an()
Traditional Culture in Orumba, 1896 - 1976) is of
importance both to the Christians and traditionalists. The object
(problem) associated with this paper bluntly put therefore is the
examination and evaluation of the activities of the missionaries and the
.. '
changes brought by such activities on the traditional way of life vis-a-
vis the attitudinal reactions of the Orumba people either struggling 10

resiskthese changes or attempting to readjust to the new exigencies.

In other words this research work investigates the effects of
'

Christianity on the socio-cultural and historical changes in the life of

the Orumba people. It brings to light the interaction between the
Christian Church and the traditional institutions in Orumba.

1.3 AIM OF STUDY

As would be apparent in the course of this work, not actually
much attention has been given to this aspect of research in
Christianity and traditional culture especially as it affects the people of
Orumba This fact led the writer to pick on this field of study shce sai
already stated; he is an indigene and also a minister of the Christian
religion. He would like to know in details how Christianity and the
traditional culture of his people have co-existed since the coming of
the gospel
 As would be discerned and easily too - from the problem of
study adduced above, the author aims at not only giving a reasonable
insight into what Christianity and missionary propaganda was all
about, but also at bringing into sharper focus what ihese meant to the,
people with specific reference to Orumba people and how thay
reacted. In brief therefore, the aims of the study are: -

(a) To trace the advent of Christianity to Orumba area with a view

of establishing the activities, problems and progress involved.
To understand the lgbo man from his traditional culture whic:h
would explain both why and how he embraced Christianity.
To examine the missionary factors which attracted the people of
Orumba to Christianity.
!
To make a meticulous analysis of the interactions betweal
Christianity and the traditional culture and to present such in i3
correct perspective.
To create if possible a conducive environment whereby tho
traditionalist and the Christian could for the mere fact of havir!;~
understood each other through the process enunciated abclve
adopt a tolerant rather than an antagonistic attitude towar'cls
one another. .
(f It is hoped that this work may provoke further research in ttw
field.

The researcher wishes to state without equivocation that hi!

does not in any way claim perfection as far as this topic is concerned.
Honesty would force one to admit that some mistakes will certainly be
found in this work and also there is no claim to exhaustive treatment of
!he topic, though an attempt has been made to present the facts as
clear as possible.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
According to Vanguard Newspaper of Wednesday, March 'I:!.

History is the study of past events. It is the

study of the heroic exploits of our ancestors, great
grandfathers, grandfathers, great grandmothers,
grandmothers and mothers. The road they took,
why they took such roads, what they encountered
and how they conquered/triumphed over them.
Such lessons are instructive for our present day
living. 31

Also when Oliver Cromwell was planning the education of his Richard
he said, "I would have him learn a little history." 32 From these and
other views, it could be seen that with some knowledge of history, the
present could be understood from the past and the future planned it-, I
I1
order not to fail. This is because with proper knowledge of the pasl.,
the present could not be well understood and future cannot bt?
adequately focused. This work is a research conducted among the
Orumba people of Igboland. The study is significant especially as it
gives an insight into the traditional culture as the basis of their political,
socio-economic and religious institutions as well as the interpretation
and expression of their religious beliefs.
The interaction between Christianity and the Traditional Culture
of the Orumba people has to be understood, appreciated and
documented by both Christians and non-Christians alike. An analysis
of the contributions of Christianity and an unbiased account of the
areas of conflict in Orumba has been given to help the people face the
challenges of the future. Such aspects will interest any one with
genuine desire to know about the Orumba people and the impact of
Christianity on their traditional culture.
 Theoretically, the study will add to the existing knowledge about
religious ,interaction in lgboland as it concerns Christianity and
traditional culture with general implications for the rest of the country
This work will be of great value not only to the Orumba people but also
!
to every scholar (historians in particular) who may wish to add to their1
knowledge about this particular people. It is also h.oped that this work
will equally provoke some consciousness on the topic. Finally tlw;
work will serve as a basis and prelude for further studies for the work.
is focused on Orumba Area of Anambra State.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE WORK

The scope of this study is Religious lnteraotion In Igboland: A
Case Study of Christianity and Traditional Culture. The main focus ';1:

on Orumba Area, a sub-cultural group among the lgbo society.

In this work, we are to study the coming into contact of
Christianity and the traditional culture of the people and the impacts of
, each on the other. Porosity and lack of thoroughness have been
identified from critical analysis as being characteristics of 'localiswj'
I

and loose researches, which deal with a very wide geographical area
or even a vast subject matter. In recognition of the above fact, this
work has been intentionally limited to a geographical area callcxl
ORUMBA in Anambra State made up of more than thirty autonomous
communities. All the names of the whole communities/towns may not .
, be mentioned in this research but the findings are common because
the people are identical in most of the things they do. The study will
\.
reveal the resultant effect of the coming into contact of Christianity and
Traditional Culture of the people of Orumba Area.
Specifically, the study is divided into six chapters. Chapter one
is the introduction of the study, talking about the backgrourltl,
statement of problem, aim of study, its significance, scope.
methodology, assumptions, limitations and definition of some terms
Chapter two is the review of available related literature, therekly
providing the development of the earlier response the lgbo people
offered to Christianity and civilisation in establishing sornt?'
I'
background. Chapter three studies the advent of Christianity in
Orumba Area as it affects three different denominations; the Church
Missionary Society (C. M. S) the evangelical arrn of the Anglican
Church, the Roman Catholic ChurchlMission and the Assemblies 01
God Church. This chapter also surveys the denominational strategic!:
employed in the spread of the gospel. Chapter four is all about the
changes brought by Christianity while chapter five x-rays the conflicl:;
and the infhences of such conflicts. Finally chapter six is about
indigenisation of some Christian aspects and conclusion of the study
as well as suggested areas for further research.
- t

Though the work is lirnited to Orumba, references could bo

made to other parts of lgboland and beyond for the purpose of
comparison.

1.6 METHODOLOGY
The authority and authenticity of any tradition depends on h o \ ~
far it is supported or given credence by primary as well as secondary
sources. The approach in this study is both analytical and objective.
A review of available related literature is done to examine the effect of
Christianity on lgbo traditional culture. The materials and information
I
for this work are based on Oral tradition (primary) source, written,
(secondary) source, comparison documents, personal diaries, privzrt'e
library material, local church records and Archival sources. There is
much reliance and dependence on oral sources and this is justified by
the need to achieve and maintain originality as opposed to adulterated
information.
The information classified under the primary sources carno'
mainly from personal interviews conducted among the priests, eldctr!;
and others well versed in the tradition of the people and Christiari
mission.
The secondary materials that came from both published and
unpublished works were used mainly to give the work a sense of'
comparison with other cultures, which the work required.
Personal interviews were conducted under a eonduc:ive
atmosphere void of external influences. In addition, the researcher is
aware of the cautious and intelligent way with which oral information
must be handled. All these attest for the originality of the information
dbtained from oral sources.
'.Participant observational method which Bogdom and Taylor
describe as "the research characterised by a period of intense social
interaction between the researcher and the subjects in the milieu of
the later." 33 The researcher observed, witnessed and participated
fully in some events as they happened and recorded them as
objectively as possible without "adopting a priori categories to evaluate
the subject being studied." 34 The researcher's advantaged position of
a 'detached within' - being an insider in the people's culture, a twct
beloved son of the soil and also as one looking at the issue from an
objective point of view void of bias helped a lot. The researcher I

believes in the effectiveness of his methodology while recognising the1'

temptation of objectiveness.
i'.7 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY
The researcher has always believed this work as a starting
point- "launching pad" which will provoke some reflections and
consciousness among the contemporary Chrislians and will sharpen
their general response to the gospel of Jesus Christ and help futun3
Christians to move forward in the well directed and meaningful attitude
to Christianity the way Christians ought to do.
It is also believed that this work will arouse the spirit of
symbiotic existence - live and let live among the Christians and non-
Christians so that no group would constitute an obstacle on the way of
others or live at the expense of the other. In other words, this work is
hoped to promote peace, unity and good understanding among all tho
people, irrespective of their religious inclinations.
It is assumed that this work would spur into action those things
that make for progress, should be maintained, readjust the ones that
I
deter progress and are inimical to unity. 1
It is hoped again that the informants would be open, disposed
and very willing to tell the truth and vital issues
. .
of the research and,
'(. .
I

make the work less difficult.

With the emergence of the work, an addition has been made to
the existing literature on the subject. The work will be of immense
help to the present generation and the generations yet unborn, in other
words, it will be of great use to posterity especially of Orumba people.
It is assumed that this work will be a vital resource material for ~U~UI'EI

researches.
 1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
It was discovered in the course of this work how difficult it was
to give the most comprehensive possible account of the facts in a
readable style. The limitations of this research bothered on scarcitd of
literature - lack of documentation, time, finance and to an extant
I
unwilling attitude of some of the informants. Prior to the time of this
research, no one from this area had ever done any work on the topic.
".:-This affected the researcher and made his work difficult. The rnain
sources of this work were based mostly on oral interviews, which could
not be said to be free from lies and prejudices.
Another area of limitation was that of time constraint. Some af
the people connected with the work especially those interviewed foul?c.l
it difficult to squeeze out time from their tight schedule to attend to tI?o
researcher. Most of the time he was granted audience, he would not
be allowed to exhaust his questions. Another point here that lirnited
the work is the fact that the researcher, though an indigene hut his
',: domicile differs from the locality of the research. This posed i3n

obstacle because sometimes he would travel to' conduct intorvi~iw

among the people but they would not be available to him.
Again he encountered the problem of finance especially iX

some of the people interviewed expected to give them in whatever

form what he could afford. Sometimes they would debatelagree on
the amount to be paid them after the interview or before the interview
4

They based their argument on the fact that the researcher was doing
the work for personal benefit. All their demands could not 'be satisfied.
There were often exaggerated responses or answers arising
from superiority or inferiority complexes. Generally speaking, the
interviewees lacked coherence due to their inability to master religious
concepts which produced vague answers that here difficult to anolyse.
.
All the aforementioned points collectively affected the generality of the
result of the work.

1.9 DEFINITION OF SOME TERMS

In the generality of this thesis, two major terms are the pivot on
which the whole contents of the work revolve. The two major terms
are Christianity and Traditional Culture. In this section of the project,
the two terms are going to be explained extensively so that any onel
who comes across them will not have much difficulty in understanding1
what they mean.

CHRISTIANITY
According to the Complete Christian Dictionary, "ChristianityJ' is
defined as "the religion founded on the teachings of JESUS CHRIST."
" The story of Christianity is the story of a religion that took root witt~ir~
the framework of Judaism in Palestine. Early 'in its history, the
Christian religion embraced on equal terms man'y converts from
Jewish, Greek and Roman cultures. Almost from the beginning its
nature and scope was thought to be "universal and not restricted to
any particular group." 36
As it spread, the Christian religion absorbed and adopted a
large number of elements and practices from Judaic, Hellenic, Romaq
and other religious sources. Nigosian says that,
The weekly assemblies for regular "Sabbath"
senice was a practice inherited from ~ u d a i k
tradition. From the Greek culture, Christian
scholars learned the art of logical argument, and the
expression of ph~losophicalideas. From Roman
culture, Christianity borrowed the model of a
cenfralised authority of the law and order and
adapted it to fit an or anised self-governing
. religious body, the church. 3 9
According to Oltonkwo in his own explanation of Christianity, he s;iq:s
that "Christianity as could be seen from the life of our Lord Jesus
Christ means LOVE for one another, respect for human dignity and
peace everywhere. These are the guiding principles that should
control our behayiour." 30 Despite the teaching of Universal Love by
the founder Jesus Christ, constant disputes, schisms (divisions),
heresies and even wars marked (and still marks) the complicated and
turbulent history of Christianity. This religion has experienced marly
reverses during its process of expansion. Paradoxically, man persist!;,:
in committing in the name of Jesus Christ and this religion deeds
directly opposed to the teaching of Christianity.
Based on. the few years of association with Jesus Christ, ttw
disciples went about spreading the stories of JESUS CHRIST, - what
he did and what he taught. As the number of believers increased,
churches were established and it became necessary to record thc?
sayings and doings of the Founder for circulation among ttw
followers/believers.
Naturally, many writing and collections of stories circulated widely
during the first four to five hundred years of the'history of the Christian
Church. Eventually, a number of writings (twenty seven in total) were
selected and assembled to form the New Testalnent. "The New
Testament is of course the primary source of information concernirig
Jesus and his teachings, as well as the religious outlook of the early
Christian community."
According to Okonkwo in his own explanation of Christianity, he says,
that "Christianity as could be seen from the life of our Lord Jesus
Christ means LOVE for one another, respect for human dignity and
peace everywhere. These are the guiding principles that should
control our behaviour." "'Despite the teaching of Universal Love by
the founder Jesus Christ, constant disputes, schisms (divisions),
heresies and even wars marked (and still marks) the complicated arid
turbulent history of Christianity. This religion has experienced m a y
reverses during its process of expansion. Paradoxically, man persisl!;
in committing in the name of Jesus Christ and this religion de(2drj
directly opposed to the teachmg of Christianity.
Based on the few years of association with Jesus Christ, the
disciples went about spreading the stories of JESUS CHRIST, - what
he did and what he taught. As the number of believers increascxl,
churches were established and it became necessary to record the
sayings and doings of the Founder for circulation among the
idlowers/believers.
Naturally, many writing and collections of stories circulated widely
during the first four to five hundred years of the history of the Christ~an
Church. Eventually, a number of writings (twenty seven in total) w i ! ~
s.elected and assembled to form the New Testament. "The Nev,
Testament
'.
is of course the prirnary source of information concernir~g
Jesus and his teachings, as well as the religious outlook of the early
Christian community." 3Y
 Christian groups. Lastly there is a visionary account of the final
triumph of God in the book called Revelation. The New Testarnel-1.1
books contain the basic concepts and teachings of the Founder o-f
Christianity - Jesus Christ and the thoughts of some of his followers.

The Development of Christianity

The first few centuries were critical times for Christianity, Fron-I
its beginning, a series of persecutions threatened its survival but after.
struggling through various severe conflicts and adopting a number of
different religious patterns it finally won a tremendous triumph.
Christianity emerged from the heart of Judaism but very quicl+i
included non-Jewish converts. Jesus Christ the founder being a Jew
The members of the early church represented elements from rrlwy
I
cultures as well. Naturally, the Christiar~s adopted a number of
traditions that belonged to other various cultural groups. Orthodccc
Jews distrusted the Christians because the Christians borrowed a1
least three parts of the Jewish traditions changing them to suit their
new religion According to Nigosian, these include the Judaic rite ol
baptism as the sign of the new covenant, the Judaic weekly tradition of
the Sabbath, which was modified by the regular weekly service cm
Sunday commemorating the day of Jesus rescrrrection. At this service
scriptures were read and instructions given in the Judaic tradition, hut
unlike Judaism, the Shekinah (divine presence) was replaced by tsw
Eucharistic meal (communion or the Lord's Supper). And again I,-IE!
importance of the Judaic Scriptures was recognised and accepted,
Christian interpretation differed from Judaic thought, All these factors
' created tremendous friction between Judaism and Christianity. 41
As a result of persecutions and heresies apparent in Christianit);
in the early days, statements of beliefs, commonly called CREECI2;
Some Elements of Christianity:
1_'heL-o&Scriptu s s
Of all the major living religions, Christianity is the only one t M .
reveres and includes the whole scripture of another religion with ils
own sacred writings. Buddhism, which split from Hinduism, created its
own scriptures and ignored the t-lindu writings. The sarrw
exclusiver~essis characteristic of Islamic Scriptures. But Christianity
made the Jewish Bible its own by placirlg it on an exact level with tht?
distinctive books of Christian believers
The sacred books of Judaism are called by Christians the Old
Testament - suggesting the 'Old Covenant' made with God by Moses
at Mount Sinai, Following the sayings of Jeremiah and Luke thus,
Behold the days are conling says the Lord when
1 will make a new covenant with the house of Israel
and the house of Jcrdah, not like the covenant which
1 made with their fathers... 1 will puf my law within
them and 1 will write it upon their hearts and 1 will be
their- God, and they shall be my people... For I will
forgive their iniquity and 1 will remember their sin no
more. Do this in remembrance of me. And likewise
the cup after supper, saying, this cup, which is
poured out for you, is the new covenant in my
blood. 40

The early Christians added the Old Testament to the New Testament,
I
meaning the "New Covenant" made by Jesus Christ with his disciples
at the Last Supper. Both the Old and New Testaments books
constitute the sacred writings of Christianity, commonly referred to 21s
The Holy Bible or the Holy Book. There are thirty-nine books in 11-E!
Old Testament and twenty-seven in the New Testament. The accomt
of the early Christian movement is mostly given in one of the books of
the New Testament commonly called the Acts of the Apostles. Ther.12
is a number of EpistlesILetters, which are addressed to indivi-
were propounded. Such included the Nicene Creed as well as tl-I,:?
I
Apostles' Creed. Not only did the new converts to Christianity quarrel
among themselves, the majority of the Jews, Greeks and Romarrs
viewed the converts as traitors who threatened the old traditions an13
beliefs. The Christians were divided by the ways in which they
interpreted the teachings of Jesus Christ. The rest of the world wa.Ei
united against them by common fear and hatred.
Christianity as a whole is undergoing unprecedented changes..
So swiftly and so widely are new developments occurring that the
disillusionment qf the past seems irrelevant to the promise of the
future. Christianity spread throughout the Mediterranean world and as
far east as India within 70 (seventy) years after the death ancr'
resurrection of Jesus Christ. According to The Complete Christian
i
Dictionary, "approximately 33% of the world's populafion are at lea:;t,~
nominal members of the Christian Church". 42 Christianity is growing
rapidly in Africa and in some Asian countries today. Jesus Christ, the
owner of the Church has vowed that he would build his church on the
rock and that no powers of death shall prevail against it. " One of the
things that make Christianity a unique religion is that of all the religions
in the whole world, it is the only religion which its founder died and is
alive again - He is JESUS CHRIST of Nazareth, the Saviour of the
whole world - He is the way, and truth and life, no one comes to the
Father but by Him (John 14:16) and God so loved the world that tie
gave His only begotten son that whosoever believes in Him shall not
perish but have everlasting life (John 3:16). !

(B) TRADITIONAL CULTURE

Iwe, N. S. S in his book, Christianity and lgbo Culture In Africa.
states that "men of letters have usually adopted a descriptive and
practical approach in their efforts to define culture". 44 And in line with
the aforementioned statement, let us look at some definitions of
culture made by some renowned scholars. Paul H. Mussen says that
"Culture means a body' of stored knowledge, characteristic way :)I
thinking and feeling, attitudes, goals and ideals." 45
An English social scientist, E. 8.Taylor defines culture as "11-1~31
complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, ~;1-c:1
habits acquired by man as a member of society." 46 While ;:I

sociologist, J. H Fichter concisely defines culiure as "the tclts~l

configuration of institutions that the people in society share 11-I

common" 47. Agha in his own contribution to the definition of culturxl

says,
Preciseiy culture could be defined as the totality
of what we practice, our language, religion, mode of
dressing, eating, our tools and implements used,
the way we work and play, the various changes in
our vegetation, soil, landfornis bedrocks,. Culture is
the synopsis of the people's way of life, a set of
patterned activities, their world-view, and all
directed towards the achievement of high quality of
life 48.

In the words of Kato, he defines culture as "what makes a people a '

homogenous community, what binds a people together and give!;

them a sense of identity as a community" 49. To recapitulate as i t
were 'all the essential ingredients of the preceding definition, Ukejo (a
worthy son of Orumba) has offered us an all-embracive sort of
descriptive definition when he says that
In general therefore, culture may be defined as
the fabric of ideas, beliefs, skills, tools, aesthetic
objects, methods of thinking, of eating and of talking
as well as custonis and institutions into which each
of the society is born. In short it includes the way
each individual makes a living, the I'IIUSIC he plays,
celebrations and Festivals, modes of
 communicafioi~ and fransportafion, the house we
live in and the food we eat. 50

From all the definitions cited above, it is now clear that culture i:j
a descriptive and complex concept with wide-ranging
comprehensive connotations and significance. It refers to the way of
life of a people - a way of life that reflects their distinctive genius and
spirit, their fundamental character or ethos their value orientations,
world-views, institutions and achievement in the various fields of'
human endeavours - legal and literacy, artistic and scientific, religious,
philosophical and technological. Ugwu in his own candid contributiorl
on the characteristics of culture states that "it is exclusively human." '"
And Chuta sees culture as all the qualities which group men together.
and distinguish them from the rest of the animal kingdom. 52
Culture is a concept if properly understood could enable man to
know himself and understand his mission on earth. It is a frequently
used but often misused word. We glibly talk about du~tureas if it were
a common place thing. In an attempt to apply the word "culture" to
everything that man engages in, we lose sight of what it primarily
consists in. In fact, culture is a developmental concept. A full
identification of the genesis and implications of culture is basic to
normative development. According to Chuta, by normative
development, we refer to a harmoniously, progressive and purposeful
advancement of human civilisation in human history. 53 It is to be a
harmonious advancement in the sense that despite the diversity ancl
variety in the cultivation and application of resources, there should 1x(
'
recognition of a relationship of mutuality, common interest and destiny
among different peoples of the world. Such a movement shoulcl
perforce, eschew every element inimical to this relationship sncl
understanding, such as deceit, selfishness and exploitaticm.
Normative development ought to be progressive in stark positive terrris
and consistently leading to a higher plane of excellence and as an
index of the supremacy of man over all other creatures. Thus while
old structures last, new ones emerge to give testimony to the unlirrlited
riches of human ingenuity.

( 1 ASPECTS AND QUALITIES OF CULTUFW

We can divide culture broadly into two major aspects - material
culture and non-material culture.
(A) MATERIAL CULTURE
The material aspects of culture are those things made by man
which we can see or feel. Thus the creations of man, whether
buildings, works of art, tools or machines are all parts of the material
culture. All works of human hand, all belong to the aspect known as
material culture. It is possible to knowlunderstand the culture of a
,
people by observing what they producelmake. Archaeologists have
extensively used the material aspects of a people's culture to make
some interpretative deductions about their civilisation.

(6) NON-MATERIAL CULTURE

Non-material culture comprises those aspects of culture of a
people which we cannot see or touch - they are both invisible and
non-tangible. Examples include the language, beliefs, values, arid
customs of a people which remain largely in the mind but whici can he
transmitted from one generation to another through education.
Culture could equally be categorised into the Universals, 11 e
Specialities and the Alternatives. For further explanation, the
I
universals refer to those elements of a culture which are shared and
held in common by vit&ally all membersof the society. This means
that the elements in question are the core (fundamental) values held in
the society. For instance, individuals in a society may eat the sarw
food, wear the same style of clothes, use the sarne language at-14
greet one another in the same way. They may also have the sarrw
religious inclinations and accept the same rules of polite conduct. ,411
these things which are generally accepted by the members of 11-le
society are called universals.
There are the specialities, which only some of the members of
ihe society are supposed to know and practice. In every society, there
are certain things which only a part of the people know about or csm
do. This is a reflection of the division of labour, which usually obtains
irr the society. Only certain people in the society know or practice l h
cultural elements and such people are looked upon as profes&onals oi
specialists. Examples include medicine men, rainmaker:;.
bonesetters, blacksmiths and the like.
. .. Lastly, we have the alternatives. These are those cultural
i

elements, which belong neither to the universals nor to the specialities

\.
of culture. In particular they are the alternative methods or techniques
of doing things, which are accepted by the society. The society
recognises that there are different or alternative methods, which
individuals can invent for performing certain tasks provided that those
methods do not contravene the ethical, social and moral stance of tho
society. For example, in many societies, fishermen use different
methods in catching fish - while some use hooks; others may' prefer
the use of nets. In addition, women use different methods in taking
care of their hairs, - while some may perm their hairs, others may
prefer to plait them. There are different (alternative) methods of taking I
I'
care of the hair and such cultural elements are called cultural
alternative. Thus the alternatives represent those elements of the
culture about which the individual can exercise choice.

(2) FUNCTIONS O F CLJL'I'URE

Culture through its various institutions and normative patterns
simplifies and guides behaviour, provides roles, defines relations and
exerts social control.
It also serves as the "stamp" a "trade mark" that distinguishes
one society of people from another.
. Culture integrates, systematises and interprets the values,
institutions and norms of a society as it changes them with meaning
and purpose. Culture furnishes society with the basis for social ~lnity
and solidarity.
Culture functions as the matrix and guiding spirit of the sociz~l
structure and life of the society. It relates and co-ordinates, integrste~
and stores the social heritage and values of the people. Culture is 11-I&
architect and moulder of social personality.
From our exploration of culture, its nature, qualitieslaspects ar-id
functions, we may conclude that culture is essentially inseparable 11.orn
society. Society is what culture makes it and a culture is what society
makes it. People and their culture are in a perpetual state 1:1f

interaction, mutual influence, of inter-dependence and progressive

reciprocal adaptation. So when we talk about the traditional culture in
this work, we are talking about the way of life of the people of O n ~ r r ~ b ; . ~
which is handed over from generation to generation; a tale, belief or
practice thus handed down; a long-established belief or c u s t m ~ :
anything bound up with or continuing in the life of a family or
community.
 In !his section of the project, we have given extensive
definitions/explanations of Christianity and Trad~tiorlalCulture whict-I
are seen as the pivot on which the entire contents of the work rotates,
but we should remember that the whole project centres on the
influence of Christianity on Traditional Culture especially as it affl;(::l.:j
the Orumba people hence the title of the entire work: Religiorj:~
Interaction In Igboland: A Case Study Of Christianity And Tradition;:d
Culture In Orumba, 1896-1976.
 CHAPTER OlYE
END NOTES

A. N. 0. Ekwunife: Consecration in lqbo Traditional Rehior_!.

Enugu: SNAAP press Ltd. 1990 p. 2

Ibid.

Ibid.

W. C. Okeke - Ogbunka Names - Unpublished Article p.10.

Elizabeth Isichei: The Ibo People and the Europeans. Londcrn:

Faber and Faber, 1973 p. 25.

Maxwell Anikwenwa: Presidential Address Awka Diocesan

Svnod: Onitsha, Varsity Industrial Press Ltd 1998 pi:'.
663-64.

Edmund Ilogu: Christianity and lgbo Culture: Onitsha, Universiry

Publishing Company, 1974 p. 44.

Chieke Ifemesia: Traditional Hurnane Livinq Among the Iqbo;

An Historical Perspective: Enugu Fourth Dimens8ioal
Publishers, 1980 p. 115.

Shed N. Adiele (ed) The Niger Mission: Oriqin Growth and

Impact 1857 - 1995: Aba: lsaeco Press & Ind. (Nig) 1! 3 ! X
p. 11.

N. S. S. lwe: Christianity and Igbo Culture In Africa: Onitsha:

University Publishing Corr~pany1985 p. 27.

Abraham Okeke (One of the ardent converts) C. 85 yrs;

interviewed at Ogbunka on 4/8/01.

J. Kenyetta: Facing Mount Kenva London: Seaker and

Warbury, 1938 p. 269.

E. A. Ayandlele: The Missionarv Impact On Modern Niqer-,

1842 - 1914, London: Longman 1966 p. 243.
45. 0. U. Kalu (ed): The Historyof Christignm in West Africa: Hong
Kong: Sing Cheong Print. Co. Ltd 1980 p.6.
. '..

16 Agba .U. Agha: Christianity and Culture: A Case Study of

Unwara; Enugu; Tee Mac Global Communications 1-ld
1996 p. 29.

17. A. G. Leonard; The Lower Niqer and Its Tribes; Frank Cass
Publishers, 1986 p. 154.

19. lbid

20. The Holy Bible: Mathew 28: 18-20, Mark 16: 15 & 16, Luke 24:
26 - 49, John 20: 21 - 22, Deut 1: 8.

21. J. S. Coleman: N i ~ e r i aBackground

: to Nationalism: Los
Angeles, 1958 pp. 91 - 92.

22. Bassey E. Umoh: Christianity in African Perspective Uyo, 19K!

p.28.

23. Spencer Trimingham: The Christian Church and Islam in W g d

Africa; London 1956 p. 12.

24.' S. L. Ross: African Women; London Publishers 1937 pp. 292 --.
293.

25. V. A. Chikwe: Theorv and Practice of Enculturation Enugu;

SNAAP Press 1992 p. iv

26. S. N. Adiele Op. Cit. p. 20.

27. S. 0 . Onyeidu : Traditional Concepts of God.in Africa: Nsultka,

Easy-Quality Press and Series Publishers, 1998 p. 14.

28. A. F. C. Ryder: "Portuguese Mission to West Africa" Tarikh,

Volume 3, No, 1, 1969.

29. James Ike (ardent convert) C. 91 years interview at Ogbunka U:I I

2911212001.

30. Ogbu Kalu: Christianity in West Africa: The Nigerian Story;

 Ibadan: Day Star 1978 p. 315.

Vanguard Newspaper of Wednesday March 13,2002 p. 42.

William Barclay: The Daily Study Bible; The Letters to The

Corinthians; Edinburgh, The Saints Press 1982, p. 88
I
Robert Bogdom and Stephen Taylor: Introduction to Qualitahv!!
Research Method: Phenomenological Approach to S_cogjz!
Science.
-- New York, John Wesley Company 1975 p. 5.

R. U. Onunwa; "West African Traditional Religion in Time-

Perspective" Ph.D. Thesis, U. N. N 1984 p. 6.

"The Compete Christian Dictionary" International Bible Society,

U. S. A. p. 104.

36. S. 0. Nigosian, World Religions; Britain Edward Arnold PuI:).

Ltd.

37. Ibid.

38. E. 0. Okonkwo: Goodwill Message to St. Mark's Church Nkpor,,

Dedication Programme, 2000 p. 12.

#- 39. S. A. Nigosian OD Cit. p. 51

40. The Hly Bible; Jeremiah, 31: 31-34 & Luke 22: 20.
. .' , '"
.. ,-,. "" -;
. . S. A. Nigosian OD Cit. p. 6.

42. ' The Complete Christian Dictionary Op Cit p. 104.

43. Bible Quotation: Mathew 16: 18.

45. ,. P. H. Mussen: The Psychological Development of The Churl!];

New Jersey, 1963 p. 62.

46. E. R. Taylor; Prirnitive Culture: London, 1971, p. 21.

47. J. H. Fichter; Sociolo~v;Chicago (UP) 1957 p. 270.

48.. -_ Agha. U. Agha; OP Cit. p. 6.
.

49. B. H. Kato; African Cultural Revolution and The Christian Faj!W.

Jos: Challenge publications, 1976 p. 6.

50. Quoted from "The Nigerian Renaissance" ~ 7July,

' ~ 1973.

51. C. 0 . T. IJgwu; Lecture NotelHand Out on Culture, U. N. N.

1996.

52. S. C. Chuta: Culture, Concept and Application for Normative

Development; Awka Mekslink Publishers, 1992 p. 5.

53. Ibid.
 CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
I '
The importance of the review of related literature in m y
research work can never be over emphasized. For a sound
knowledge of the study, previous works of experts and authorities in
the field of Church history will be critically reviewed.
In order to understand actually where we are going,'related
works have to be reviewed, but unfortunately not much have been
written on the topic about Orumba to the best of the writer's
knowledge, Nevertheless, there are other literature works that bear
indirectly to our topic, and will necessarily serve as our materials for
the study. In acknowledgement and appreciation of the above idea,
Sheltiz says that "one of the simplest ways to economise efforts in any
research work is to review and build upon worb already done by
others." '
Chinua Achebe in his book "Things Fall Apart" skilfully told the
story of the tragic sadistic and sympathetic encounter of the Africori
with the .European system of government and religion and the
unwarranted intrusion of the white man and his culture into the Igbo
traditional religion and worldview. Manta, a village in Umuofia is ;3ri
example of a veritable African society being the first recipient of the
white man's religion and culture was bedevilled with problems.
According to Achebe, the advent of the missionaries with their r'eligicm
l
and values had caused a considerable stir in the village of Mbania.
There were six of them and one was a white man. '

On arrival, the white man preached to the villagers through i3rl

interpreter about Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit, dwelling mainly cn
Christ's love and good works. They also sang songs. It was
discovered that the interpretation was defective in communicating lo
the people. tiowever, some converts were rnade and there V/EW

some crises for

The young Church in Mbanta had a, few crises
early in its life. At first the clan had assumed that it
would not survive,. But it had gone on living
gradually becoming stronger. The clan was
worried, but not niucti... The evil forest was a fit
home for such undesirable people. It was true they
were rescuing twins from the bush, but they never
brought them into the village... Three of the '

converts had gone into the village and boasted

openly that all the gods were dead and impotent
and that they were prepared to defy them by
burning all their shrines... The men were seized
and beaten until they streamed w ~ t hblood. After
that nothing happened for a long time between the
Church and the clan. 3

In Umuofia (as well as some other lgbo communities) a sacred

python is a taboo. Killirlg such results to several punishments. Ont?clf
such punishments is that the sacred python must be buried like
human being. It was an abomination. As if the obnoxious tendencies
o f the Christians to "old culture" were not enough, a Christian w ; ~
accused of killing the sacred python. To this act 0kor)kwo answers,
. . . if a boy comes into my hut and defecates on
the floor, what do I do? Do I shut my eyes? No! I
take a stick and break his head. That is what a man
does. These people (Christians) are daily pouring
filth over us and Okeke says we should pretend not
to see . . . This was a womanly clan he though.
Such a thing could never happen in this our a

fatherland Umuofia. 4

The suggestion made by Okonkwo (to take a stick and b r c M

' !
the child's head) earned the Christians the mildest punishment -14

ostracism,. In spite of that, the number of the Christians continued 11:)

increase, growing from strength to strength to the extent of forming a
small community of men, women arid children. No wonder 11-113
'missionaries were gaining momentum and impetus in 11-leir
dombstication of their values. They were self-assured and conficlmt
Mr Brown, the white missionary had continued to pay regular visits ,to
them. According to him, "eight months since the seed was first sown
among you, I marvel at what the Lord had wrought."
It is very important to note here that the process of conversicm
was an on-going event. The number of Christians continued to grow
over-whelmingly. The missionaries did not only stop at admitting t*lii?

outcast and the cornrnon people, they also converted titled TI-IEYI.

According to Achebe,
The Church had come and led many astray.
Not only the lowborn and the outcast, but
sometimes a worthy man had joined it. For
example Ogbuefi Uzonr~awho had taken two titles
and who like a madman has cut the anklet of his
titles and cast it away to join the Christians. The
white rnissionary was very proud of bin, and he was
of the first men in Umuofia to receive the sacrament
of Holy Communion or Holy Feast as it was called.

To say that the Church had made many converts was

somewhat paradoxical. The missionaries did not begin well for they
lacked he imaginative skill required in such ventures. As the people
did not respond very well on their own, the reason could not be far
fetched for as Agha asserts,
The missionaries and the West Africans (Igbos)
were not ripe yet to impart and receive the new
religion. The missionaries were not f&niliar with
the areas of operation . . . Therefore, social, political
and cultural insecurity, tribal and inter-community
feuds, and nafive hostility to Christian missionaries
hindered the early penetration. 7

That not withstanding, Christianity was planted in Umuof.;:~.

Obierika, Okonkwo's friend understood the changing society better
than his friend. Okonkwo regretted his long absence from Umuofi;r~
and wondered at what had happened to his people and was surprised
at their loss of power to fight. However, Obierika observed that,
It is already too late. our own men and some
have joined the rar~ksof the stranger. If we should
try to drive out the wliite man from Umuofia, we
should find it easy. There are only two of them.
But what of our people who are given power? How
do you think we can light when ouroqm brothers
have turned against us? The white nian is very
clever. He came quietly and peaceably wit11 liis
religion. We amused at his foolishness and allowed
him to stay. Now he has won our brathers and our
clan can no longer act like one. He has put a knife
on the thing that held us together and we have
fallen apart.

In the real sense of the word, lhing had fallen apart following the:
changing agent - Chr~stianitywhich began to win converts due to the
missionaries' victory over the evil forest offered them (contrary to lhc?
people's belief that the missionaries would all perish in the evil forc?slj
for their Church building and as their place of habitation. Urnuofia Iled
changed tremendously. The Church was built. The change w a s
spontaneous and concurrent to the extent that when Okonkvvo
ieturned from his seven years exile he could hardly recoymset

Achebe has this to say about it,

The clan had undergone such profound change
during his exile that it was barely recognisable. The
new religion and government and the tradmg stores
were very much in the people's eyes and minds.
There were still many who saw these new
institutions as evil but they even talked and thought
about little else and cerlainly not about Okonkwo's
reiurn. 9
The changes in the society were too profound and some people fa~llxl
to understand the why of the changes due to their limited knowledge
However, a good number responded positively to Christianity and their
response was revolutionary and diverse in nature.
Okonkwo, the protagonist was impatient and did not understar-il:.I
the changes. He upheld the shared responses of his clan and like t l w
clan itself broke apart. The clan accused the white man of "putting a
knife at the things that held them together and we have fallen apart."
There was equally the lack of the knowledge of the drift or tl,.e
movement .of the cultural change. If these had been understood end
reflected upon, things would not have fallen apart and definitely tl-{lit
centre would have reasonably held
E. A. Ayandele in his book, Niqeria Historical Stud.igk, dedicate.d
a whole chapter to what he called, "The Collapse of Pagandom" in
Igboland. This chapter is clouble-barrelled as it was aimed at 11-11?

review of Ekechi's Missionary Enterprise and Rivalry in lgboland 113!51i'

to 1914, and also demonstrate how easily the lgbo turned 1.1:)
~tiristianitybecause of the barrel of the gun. He remarked that 11-1::

christianisation of the lgbo was nothing short of an epic.

substantiate the claim he goes on further to say;
With the systematic destination of the long juju
by the British invaders between 1900 and 1902 the
Bible rolled through lgboland like a juggernaut
crushing the gods to atoms... this picture of the
defeat of the gods in Igboland remains substantially
authentic, not withstanding the nostalgic desire of
the Mbonu Ojikes for the traditional religion in the
forties and the continued prevalence of jujuisrn, or
instincts for the supernatural or belief in ancestral
spirits portrayed in the works of such lgbo novelists
as Chinua Achebe and John Munonye. 10

It seems that Ayandele is making wrong interpretations im:!

sweeping statements against the lgbos in spite of how well he wa!;
equipped with facts. He appreciates traces of traditional religion tiers
 and there and maintains that the lgbos went into Christianity
conipelled by the whites. Human beings resist forc'e anywhere and will
not imbibe for so long anything done out of coercion. In the ac:l~~ai
fact, there was this conquest of lgboland around 1915, but definitely II
was not the singular factor as Ayandele suggests which opened I J ~

lgbo receptive to ChriStianity. One may be temped to ask what factors

- that were responsible for that kind of attitude. In other words why was
this varied attitudes recorded? In the first place, one would woridw
why people should at all give up their traditional way of life in favour of
a new one. Ottenberge perfectly asserts that "the lgbos are protxk)ly
most'receptive to culture change and most willing to accept Western
ways of large group in Nigeria." "
The possibility of the influence of this innate quality to acl::cq:lt
change should not be ruled out in the positive response to Christianity
in Igboland. Yet certain factors throw light on why the lybo people
were very responsive to missionary propaganda.
A careful examination of the history of hii is ti an it^ in lgbole~xl
tends to suggest that response to Christianity was generated by the
social and political description that accompanied the establishment r:lf

British rule. The missionary expedition enjoyed the protective power

and military prestige of the advancing colonial power. According lo
Uchendu,
While the crown was not committed to the
conversion of the natives as such, the psycholog~cal
impact of its political domination and t h e '
identification of the missionaries with the white
rulers are the factors which conditioned the
acceptance of religious innovation. 12

But Lamin in his own view argues that,

To fuse the theme of African religious response
with the political theme and annex it as a subplot of
 the great nationalist cause is to over look the explicit
religious concerns of those involved. l 3

" The introduction of Christianity has given greater religious

choice, and characteristically many lgbos have accepted Christianity
without rejecting all their traditional beliefs. The whole pattern of
culture content by its very nature introduces new cultural alternative!;.
Force or the barrel of the gun, as Ayandele tries to prove, is not indetad
the sole factor or even a major factor in bringing about receptivity to
Christianity. other people like the Yoruba or the Hausa-Fulani were
also conquered by the British but they were not as receptive to
Christianity as the Igbos. Fear, which comes from force or coercion,
cannot be the fashion of response which the lgbos gave to Christianity
I
I
The enlightened, those people who have travelled out from tovun:?;
where there was no Christian presence while returning home invited
the missionaries to come and establish churches and schools in their
towns so that their people could also benefit from such institutions. P,s
a result of the physical benefits one could derive from being in

Christian, many people were attracted to it. The missionaries later

came to notice it. Ekechi puts it thus, "often the missionaries realised
that the influx of new members and the persistent demand for schools
was an expedient rather than a demonstration of genuine enthusiasm.
However, the lgbo resporlse to Christianity will not assume a
complete picture without the lgbo unique responses to missionary
institutions like churches, hospitals and schools and their general
conception of Christianity. The evangelical arms o i the Anglicans and
the Roman Catholics ran schools as their means of proselytising their
different denominations and converting the masses especially tlle
Roman Catholics who from inception had taken educational traditicn
as part and parcel of their evangelisation process. All these were
factors that affected the responses of the lgbos to Christianity
Ottenberg goes on to say;
The major factors underlying lgbo receptivity to
change are clear. The high population density has
affected physical mobility and adjustment to new
conditions. lgbo culture is itself a changing one and
rt is particularly adapted to certain aspects of
European culture. The lgbos have had constant
contact with Europe, first indirectly and then directly
for over three hundred years and it would probably '

be an error ,to consider that their culture was

relatively static before the period of direct British
contacts. 15

Agha also states that

A cult~lremust adapt to changes in the social
and physical environment. There is no place in the
world where life is exactly the same way it was
hundred years ago . . . Our value system changes
through the infiltration of foreign ideas. The change
has been reciprocal. l6

The lgbos saw the white missionaries, welcomed them and a;;
they listened to their message of salvation - the good news of Jesus
Christ, they got 'converted' though gradually, the number increa:;sc.i
tremendously. It is a well-known fact that the lgbo conversion a17d
I

subsequent response to Christianity was a gradual process. Ayandele

has gone further to say,
When a missionary converted individuals in a
community, he removed units from an organic
whole and thereby undermined the monolithrc
structure. The converts not only imbibed a new set
of religious beliefs but began to nurse alien ideas
economic ambitions and political aspirations of their
own, detr~mentalfo fhe welfare and solidarify of fhe
'. comn~unity.17

Kalu in his book "The Embattled Gods1',says that

 "i'
The Christian presence was subversive and
dysfunctional .because of a revolutionary ideology.
The saving grace was that ideas alone do not make
a revolution. Traditional resilience forced a halt.
Where the whites claimed success, nationalists
declare that Christianity has failed that syncretisrn is
a sign of failure. Christianity must be indigenised
before it can flower-. 10

According to Kalu from this perspective, Ayarldele "accused the

missionaries of being agents of imperialism, pathfiriders, armed \viStti
pernicious doctrines." l9 While Richard Gray endeavoured to draw
attention to the complexities when he opines that
The rnksionaries had autonomous sources of
finance recruitment and control, had ability to
transcend national boundaries and denominational
divis~ons. They pioneered education, thereby
makin it impossible for the colonial rulers in many
ways.90
It could be seen that areas of collaboration in the civilising
mission was wide but Gray was right that two changing agents differed
in issues of cultural policy, education and ethics. Kalu also says that
"quite often the missionaries proved more iconoclastic". 21 tlowev~x,
many Christian denominations had operated in lgboland for a centu.ry
\.
and a half, and that before the advent of Christianity, the lgbos had
religious structures which served the basic functions of explanatic~in,
prediction and control of space-time events. The religion of the Igbo
man is at the core of his being; and because the lgbos are deeply
religious, it has coloured their socio-economic and political outlook. :"
It has been attributed to A. E. Afigbo that he has done a
thorough job on the lgbo relationship with their neighbours and it tias
been said that the lgbos did not keep aloof from their neighbcws.
Kalu proposes five theses under which historians have examined the
lgbo response to Christianity -
 (A) MISSIONAIIY IIISTOIIIOGRAYIIY-
This considers the task of christianisation as a hardly
exercise done for God under difficult conditions to redeem the
benighted Igbo. It therefore regrets the difficulties and impi~tcs
blame on the adarnancy of the people and the consequerlt
cultural influence on them. Therefore missionary historiograpttjr
y.

gloats on success.

(B) FADOFSTATISTICS
This holds that exaggerated statistics are. provided to
I enhance Church growth in certain areas and impressionistic
accounts are given to attract attention especially of t h e
contributors at home.

(C) NATIONALIST HIS'M)RIOGRAPI~IY (unacceptable

to some historians)
This propagates religious change by appealing to
materialist causes. Missionaries succeeded because of the aid
given by the colonial government and traders and that therefore
missionaries were handmaids and pathfinders to imperialists.
Nationalist historiographists believe that some Africans saw the
deception of the missionaries and reacted, others felt there was
this mutual deception, yet some reasoned them as agents of
rivalry-and evangelical strategy; then the persistence of African
traditional religionists; and finally some hail the advent of'
independent churches as true representative of African
spirituality.
(D) CULTURE-INTDIWCTIONIST
Theology)
Historiography paints the view that the lgbos had their
own salieiit cultural forms before the advent of Christianity. It
goes further to analyse the impact of Christianity on various
cultural forms as a way of explaining religious change. Next, it
gives the impression that only Christianity had an impact ~:ln
!
lgbo culture as a change agent. But strictly speaking, 1gI:a
culture influenced Christianity. Christianity gained patronage
and acceptance because of its nature and it pictures Igbo
culture in isolated pieces arid focuses on culture conflict and
power encounter. Kalu concludes that interactionists embrace
a monocausal analysis where there exists multi-causations arid
that they neglect internal sources of change in cultures arid
time.

( ) THE FINGER OF GOD IN RELIGIOUS CIIANGE

What is the nature, pace and direction of change? To
satisfy the above questions, socio-economic and political
changes must be brought into focus and 'these are external
manifestations. Religion does not operate in a vacuurn.
Political, economic and social factors influence reaction to
Christianity. The ecology determines and influences the
patterns of both vertical (staking of Large territori'es, Churcl.i
buildings etc) and horizontal (routinization or conversion)
expansion of Christianity. There have been the indepenclerit
churches and the charismatic groups, all making different
claims and challenging the efficacy of the mainline Churches.
I
i
 These shift the movement of religious change, which actually
moves in a unilinear or cyclical direction. 23 I

Some argue that the excitement generated by contact with the

Bible+hasproduced rapid religious change. Some equally hold that the.
kerygma has power enough to meet life crises without cult or riir~al.
Others argue that secondary conversion is difficult because of year':; (IfL
indoctrination and encrusted tradition. But beyond these claims, Kalu
blamps
. ..
the finger of God in human history because according to him
".:. baptism of the Spirit is by grace alone since it deals with religio~ls
experience or inner vision and not something merely analytical." 24
Brokenness makes for real repentance and instrumentalist
explanation over looks this. Nationalist historiography meets ttici?
expectation of the agnostics. Christian presence has grown among he
lgbos with inexplicable mysterious power. "The inexplicable" is the
finger of God as is contained in Mark 4:27; "But no one can enter a
strong man's house and plunder his goods unless he first bind the
strong man then indeed he may plunder his house" 25
Christian presence has grown among the lgbos at vario~~.s
11
paces, through time, with an inexplicable and mysterious power. Tho
Bible has an explanation of how the gospel causes change and breaks
human covenant. Horton sees potential change in African religiorls
and argues that what seems to be dramatic about the African
conversion to Christianity is the replacement of the old spirit and gods
by the belief in the high God (the Christian God). This conversion is
seen first as a logical response of traditional religion to the expansion
of scale, to the changing of the narrow local view points of small
communities by the wider vistas brought to Africa by the awareness in
communication. It is step-by-step replacement and graduation of tho
'pagan' gods with the Christian God. According to Horton,
P
 It would appear then that the beliefs and
practices of the so-called world religions are only
accepted where they happen to coincide with
responses of the traditional cosmology to other,
non-missionary factors of the modern situation.
Where such beliefs and practices have no
counterpart in these responses, they tend to be
weakly developed or absent from the life of
"converts." Again where responses of the traditional
cosmology to other factors of the modern' situation
have no counterparts in beliefs and practices of the
world religions, they tend to appear as
embarrassing additions to the life of converts. 26

From inception; the sole duty of the Church has been that of
"
evangelisation - being the command of the founder and owner of thcr?
Church, Jesus Christ for He has commanded saying;
Go therefore and make disciples of all nations,
baptising them in the name of the Father and of the
Son and of the Holy Spirit teaching them to obsehe
all that I have commanded you; and lo 1 am with you
always to the close of the age. 27
I
This was the main reason why the early missionaries came down lo
us, to evangelise this part of the world. With the advent of Christianity,
the traditional religion of the lgbos started to have a serious rival. The
early missionaries did not find it so easy to penetrate into an already
existing culture. Many traditionalists did not want to join the new
religion brought by the white man. Most of them feared that if they
become Christians, their gods would bring disaster to them. Diviner's
and medicine men reported that the divinities were angry because o f
the introduction of the new religion and warned that nobody should
join it because they thought that the white men came with their
religion, purposely to destroy the lgbo culture. Despite these reasons,
and threats, Christianity continued to progress. Christianity won
converts upon converts, "the finger of God" being at work.
 1tie exit of the white r~iissiorwiesdirririg arld after the Nig~!l-i;i.
Lliafra civil war did riot put ari erid to the Churcti activities in Igbolarid
instead it brought the indigeries into full control of the Church activilit?:;

This is so because there was training in leader ship ever1 wIw1.1

!he white missionaries were tller,e. Tile Cllr~~-cti
(especially 1111::

Anglican) has been taught to be self-propagating, self supporting ;ml

self-governing. -1.here were both junior and senior serninariar.ls t ~ r ~ d t ? ~
training, ordained priests and bishops of I'yho stock.
indigenisation process was already taking place. The lgbo Christiign
Church already tiad a leadership in t3istiops Uzodike, Onyealx:~,
Nwetjo Nkernena, Otubelu, Nwosu, Onyenielukwe, Urieghu, A r i r v e
Nwankiti, Obiefuna, Ezeanya, Arlikwenwa, Iloriuba, Olq~ala,Oksfol-,
Ctiukwurna, Okeke, Onyibo and the rest of tlieni.
Okorocha in his book, Ihe Meanirq of Religious Conversio11~!!
Africa: The Case of The Igbo of NIma used a general apprvixlll
sirriilar to that of Elizabeth Isictiei "Seven Varieties of Arribiguity" 11:)
1 /

explain the pattern o f Chr'istianisation. The first generation Ctiristiw~r,

(rriostly illiterates) approached Christianity with a quiet enttlusiasrrl al-II:~
with 'a total rejection of a11 ttie external forrris of the old Order arid .a
tendency to expect power to errianate frorli religious forrris and the
association of purity and power. The second generation Ctiristiarir;
 treasured education and Western civilisation and arrived at a
compromise (syncretism and eclecticism), which formed, iiI

background. For the third generation Christians (who insist on pur'ity

of faith and conduct by their application of radical biblicism) which ~ICW

reviews Christianity with the mind that people made the sarnct
demands as they did to the primal religion and exp'ected Christianity 11:)
be more efficacious. A feature common to all the three generatior~si s
the belief in power as the essence of religion and Ezi Ndu (Salvation)
as its goal. 29
The main predicament is that the traditional converts formed ii1
"
hindrance to the good effects of the gospel. The gods at the hearts of
the traditional way of living have not been properly challenged. This is
what todsv's Christians must address if Christianity is to form dcep
roots in our culture.
' J. S. Mbiti reviewed the poor response of the traditionalists tr:)
Christianity. He supports his views by saying that "this form c:lf

Christianity, the traditionalist way made no positive attempt 11:)

incorporate ancestors songs and dances of their tradition in the
Christian scheme" While S. C. Chuta in an unpublished seminar on
the Persistent Aspects of African Traditional Religion points out that,
The African whose psychic disposition is easily
tempted circumstantially towards the African
cosmology will continue to be a man of two worlds
If for instance he is convinced that he has been
bewitched and has no recourse in religiou~
insfifufion he takes to the tradifional remedy and yet
feels he has committed as sacrifice. Secondly, this
state of affairs will more than succeed, as it has
long sc~cceeded in giving boost to the
preponderance of independent spiritual churches 3 1
 D. C. Okeke, in support of-the view that every African alw3ys
.. maintains his identity as an African says, "no matter how y01.1
christianize the Africans (Igbos) they still maintain their Africanity." :" .
lsichei claimed that today, most lgbos have been baptised and
traditional religion is the preserve of a small ageing min.ority, 1.hc~1
concerning the lived Christian experience, she noted that "although
they often spoke and wrote in phrases which now becams
unfashionable the Nigerian Christians of the first generation accepttsdl
Christianity with a literalness which changed their lives" 33 When one
wonders why Christianity made such rapid progress and why the
epochal experience of the first, second and third generation Christiatx,
lsichei replies thus,

'
That short answer to this is that when society is
endangered, conquered and subjected to sudden
violent changes, the beliefs, which are inseparably
linked with it, seem suddenly to have a limited
relative and perhaps exhausted validity. 34

But today, the situation is different. Some Christian converts go

to Church but in the face of any difficulty, they fall back on tradition;:tl
beliefs, they consult the diviners or oracles. This practice is comnicri
among adult converts and among Christians who grew up in a "pagari;~
environment. Ezeanya dubs it "endurance of conviction and goes an
to say, "
One of the commonest experiences in
evangelism in many parts of Africa is the frequency
and ease with which some Christian converts return
to those "pagan" practices which are opposed to
Christianity and which they firmly renounced when
they became Christians. Pastors are often
disappointed to see or hear that those they count on
as fervent Christians secretly consult diviners or
oracles to ascertain some hidden events, perform
pagan sacrifices to obtain some favour from the
 gods or ancestors a l ~ dwear charms and amulets for
protection. 35

Ozigbo felt that the lgbos lack a true response to Christia11ii:y

since it depended on irnportation and corruption o f ' ~ u r o ~ e areligious
n
thought and initiative. He traced this malaise to the problem of
inadequate leadership. I-le would want the "lgbo touch" and lt113

Churches in lgboland to be truly lgbo in character and in outlool~;.

Writing on the monastic life of the Church in Igboland, Ozigbo asser'ts
that,
Africans import and ape Western monastic
models largely because they lack imagination,
adeqllale inforn~ationand sufficie1)t will power. The
current transplantation of Western monastic
structures, wltho~lt proper n)odifications and
adaptations is not in the best inter'est of emerging
lgbo Catholicism. 36

Besides, we need not 'go to Europe or the United States for our
blueprint.
The lgbos also responded to Christianity via hospitals built ; ~ - d
run by missionaries. Initially, the lgbos had no interest in mission;:~ry
medicare and thus responded negatively. But with the advent ~:tf
influenza and yaws and other cornrnon maladies, the lgbos souyhl 11w
medical aid of the Christian missionaries. In an unpublistied articrs,
Chuta highlighted the fact that,
The medical mission maintained by Fr Lutz on
the outbreak of influenza at Onitsha during ?he
introduction of R o n m Catholicism there paid off.
With such prevailing sickness as leprosy, yaws,
wornis and common sores, Western medicine was
soon applred by a Roman Cathol~c team to
demonstrate its superiority to lgbo traditional
medicine. This appeal was irresistible. 37
 Many Christian denominations had medical missions in the form of^
II
hospitals, maternities, and leper colonies such as lyi Enu, Queen
Elizabeth Hospital Umuahia, Uzuakoli Leprosy Centre, Bishop
Shanahan Hospital Nsukka and the rest of them
Another important point in the historiography of Christianity in
lgboland raised by Ekechi is the concept of scramble and rivalry of the
missionary denominations. According to him,
Rivalry is responsible for the rate of
expansion, the educational foundation, service
institutions and the dominant theology in the
emerging churches. Schools served as
instruments to this rivalry and indoctrination.
This fact is to hospitals and co-
operafive farms.

Initially Ekechi was accused of de-emphasizing' co-operation ianl:l

mutuality and of having turned history upside down. But the book has
good merit, it opens up another page in the study of church history in
lgboland and it is well researched.
In the editorial suite of Newswatch Magazine of 141h July 198;(3,
Ray Ekpu wrote on the discord in the Churches and maintains that,
The Churches have not been the same again,
and that the malaise in the Church was a reflection
of the deeper malaise in the society, a society in
which the basic ethics of morality have been
trampled upon with impurity. If the Churches
themselves, which are expected to stand guard over
morality of their members, found themselves so
helpless, where was the salvation for the society?. It
did seem as. though many Nigerians have been
paying only lip service to religion, preferring to
ignore the tenets which ou ht to be with the code of
conduct or every day life. B
IR , I
This tragedy is not limited to the Church but it is replicated in the
I

the same people are involved and it is these sins tl- at

, .
9
:: , '
. .
,I
 have ruined the past two republics in Nigeria. Ekpu observed that
"personal interest and the blight of materialism have gripped tlili:
Churches and deflected them from their rnission of evangelisation and
of winning souls for Christ" 40
A few years ago, Anene Obianyido in his book, Truth an_d_-!j;!;?
Oracle at Nawqu revealed a lot of fraudulent practices and torture
going on at Nawgu being perpetrated by Edward Okeke popula-ly
called Eddy Nawgu. (Eddy Nawgu was massacred by the Bakassi
Boys in 2000). Obiany~dofurther revealed the extent of extnsm?
mental and financial exploitation people are subjected to by fillst:!
prophets who pose in cassocks and the Bible in Jesus' name. -rI-lc:
blight of materialism in the so-called prayer houses has permeated t l - ~ ?
mainline churches, kt!glicanism and Roman Catholicsm. The book. i)y
..
focusing on what happens at Nawgu, regrets the fate of today's
Christians who ambidextrously go to Church and still consult tl-le
oracle. The author wonders
Why today's Nigeria values openly condone
some of these primitive practices currently going on
at the Aniorna Spiritual Healing Home at Nawgu and
how has Christianily degenerated from the early
state in which it campaigned against superstition
and preached civilised values to a state where the
most corrupt version of pagan practices is
conducted in its name. 41

To answer these questions, the author traced the history ~:)f

Africanisation and blamed the introduction of superstition* into 11-15
church through the belief by members of some Aladura or "Oka
Ekpere" Churches in the efficacy of witchcraft, traditional divinelim
and charms. At this point, evil-minded men found the Cross a go1:1d
haven for their sharp practice. The churches then got commerciaIi:;~xI
. , .

and false prophets began to emerge and the number is on the

increase daily.
Many of these so-called "Christian Churches" are today shar%y,j
the same belief with the traditionalists on witchcraft, charms i m t

divinations. Consequently, they do not believe in the natural causes 1:)1

I
misfortunes but attribute them to either evil spirit, the agency af
witchcraft, poison or spiteful charms placed on them by enemies.
Therefore, these brand of Christians now consult dibias in the open
because the so called Healing Homes found everywhere are assumed
have come up with answers to their needs. Obianyido goes further to
say I

A number of these churches conveniently

practice traditional divination under the cover of the
Cross, the Bible and the white cassock. They
provide the Christian counterparts of the dibias and
in some cases oracles. Indeed, it is shocking to
note how openly these cults or churches practice all
that had been declared fraudulent and criminal in
the primitive version of traditional divination. 42

Similarly, A. K. Obiefuna, the Archbishop of the Roman Catholic

Church in Onitsha Archdiocese in his pastoral letter has complained
and lamented on idolatry practised by some present day Christians;
The bare fact is that they (Christians) get what
we call the religious sense and satisfaction from
such practices and that these practices inevitably
draw them away from Christianity. We see they
trust in charms, in talismans; they go to shrines as
opposed to Christian altars. They go to n6n-
believers who are diviners instead of going to the
Catholic pastors. If Christians in their inner selves
do not know they are doing the wrong thing in these
idolatrous practices, then t h e ~ eis something wrong
with our catechisis. 43
 \. Kalu in his book (already mentioned), the Embattled Gocki,,,:.
saw the encounter between the values o f the community i 3 ~

challenged by the effort to demonstrate Christ'ian values, therelzly

resulting to power encounter. He took the perspective to see the ballle
as arising from two competir~gcovenant traditions. And so began I:ly
examining the covenants which the lgbo wove with the gods of their
culture. No wonder he goes on to say that "we must begin at home,
charity would demand and understand what was happening before ttis
incursion of Christian theology." 4"e held that lgbo response la
Christianity varies from one culture area to the other and that peopls
respond according to the gods or the different deities they worship in
I1
their environment.
Iwe in his book Christianity and Culture in Africa, presented a
historical factual and analytical reflection on topical elements and
aspects of our evolving African (Igbo) culture against Christiw~
background aspiration and hope. He examined Africans in the grips of
cultural transformation and in the throes of ecclesiastical arid socio-
political under-development and disabilities. tie opines that
The lgbo response to Christianity is in form of
conflict between the Western cultural vessel in
which Christianity has been conveyed to Africa and
the authentic values and honest institutions of the
African culture; as a result of the task of
Africanisation and indigenisation becomes more
diff~cultand urgent. 45 .
Again llogu in his book, Christianityang l ~ b o
Culture providcxl
some concrete theological and sociological suggestions on 11clw
Christianity can be related to some aspects of lgbo culture. I-le made
a critical study in .some depth and patterns of lgbo life, values arid
, /culture. He brought it into the Christian milieu and tenets to indicale
'
}: .; !
I ii j !
...
.!,..b, . . ' ., ,
",-
how
,. .*.~ u c, hlgbo cultural patterns can be baptised into the Christian
1 ' '
' ! > !a f
 church, which will help to end the unnecessary foreign garb put on ttw
church in Africa. In approaching the lgbo response to Christianity, tic:!
reiterates that,
a religion [hat took no account of people's way of
life, a religion that did not recognise spots of beauty
and Youth i t ) their way of life was useless.. It would
not satisfy. It would not be a living experience, a
source of life and vitality. It would only main? a
man's soul. 46

Erivwo in AFER rightly pointed out that the history of Christian!l:y

a

the world over has shown that since its inception, it has never entered
,any culture and left it intact. According to him, " . . . it would still be
impossibl? to find any culture invaded by Christ and his army ( ~ f '
followers which remains unchanged." 49 To substantiate. the p i t - 1 1
more: Erivwo says,
the advent of Christianity to a particular culture
usually generates persecution since in the process
of Christianisation the old culture is inevitably
judged, in the light of the presence and principles of
\.
Christ. a

~ r i v w o ' s observation is absolutely true of the appearance of

Christianity in Igboland. In an age where there is a resurgence of
cultural revival, the traditional lgbo man sees Christianity as a threat to
his existence or an attack on his cultural identity. The factor accour-I!:;
for the series of reactions by various sections of lgbos society.
The emergence of Christianity in Jewish scene invglved I:]

radical quesiioning on the original Jewish culture and religion with 11-11:?
result that Judaism was shaken to its foundation. The appearance of
Christianity in the Roman world also resulted in a questioning of Ih:!
long-standing Graeco-Roman culture. Paul and his fello\$
missionaries were accused of tirrning the world up side down. 'The
veneration and worship of Caesar was especially repudiated b y
Christian's even at the cost of suffering persecution and death.
However, there were also instances of borrowing and adaptation r:d'
49
elements from existing cultures.
Christianity is not indigenous or as the dictionary would put it,
"native to the soil" in Africa. It is an external force. Therefore the effort
is concentrated on how to make creative use of the traditional heritage
to domesticate this agent of change (Christianity) so that the creative
powers of both can transform our present and future. The introductic~ri
of a new culture to an old one creates tensions and strains.
Despite all the "ups" and "downs" in the missionary expansion,
Christianity has come to stay, "the result is CULTURAL DIFFUSION."
50
 KNI) NOTES
C. Shelltiz; Research Methods In Relation% tiolt Rinehart and
Winston, 1976, p. 65.

2: C. Achebe; Things Fall Apart: London, Heinemann Educational

Books, 1958, p. 101.

Op. cit. p. 110.

Op. cit. p. 113

Op. cit. p. 123.

A. U. Agha; Earlv European Mission To West Africa: An

Introduction To West African History, Enugu, Calvary
Printing & Publishing Co. 1997. pp. 96-99.

C. Achebe. Op. cit. pp. 124-125.

-
Ibid.

10.
. .
E. A. Ayandele; Nigerian Historical Studies: London; Frank
Cass, 1979, p. 130.

11. S. Ottenberg; "lgbo Receptivity To Change" In m t i n u i t v an<!

Change in African Culture (Ed. Boston), Chicago,
University Press 1959 p. 130.

12. V. C.. Uchendu; Missionarv Problems In Nigerian SocieQ

Practical Anthropolo~y;Vol. 2. No 3 May - June 1964.
pp. 105-117.

13. S. Lamin: West African Christianity, The Reliaious Impact blew

York, Mary Knoll 1983, p. 13.
8

14. F. K. Ekechi; Missionarv Enterprise In laboland1857-1914,

London; Frank Cass 1971 P. 155.

15. S. Ottenberg. OP. cit. p.142.

16. A. U Agha, mristianitv and Culture: A Case Studv of Unwargl;
Enugu, Tee Mac 1996 pp. 24-26.

17. E. A. Ayandele, Op. cit. p. 330.

18. 0. U. Kalu: m e Embattled Gods: Christianisation of Inbolarc!

1841-1991. Lagos, Minaj Press, 1996. p. 17.

20. Richard Gray; Black Christians and White Missionaries. New

Haven; Yale University Press 1990 pp. 59-60. 1

21. 0. U. Kalu Op. cit. p. 18.

22. C. B. Okolo (Ed): ."The lgbo Experience of Christian Values;

Dimensions of Dialogal Encounter" In The lgbo Church
.and Quest for God; Obosi, Pacific College Press Ltd
1985 p. 45.

23. . H.C. Achunike; Drearns of Heaven: A Modern Response to

Christianity In North Western lgboland 1970-1990,
Enugu: SNAAP Printing and Publishing Co Ltd, 1995. pp.
24-25. .
24. Ibid.

25. The Holy Bible: Mark 4:27.

26. R. Horton; African Conversion; London; Frank Cass. 1975,

p. 104.

27. The Holy Bible: Mathew 28: 18-'19.

28. J. Daly; Iqboland: The Backaround To The Vocation'Explosic~ri;,

AFER 15 (1973) pp. 259-266.

29. ' C.C. Okorocha, m e Meaninq of Religious Conversion In Afr.j(;i!,

Aldershort; Avebury Gower Publishing Co. Ltd. 1987. PI>.
263-265.

30. J. S. Mbiti; African Religions and Philosoph~,London,

Heinemann, 1974. P. 237.
 S. C. Chuta; "Persistent Aspects of African Traditional Religion"
Unpublished Seminar Paper Delivered at The
De artment of Religion University of Nigeria Nsukka or].
P
27" Novernber 1980.

D. C. Okeke; History of Christianitv In West Africa; ASCEA

Publication 1990, p. 24.

E. lsichei (Ed) Varieties of Christian Experience In Niqeria,

Lagos Macmillan 1982, p. 7.

E Isichei: "Seven Varieties of Ambiguity: Some Patterns of lgtxl

Response to Christian Mission in J. R. A." 3. 1970 pp. ;
212 -213.

S. N. Ezeanya; "Endurance of Conviction in the Converts: Tlie

Force of the Traditional Religion of West African
Religion, 8 July (1970), p. 20.

I. R. A Ozigbo; I ~ b Catholicism:
o The Onitsha Connection IfEijI:.
1984, Onitsha Africana-FEP Publishers Ltd 1985 p. 59.

S. C. Chuta; Patterns of Response of West African Peoples tcl

Christianity, Lecture Notes on Christianity In West Africi:~
Department of Religion, U. N. N, p. 6. . .

F. K. Ekechi Op. cit. p. 136.

Ray Ekpu, Newswatch Magazine, Nigeria's Weekly Magazine,

Lagos, July 14, 1986, p. 10.

Ibid.

Anene Obianyido; Truth and The Oracle at Nawgu; Enugu,

Hawby Books 1993. p. viii.

42. Ibid.

A. K. Obiefuna: ldolatrv In A Century Old Faith, Enugu, CEC'I-A

Nig. Ltd. 1985. p. 7.

0. U. Kalu (1996) Op. cit. p. 14.

N. S. S . Iwe; Christianity and Culture In Africa: Onitsha,
University Publishing Co. Ltd. 1985, p. 7.

Edmund Ilogu; Christianitv and lgbo Culture: Onitsha, University

Publishing Go. 1974, p.4.

Sam. U. Erivwo: Traditional Culture and Christianity: Rivals OR

Partners? AFER Vol. 21, 1979, p. 217.

-
Ibid.

-
Ibid.

N. S. S. Iwe, Christianity, Culture and Colonialism In Africa, Port

Harcourt; Dept of Religious Studies, C. 0. E. 1985 p. 78.
 CHAPTER THREE
THE ADVENT OF CHRISTLANITY IN OliUMBPL
The word "advent" in itself does indicate apparently and
palpably rather than with any element of subtlety that Christianity had
a historical arrival in Orumba area (and even in Africa as a whole). It
gives credence too to the fact that the religion is alien rather t t w l
traditional or original. The religion is something the people of Orumbi# ,

came into contact with at a stage of their existence as a people. 1-ti(:?

people were before the religion came to stay with them.
Christianity as a religion with almost unimaginable fellowship IS

1 not just of one, Catholic and wholistic brand. In other words, there
.., . . '
,.\ ;. . ,,: \. '
- exist ",a thousand and one" different denominations that came undei
the name - Christianity. It is in recognition of this fact that the writw
intends to discuss in this chapter the advent of not only one of thew
denominations. The fact is that the people of Orumba came info
contact with more than one of the many denominations.
Since the writer cannot within the scope of this work discuss d l
the denominations that exist in Orumba, he has chosen three of these
denominations to humanly do justice to them. Namely they are, tl-12
Anglican Church whose evangelical arm the Church Missionary
Society (C. M. S) BROUGHT THE GOSPEL to Orumba. The other.
two are the Roman Catholic ChurchIMission popularly known in t1-1t.

area as R. C. M and the last though not the least being the Assemblies
of God Church (A. G. C), not only because they represent the rnost
outstanding denominations of Christianity especially the Anglicans i x ~ r d
Roman Catholics but more importantly because they were the nlot;l
encountered by the Orumba people.
A shallow thinker will obviously raise the question of tt-I(?
necessity and the viability of reviewing the advent of these tIir~!c
denominations instead of limiting it to just one or two. In a rnclsl
simplified form, the answer would be that the existence of differel-11
missions implies varying understanding and varying approach to thli?
notion of the gospel, Christianity and mode of evangelisation. ln other
words, the study of these denominations is necessary and viable too
because what is true of one denomination may not be true of the otht?~',

.
though we know very well that it is not all that possible to discuss tlic?
advent of all the denominations within our area of concentration in Ihli;
research.
The people could be described as being in "darkness", thoc~g11
African Continent was generally seen as a "Dark Continent" then but
that was the culture o i the people: Culled from "A Brief History o l St
John's Church District Ekwulobia", "the corning of Chrislii3rl
missionaries in Nigeria in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries faced two major areas of opposition",
The pagans in most parts of the country presented a :;t.iff
resisiance to any un-inherited religion, which was opposed to idol
worship and superstitious observances. The lgbos had suffered grt?at
losses in the hands of the white man in his atternpt to impose 1-11s
administration on the country after the Berlin Conference of 1885 and
subs'equent partition of the Continent of Africa. The military
bombardment of the towns that refused and resisted the white ma-1's
1
rule was fatal and drastic.
 The Table Below S h o w s S o m e o f T h e Sampllecl
Towns In Orwrnba arld D a t e s o f Arrival of Each c11I
t h e Denominations U ~ l d e rReview.
I
-.
.. ---.......-..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-
....... ......-.... , .... -
SIN TOWN ANGLICAN ROMAN ASSEM13L.ll2S
CHURCH CATHOLIC OF GOD
-- CHURCH -- ....-.-........ -
1. Agbudu - 1958 1931 198E;
....... -
2. ~ j a-i- i-
i- 1903 1323 1980 - -. - - - -.- - -
. , ,

3. --Akpu --- 1958 1915 ..-- 1..9!30 ........ -

4. Ama-Okpara -- 1918 1924
-- 198-1 -.-----..- .- .--
.--.5.- Awa
-- -, - - 1914 1929 1913!51 ........ , , .. - ,

6. Awgbu
--- . 1 924
---- - 1930 1
....... (3133
~ - 7. -Ezira . .- . .-. 1917
-- 1922 190t31
.....-. . . . . ,

8, lhite .~ 1971 1921- 1987'..........

, , , -, .
.
-- 9. --lsulo . 191 .. 6 1921 . 1
...-....9NCi -
10........... Nanka .
- - 1915 ---- 1 3-- 3 19
-- ................
I
:
!7 -
11. Nawfya- ....... 1914 1934
-- .-
.
1 98.1
--- -..-- -. -.- .,,

12. ~dikelionwu 1996(1907) ~ 1929

--
19e7 ............ -
~
13. Ndiowu
-- - ~- -, . -- .. 1914
-, ........ -- -...-...... 1933 .................
....
19P1 , , . .. ..,

................ 14. Nkerehi - - 1

... 957. - - 1 936
--- 19tO
................
.. 15. O g b . 1949
........
1952 19E3 . -
16.-- Onbunka
-x - 191 0
-- -- 1938
- ---..... 1 9' 7 3 ,-, .
.
17. Oko - 1909 --. ---1925 1980.
.. - ,

18. 0nneh
................ ..............
1963 1960 ~
197 !:I ...... ,. ,- ..
-19...-- Owerre-Ezukala
---- - --- --- .- 191 5 1924 I 9.7 2
--.- - - - - . - .- .--
. . . . . . . 20. ~.. Ufuma
........ 1907 1922 . 19'7'7 ...... ,. ... -.

21. , Umunze . 1970 ..... 1920 - --

--.......-..... 1 9' 7 : I - .

- 22. Umuomaku 1919 1949 1....9'78. . . . ..

Christian religion, being associated with white man, was I-N:}~

easily
. . accepted by the lgbos on time in spite that the earliest Chrislitin
mission (The C. M. S) established in Onitsha on July 27Ih 1857. TIw
planting of Christianity in lgboland could have been too difficult clr

.. ! , , merely impossible without the presence of the lgbo ex-slaves. The

i ,I
I
!,kl;,:,
'
,:,I
'
-:
,
. harm reception given to Taylor at Onitsha was because of his lgbo
,p ;*; *. ' :-.,
bri$i"f 'many of his countrymen surged around him and expressedthe
delight that he had come back home again. In their language 1 . l x y
said, "Omma ma ngi abia, otito di1.i Tsuku" ' meaning it is good !/(II.I
came, thanks be to God. It took the early missionaries over fortyll'if1:y
years to travel from Onitsha, which is taken to be the "launching pad''
of the gospel to Orurnba area. The gospel spread
. frorn Onitsha ):11
,

other parts of lgboland and the missionaries spent donkey year:;

before they could achieve this feat. Even within this Orumba art?;:.)
many more years were spent before Christianity could reach all ttw
towns in spite of their closeness. Question could be asked why st~cl-1
years were spent According to Ekechi,
The reason could be thaf fhere was low pace of
expansion as a result of lack of competitive
pressure from any other group as was the case in
the evangelisation of Onitsha and Ogidi where the
C. M. S spent (30) thirty years and could have spent
more but for the insurgent Catholicism of the French
t-loly Ghost Fathers. 3

Kalu in his own view says, "high competitive pressure forces the
paces of expansion and conversely low pressure breeds low
\.
progre'ss." At the first instance, the Anglican Church brought by the
Church Missionary Society did not have rivals as they spread t l ~
gospel within the towns of Orumba area and the environs, which wix-~ld
have forced them to speed up their paces as they evangelised. Ottier
factors responsible for low expansion of the missionary activities
included poor means of communication. There was language barrier'.
Some of the missionaries could not speak the language and dialect of
the people to whom they came to preach to neither could the peoph:?
understand what the missionaries came to say. So long time had Icj
be spent to train enough local people who could help in delivering th~:!!,
II
message of the gospel to the people. To overcome this difficulty their
 first task was to train church agents and lay readers to take up the toslc
of preaching the gospel to people in the hinterlands.
The lgbos at that time were generally opposed to any foreign
and un-inherited religion. Probably they did not want a repeer
performance of their ugly experience in the hands of Lord Lugarcl's
soldiers who burnt their houses, idols and as well killed their kinsnieri
The missionaries therefore kept away from the lybo hinterland until h:!
situation permitted their penetration. Travelling was not c ? ~ s ! / .
Travelling from place to place was very arduous, circuitous, slow and
risky. There were no good roads and travelling facilities in the Igbc:,
hinterland. The climate was not friendly and the natives were tor:)
hostile for any missionary to cope with. There was local resistance to
Christianity by the Chiefs and influential people w t ~ ofeared that the
new religion might reduce their influence in the society.
However, at last the people embraced Christianity. Many
factors attracted them and these factors were more socio-econom!k
than religious. Some of them were attracted by the mode of living of
the early Christians. At times the missionaries would share some
clothes as well as food items to the new converts. Any day SIK:~

would be shared to the converts, the worshipping place would always

be filled to the brim to the delight of the missionaries. Though no1 all
the people who stormed the place were actually converted but through
this means, many were won to Christianity. This strategy succeedwl
for a while.
Some people were attracted to Christianity because of 11-13

songs they were taught, mode of dressing and other aspects of I k

they acquired. Christianity came with education and this also attractlxl
, many converts no matter that some prominent/influential titled meri ;:~t
the initial stage never wanted their children to go and learn from the
 missionaries because these missionaries were seen by most of tli$
natives as agents of destabilisation. These influential and titled rnen
never believed that the missionaries came with anything good. But
when they saw the changes wrought through education and o t t w
means of evangelisation they thought otherwise. Those who came 11:)
school were taught the letters of the lgbo alphabet, simple addition and
subtraction. They also learnt how to read and write even in English.
Any one who could do this was held highly in repute. ~ h r o u school
~h
evangelism many converts were won especially by the Roman
Catholics. The missions, the Anglicans and Roman Catholics
established some mission schools both within Orumba area and
beyond.
Another factor which made the people to embrace Christianity,
was the medical services rendered by the missionaries. It is on record
that the missionaries also came with hospitals. When they arrived
initially, many of the people they met were suffering from one. kincl of
deadly disease or the other which led to many deaths. But by Gc~cl's
grace when the missionaries came they brought sorne medicines for
the treatment of most of these diseases and the death rate reduced
drastically. Due to this free medical assistance these converts were
receiving, this went a long way in making the spread of the gospel to
be successful. Many mission hospitals were then established i31lf

most of them are still in existence up to date.

An unforgettable event which happened then which alsu motjlis
many people within Orumba and Ogbunka town in particular to accept
Christianity with all their hearts was the return of one Roselinlr?
Mgbokwa Mbazurike who was sold into slavery. She was carried 10
Calabar and it was there that she regained her freedom through the
!!I
' help of some missionaries who met the slave dealers there. When !jl311?
v
was released, she was helped to return to her people. On her retiirr?,
she narrated all that happened to her and especially how she wiX
granted her freedom through the influence of the missionaries. I-ler
story helped immensely to spread the good news of salvation brougt-~t
by the missionaries and this also made the people believe that ttw
missionaries came with something good for the generality of the
people. 7
Politically, socially, economically and otherwise there werli?
many good changes wrought by Christianity. All these ab(-,wn?
mentioned factors and many others not mentioned here made tlw
I
people of Orumba in particular to accept Christianity. What was sai~1
at the birth of Jesus Christ, "The people who walked in darkness hiwo
seen a great light: those who dwelt in a land of deep daikness, on
them has light shined" could equally be said of the people of 0ruml:~a
in particular and lgboland in general when Christianity arrivecl.
Christianity - the light of the world actually brought the light to the
people which brought about drastic changes to the lives of the people
Orumba people came into contact with more than one denominalion
as already'stated and they came differently as could be seen from 11-ie
table already given. Now let us seellook at the arrival of the tt1re.e
denominations chosen to serve as the samples of the Christian religicm
and the impact created by each of them on the general life of the
e
people.

3.1 THE ADVENT OF THE CIIURCII M I S S I 0 M I ; W

SOCIETY (CMS)

The Church Missionary Society (C. M. S) was a child of the .18'''

century evangelical revival. It was formed in 1799. This revival begm
with Methodism but soon attracted followers from members of the
 Church of England. The Church Missionary Society was from the start
a purely Anglican Association which its aim was to take the gospel l o
the remotest part of the world. At first it was regarded with suspicion
by the authorities in the Church of England. This was mainly because
its members adopted "Catholic policy" of co-operating with the so-
called "Dissenters" for the sake of the Gospel. '
The principle on which the C. M. S was founded differe.~:!
especially from those of the London Missionary Society (L. M. S), tti~:?
society for the Propagation of the Gospel (S. P. G ) , the Society for
Christian Knowledge (S. P. C. K) or the Baptist Missionary
' .

,
.;j!ll ( I
,,
'I .
,
adopted by tho C. M. S phts the fundamedlll I
principles of the society thus, "That it is a duty highly incumbent upw
I,;,;,1 !:I,
111 .
,',

. everylChristiaq. to endeavour to propagate the qowledge , >

of:: hli~!kb~'
,,:Iil,'d,dd:

Gospel among the Heathen." l o We shall remark that it is not the duty
of the "Church" but "every Christian." This implies that if the Church
could not move, individuals could move. Thus the formation of tlw
Society was justified.
The C. M. S was solely interested in the conversion of tke
heathens in Africa and Asia. When its appeals for men and mcm!
Y
failed in England (no one shouted here I am send me) the leaders crfI
the Society were disappointed. Hence the lament.of Charles Simon "I
see more and more who it is that must thrust out labourers into t-lis
harvests." l1
.
It was this lack of response from England that led tl-;I:?
,

Society to recruit its first agents from the Lutheran Church of Germa-ry.
Some of these were recruited as Catechists before they were Iattx
ordained.
The policy of the C. M. S was to establish i~digenouschurches
on self-supporting, self-governing and self-propagating basis. This
 policy on native church organisation was formulated by I-lenry Venn it-I
1851.
In West Africa, the C. M. S opened its first mission in Rio
Pongas (Sierra Leone) in 1804. It came to Abeokuta in 1842, Onitsha
1857, Asaba in 1875, Orumba in 1896, (1907) Egbu, Owerri in 190tj,
Enugu in 1917, and Nsukka in 1930. Ten out of the twelve
missionaries sent to Sierra Leone died within eighteen months but
when this sad news reached the leaders of the Society in London it-I
1823, they vowed never to abandon West Africa.
At this juncture, let us see how this Society came down to our
own land and area of review in particular. The first move to evangeli:;ci!
West AfricaINigeria failed because of many reasons but in all that first
impulse was not stimulated by a genuine Divine love for the so cailetd
"be-knighted Africans" but by a deep commercial interest, a gold-
seeking enthusiasm for the long south "Eldo-radio." This was in an erirj
!
I when European missionary work in West - Africa was intimately
,,
,I\ ! ,; ,*
*
dependent on colonial commercial expansion Revd. Henry Venn was
a real missionary whose feelings for Africa helped to make the
missionary expansion in West Africa successful. As part of tribute paid
to him at death, the Archdeacon of Upper Volta, Ven. Henry Johnson
said,
Henry Venn was the man who laid his'time, his
talents and whatever he had of this world's goods
upon the altar of sacrifice, laboured with uncommon
energy and zeal and died, thinking and prayiog for
Africa. T o ,him under .God, we owe in no small
measure the progress which we have made in
education on the West Coast of Africa... He was a
man of true genuine profound sympathy. 12

In 1857, the British government in collaboration with hllac

Gregor Laird sponsored another expedition under Dr. Williams Balfour
 Baikie. The expedition was significant for the history of Christianitly ih
Igboland. According to Onyeidu, "this was the most successful Niger
expedition that opened' lgboland for commerce and Christianity." '"
The Revd. Samuel Adjai Crowther led the C. M. S group,.which
included Revd. J. C. Taylor, Simon Jones, Augustine Radaillo
(liberated Slaves of Igbo .origin) and a number of Catechists iand
schoolmasters. Henry Venn gave Crowther a definite mandate to
open a mission at Onitsha. The team arrived at Onitsha in July and
met the reigning king, Obi Akazua, his son Odin aiid Orikaebue, t l ~ e
Obi's brother and Anyakoha, Obi's c o ~ n c i l o r .Negotiations
'~ for a piece
of land started and at last a piece of land was allocated immedia?ely
for a mission s t a t i o ~ ~Crowther
. showed much appreciation for tlit:!
I good gestu,re. "0-n Monday July 27, 1857, the first C. M. S Church in
-... . .-
:

1: ,
i
Mas planted.,and on Sunday, August 2, the same year, ti~~
IIi-! t

first Church worship was held by the Revd. John Christopher Tayla jd.,

went north-ward." l5 By this event, Onitsha became I ths

Ill1,1. ,,
. ' I gateway
,. and, bridge-head for the Church Missionary S o c # $ ~;. , ~
, . .L, I
,,;..I!.,I
evangelism in the Eastern part of Nigeria.
Salisbury Square appeared to have been satisfied with tlie'
choice of Onitsha as headquarters and Taylor as leader. Onitsha,
strategic
\. for its location like Aboh and Lokoja enjoyed the approvial c:lf

Crowther, Laird and even Dr. Baikie as a commercial as well as

missionary centre. In appreciation, Baikie wrote'on Onitsha Stalicn
thus, "it is well placed, on rising ground with a dry soil. It is the key lo
the extensive lgbo District and is the proper spot for a trading nucleu!;."
16
Crowther appreciated the magnitude of Taylor's assignment and
instructed him on his ministerial duties. He was insistent on the st~~cly
of the language and tradition of the people as this would enhance the:
 relationship between the missionaries and the indigenes and at ttiri?
same time enable Taylor teach more by visit and conversation.
It is a general consensus that the Church missionary Society,
the evangelical arm of the Anglican Church was lhe first Chris1ia1.1
missionary body to arrive Orurnba. It was around 1896 that t h ~ s
Christian Mission entered Ndikelionwu through the coming into conlt~ct
with Christianity by Late Mr. John Kanu of Ndikelionwu at OraiTiic?
. where he was taking refuge. l7 From the date he got himself well
prepared to take the gospel home and his people, the people or'
Ndikelionwu received the gospel with all their hearts and this wiz;
evidenced by the way they took the gospel to other towns aro~md
them. Another school of thought has it that officially, 1907 should I:e
taken to be the actual date that the Church Missionary Society lantjec:l
at Ndikelionwu through the Revd. W. L. Brown of Awka College who
learnt from Mazi John Ogbonnia Kanu that Mazi lkelionwu of the r~llirlg
, , Farnily in Ndikelionwu had a strong desire to welcome the Christii~n
h.

Mission to the town. Ndikelionwu has a high record of producing

Church teachers in the Niger Mission and the old Niger Diocese and it
was the evangelistic efforts of all the pioneers of St Margaret's Church
Ndikelionwu that resulted in the founding of all the churches in 0runil:~a
or Ufesiodo, and in areas beyond. l6 This means that f r u m
Ndikelionwu, the gospel brought by the C. M. S (Church Missior~al-y
Society) the evangelical arm of the Anglican Church spread like wiid
fire to all the parts of Orumba. The lives of the people in 311 spheres
were transformed as a result of the introduction of the Anglir';i3r'l
Church. Though not all the people from all the towns embraccxl
Christianity with all their hearts but majority of them did.
 The influence of this Christian religio,~could be felt as a result: crf
the establishment of churches, schools, construction of roads i311d

establishment of hospitals. According to Isichei,

The bulk of the first Christian converts were
drawn from the poor, the needy and the rejected:
the mothers of twins, women accused of witchcraft,
those suffering f r ~ mdiseases such as leprosy,
which were seen as abominable. Finding little
satisfaction in the world around them, lliey turned to .
Christianity wilh a single-minded devotion, which
astonished all who beheld it. l 7

Christianity gave the people the succour needed and provi(lel:l

salvaJion to them, many opted to join this new religion. -Though sclix?
of the new converts were mocked and made fun of but such never
deterred them: The light of the gospel actually over-shadowxl
darkness. The Church Missionary Society (C. M. S) without mincing
words could be called the "Osu Ofia" of lgboland and beyond for they
\.

were the first to bring the gospel to this part of the country and ihey
pavedlprepared way for other denominations which came later to jclir.1
in the propagation of the message of salvation. The Roman Catholic
Church was the second missionary team to come to Orumba with 1-l-1e
gospel.

3.2 THE ADVENT OF THE ROMAN CATHOL,IIC:

(CHURCH) MISSION (ReCo C/Ro Co M )

Between the period 1857 to 1885, the Church ~issio11~11.y

Society was the only missionary organisation in this culture zone .i-i
North West Igboland. According to Kanu,
The French Society of African Mission entered
Lagos in 1864 and moved as far as North West
lgboland but did not get to the Niger which was
 under the hawkish eye of the British. commercial
interest.

The C. M. S enjoyed an untrammelled monopoly of this field until 108!3

when Revd. Fr. Lutz, the leader of the Holy Ghost Fathers chosci!
Onitsha in preference to Gbebe as the location of the Roman Catholic
Church to the lower Niger. The location ensured communicatio~-I
facilities especially as the headquarters of the Vicariate was in Gabon.
Palatable water was also available. But two other consideratiorls
mattered, namely, the absence of the Moslem and the opportunity 10
19 .
counteract the Protestants who had made little stride.
Two problems dogged the mission - feasible co-ordination witl-1
Gabon and the fact that this was British territory. The Onitsha royi~il
court had welcomed the "Protestants" (the Anglicans) and also the
British traders and found no reason not to dally with a French mission.
It may also be that Lutz's social welfare promises gave a certain
impression of being a more munificent society than the tight fisted
British mission.
The Anglican Church which through her evangelical arm, tlih
Church Missionary Society had stayed for complete twenty-eight (28)
I
years before the arrival of the Roman Catholics had penetrated into
the interior areas of the Igboland, though some of the towns they
entered never received them warmly.
The Roman Catholics came with a ready-made strategy to t-le
charitable institutions as a means of rooting the mis3ion and
countering the Anglicans. As stated by Prof. Ogbu Kalu, "the most
prominent of these charitable institutions was the freedom village:!.
. ,

This was said to have been borrowed from Cardinal Lavigerie whc,
applied it successfully in Algiers." 20 The Roman Catholic Church
suffered very high mortality rate, Lutz, the leader died in 1895, his
successor, Reling was too ill and resigned in 1898, Pawlas took o w
only to die in 1900. Leon Lejeune was on sick leave when he wi;::s
appointed as the new leader in 1900. The demise of these early
missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church created an unduly high
turnover of leadership. 2 1
It was during the era of Lejeune as the leader that the re-
conversion of Samuel Okosi, the Obi of Onitsha 1900 to 1931 toc:~l~
place. The patronage of prominent laity was a touchstone for
expansion. Foimation of organisations helped the Roman Catholic
I

Church a lot in the spread of their faith. Such lay organisations like the
.4wka District Catholic Union (A. D. C. U) to take one example became
the vanguard in denominational warfare; consideration and politicel
adventures as lay power turned the wheel of the christianisatiol-1
process. As the constitution of the A. D. C. U itemised the objectives
they set out to
advance Catholic interest.
promote the moral, social and intellectual improvemer~tof
the Catholics.
(iii) foster a true Catholic spirit.
(iv) encourage the study of Catholic history, doctrine antJ
science.
by frequent and regular intercourse bind the members
more closely in pursuit of the interest of the Church.
Serve as an organ by which to safeguard the inferest of
the Catholics of the District as a whole. n
I

This particular organisation welded over eighty communitie:il

and sought to assist the spread of Catholicism, enlarge the scope of
ministerial formation and sponsor candidates for political office.
 The advent of the Roman Catholic Church in Orurnba started
around 1915. According to Sir. Joseph Uzochukwuokike,
. . . the first rnissionary group of the Roman
Catholic Mission to Orumba came from Adazi
Parish in Awka District, headed by Revd. Fr. Lydan.
This team landed f i s t at Akpu from where they
spread to other towns within Orumba and beyond
like a wild fire. 23

Akpu is also known as "Ugwu Ntijiegbe" as a result of

encounter between the whites and the indigenes there. 24 A seminary
known as St. Dominic's Junior Seminary Akpu is situated at PiIq:~l..l
today as a monument in commemoration of the fact that the ROIT;:I:I
Catholic missionaries landed here first and spread from here to othcx
parts of the neighbouring owns. Revd. Fr. cy;rian Michael Iweni
Tansi a native of Aguleri in Anambra East Local ~ ~ v e r n m eArea
n t of
Anambra State whose beatification by Pope John Paul II took placx ill
March 1998 at Oba Airport, a town very close to Onitsha was arrwlij
the prominent and early Revd. Fathers who served the parish imtl
25
made it what it is today.
Prior to the arrival of Fr. Lydan and his team to Akpu, tt-if?
Orumba people had gotten wind of this denomination and L\~E!I-~?

already more or less pro-Catholics. This was only true of few

individuals of he area who came about this through contact with oll-~r:!r
people who already had Christian influence. The Roman Cattwlic
Church that came to Orurnba could be likened to the mustard s e ~ d
and it spread to all the nooks and crannies of the locality.
... On arrival, Fr. Lydan and his group were taken to the walxml
Chief of the town, Chief Amaradike lkpo who accommodated them,
provided them with shelter, feeding and other necessary supports
needed in the establishment of this denomination in this area. '1-lie
over all head of the Roman Catholic Church then was Fr. Bubericlorf
who was operating from Adazi, the parish headquarters. He was
issuing instructions from there and also reports were being brought lo
him from other stations - all the stations within his jurisdiction. This
rate of growth was too fast in spite of their late arrival. The main
reasons being that they were accepting and accommodating almost all
sorts of people who came in contact with them without thorou!;!lj
preparations before baptism. Again, financially, the Roman Catholic:. t!
were being given some grants from abroad. Many people opted to join
them. Even some pregnant women were asked to come for 11-I<?
baptism of their unborn babies. On such occasions both masculine
and feminine names would be given so that eventually if a baby boy
was born, he would take the masculine name but if a girl, she would
take the feminine name. 26
Another thing that attracted many people to the new faith at tlil:?
initial stage was the use of foreign languages - English and Latin in
celebrating mass. At the beginning many people delighted in listening
to these foreign languages though without understanding what was
being said. Later some started to frown and complain that they were
fooling themselves by hearing without understanding all that was being
said. There was need to have interpreters. The presence of Igl:lo
ordained Rev. Fathers like Tansi helped matters immensely. TI-~e
provision of a miniature school which served more as a prayer house
and a catechism class than a centre for any real literacy educaiion
also helped greatly in winning more converts by the Roman Cgtholic:~;.
Many parents who had started to see the importance of educaticln
allowed their children to go and be educated since they themselves did
not have that opportunity and privilege. Sequel to the acceptance 12f
I
the new faith (Catholicism), as a monument as stated above and fox-
being the flrst town in the whole of Orumba, the only Roman Cathr:llil::
Seminary in the area is at Akpu, i.e. "Ugwu Ntijiegbe."
Generally, the progress made by the Roman Catholics could tlct?
said to be tremendous within the locality of our concentration, Orumba
area and even beyond. They have established many mission schocds
(more of primary and nursery), hospitals and maternities, cht.~rr:l-I
buildings and the rest of them solely owned and managed by them. 11-1

some of the towns that make up Orumba they have one or t w

parishes and in others more than that with enough parish priests ati1:i
Rev. Sisters taking proper care of them. The sisters are mostly in
charge of the schools and hospitalslmaternities. In spite of their lale
arrival, what the Roman Catholics have done cannot be over
emphasised.
On the whole, the arrival of Christianity at, Orumba area has
made the locality see the light of the day. Of all the church
denominations in Orumba, the Anglicans and the Roman Catholics w e
the arch-rivals. 27

3.3 THE ADVENT OF THE ASSEMBLIES OF GOI[)

C ti URC ti

The Assemblies of God Church was not the third denominatiim

I
to arrive Orumba area in chronological order. Other denomin$io/~f
like the Faith Tabernacle, the Jehovah Witness and even the Sabl.mr:h
Mission arrived earlier here before the Assemblies of God Church t : ~ t
the researcher has chosen to write on the denomination, 1 I - t ~
Assemblies, because of her tremendous growth and the great impacts
so far made in the lives of the people of this area even more than Iho
other denominations that came before her except the Anglicans and
the Roman Catholics.
According to Peter. E3. Clarke in his book West Africa ;m:1
Christianity,
. . . after the second world war, Pentecostalist
churches from the United States, such as the
Assemblies of God began operations in the country
using radio ..broadcasts.as their main instrument of
evangelism. 28

The pioneer Assemblies of God Church missionaries arrived 0ruml:ta

around 1972 from Umuaku lsuochi in Abia State. To be precise, it was
'
at Owerre Ezukala, one of the towns that make up Orumba area i t ~ ~ t
they first arrived. Umuaku and Owerre Ezukala have been two gc~orrl
neighbouring towns, though they are neither in the same Ioc;i~l
I
government area nor in the same state. Little misunderstandings
could erupt sometimes as a result of land dispute but comparing it w ~ l h
what,.has been happening between other towns one would agree that
actually the two towns have been thinking well'of each other no matter
that they are in different states since East central State was split,
Umuaku being in Imo Slate before the creation of Abia State where it
is today and Owerre Ezukala in Anambra State since the creation (:if

Anambra State in the middle of 70'

According to our source of information, the early missionaries of
this faith from Umuaku lsuochi came to Owerre Ezukala with their new
faith and met the traditional ruler of the town His Royal Highness, Igwe
Timothy N. Madu, (The Onyia Mberede 1 of Owerre Ezukala). 7'Iils!y
I

prayed him to allow them carry out a crusade in the town. They cam$
in the company of Mr. Timothy Obioma Chukwusili; an indigene 1:1f

Owerre Ezukala but teaching at Central School Umuaku and a staunch

member of the Scripture Union. According to this team their aim was
 evil of all sorts in the society. Their request was granted and tlwy
carried out the crusade. It was very successful. Many souls were v m i i '
I.: .

:'

for Christ. The new converts to this new faith started meeting at
Egbeagu Central School Owerre Ezultala. This seed, which was
planted in good faith, germinated and has grown like the mustard
seed. It has been nurtured and now it is standing firmly and also has
spread to all the towns within our area of jurisdiction and beyond.
Each congregation is waxing strongly. In some towns you have more
than one congregation/church. They have achieved a lot in term:; of
membership even more than some other denomjnations that catnl:?
before them but not more than the Anglicans or the Roman Catholic;::;.
29

Though they are doing very well but they have not been,able 1.1:)
own either a school or hospital of theirs. They show more love 11:)
themselves than to any other person who does not belong to the sanw
faith with them. Any time they are confronted for doing so, they will
defend themselves by quoting, "let us hold fast the confession of our
hope without wavering, for he who promised is faithful; and let LIS

consider how to stir up one another to love and good works, r7cA
I
neglecting to meet together." 30
Most of the members of Assemblies of God. everywhere always
like to identify with good projects embarked upon in every commul-lily
where they are. By this I mean that they always help in commul-~i'ty
development. 1 know of a particular community who two member'!; o f
this denomination are in the Executive Governing body of the ~CYVVI-I

Many of them live transparent lives. Their major beliefs are: Trinity,
Prophecy, Eschatology, Salvation by Faith, Power'in Prayer and F'iaitl.1
 in Jesus Christ. According to Babalola in his book Christianity in West
Africa;
The Assemblies are puritanical in nature,
demanding total abstinence from alcohol but with
much emphasis on a personal assurance of
conversion within the terms of a Pentecostal
teaching of Baptism in Spirit. '
The new converts are baptised by immersion even if the person hi~ts
been baptised by sprinkling before. They also believe that the.dead is
not buried by pouring small sand on his face but by complele!iy
,!''
I
1 Aa ! i covering the entire body in earth or ground To them therefora,
h
I

! baptism by immersion implies burial in the grave of water Only adult

baptism is adopted by the church. Children are dedicated until they
are of age to be baptised as adults. The church accepts monogall?\/
as the only approved system of marriage. Sometimes, some of thtm
show holier than thou attitude which more often than not causes rift
either in the family or in the society. Assemblies of God church is on(:!
of the denominations to reckon with in Orumba areh and even beyond
This church has helped immensely to bring people nearer to Gocl
through His Son, Jesus Christ. The church cannot be done wittiout
her nowadays, thanks be to God.

.- 3.4 DENOMINATIONAL STRATEGIES OF EVANGELiSATIOFl

"
Not withstanding the innumerable difficulties and problwlis
encountelad by the early missionaries, they were able to accomplish a
great deal of evangelisation in Orumba area of Anambra State. This
was made possible through certain operational strategies employed b y
the missionaries. In this section of the project we are going to look at
some of those strategies used by them. Though the task ww;
enormous but "with God, all things are possible."
..
 The need for varying strategies arise because cultures vary,
values vary, belief systems vary also. In other words, an approi3cl-1
adopted by a missionary group in one town may not be suitable in
another. In other cases more than one or two strategies were utilised
in one locality with each inter-playing the other. w e shall bear in mind
that all the missionaries of various denominations are going to I:,ra
taken as one. By this it means that we are not going to look at tIw
different methods used by each particular denomination and afler' we
look at the other denomination. What we are going to do is to have
general survey of the methods used by all the denominations in s p t l : ~
of their denominational differences. We are going to see them all as
one Christian body. So we are going to discuss the methods used b y
the Christians to.win people to the Christian faith irrespective of tlwlr
denhinations.
. .
j 1, / .. I '

. .
' .
I I;!
11i,~~/'!i
!
.4.1 ALLIANCEWITH THE LOCAL CHIEFS AND RULERS $i: ,'i\

One of the strategies adopted by the missionaries to w i r ~

. , ..
' convert,s and acceptability among he people W?S alliance with the lkf:.$
I
chiefs arid rulers. Each place they arrived, they first c o n t a c t e d ~ ~ t ~ i ~ ~ i ~ ~
chief or the ruler of that place. The alliance with the chiefs and 1.1-~e
rulers facilitated their missionary programme where they were well
received. When the first missionaries arrived Onitsha in 1857, they
went straight to the reigning king of the town, Obi Akazua. They had ;I
gathering with this reigning king, his son, Odin Orikaebue, the Clt~i's
brother and Anyakora Obi's councillor. The result being that tl- ti?
missionaries were well received and after negotiations, a piece of land
was immediately allocated for a mission station. 32 The missionaries
1

that came later maintained the tradition or the practice. Orumba area
was not left out in this system. They were well received in many towns
by the local rulers and this made the people join the train of the new
mission. However, only an insignificant few was able to relinquish their
strong hold in traditional belief for the new religion - Christianity. TI-lo
chiefs themselves did not easily, however yield to the missionary
demands. Some of them were lured into doing what they did .--
bringing their subjects to the mission.
Afigbo observed the missionary device in this regard and writies
that
Most of the chiefs were enticed into material gifts
such as umbrella, tobacco hot drinks and other
trade goods. When these demands were met the
chiefs would agree but where not, the chiefs
became antagonistic and the mission slumbered. 33

The chiefs and the traditional rulers became useful instruments for the
spread of the gospel. As to why they were used as instrumentalist..,
Afigbo buttresses this fact by saying,
1
. .. the missionaries had tried, preaching the gospel
to elders and'chiefs and getting them to drag their
households and chiefdom with them into the field of
the church but this had not always worked. 34

On the use of this strategy, Afolabi has it that

The missionaries sent to Benin should settle in
Benin and live among the Edo people, learn their
language and customs and then evangelise them.
Rather they were to convert the Oba and make him
decree the Catholic faith as religion of the realm. 35

Though the missionaries had reckoned with the rulers they Gad not
much problem about rulers generally because of the uncentralised and
broad based.nature of the political structure in Igboland. Ayandelo in
his own writing says that "the chiefs took the acceptance of the
missionaries as a way of showing obedience to the colonihl
government since they were though to be essentially the same." 36
 According to John Anya, the son of the warrant chief of
Ogbunka when the missionaries arrived in 1910 "... their usual
practice was to convert the rulers first as was the case of my father
and some other traditional rulers". 37 It is generally accepted thiz~t
where the chief was friendly with the missionaries and amenable 1:1:)
their influence, they generally plan to convert through his tribe as ia

whole. So it is understandable therefore that there was a kind cd

mutual transaction between those agents of missionary evangelis~n
and local chiefs hence the missionaries were able to win sotno
converts.

3.4.2 OFFERING OF MATERIAL GIFTS

Another important and useful way of converting the people was
by offering material gifts to them. According to Agha;
the converts were always at the receiving ends and
this has become a chronic disease... People have
not learnt to give for the work of extending the
Gospel (Evangelism). The free gift method was not
a failure for some, who could not have afforded the
cost received the gospel freely. 38 I

Many people rushed to embrace Christianity because the missionarias

were sharing many gifts among them. Agha goes on to say that:
the most effective but momentary method was the .
use of coercion and luring through the gift of sweet,
candle, sugar, rice, clothes and other nice things.
Many children responded to this method but only to
withdraw and run away after they have receiveq
their share. 39

Other things like beads, drinks, umbrellas, walking sticks were among
the gifts brought by the missionaries for the people. Actually, thifi
worked to excite and motivate the people into accepting Christianity
I
 \.

but it was temporal. On using gifts to attract people to Christianll:~

further says;
they were loaded with different gifts from King John
of Potillgal . . . When Cam arrived he immediately
forwarded p ~ ~ x i o ugifts
s to the King of Ekpongo,
and requested him to abandon his native religion
and accept the true faith . . . he continued. Without
these gifts and its attractions, the missionary would
not have made a lot of in1 act on their own in the
process of evangelisation. 4
Even up to date, gifts are still being used in luring people inlo
embracing Christianity. Ike in the riverine areas of the Diocese 01-1
I '
The Niger, (Anambra State) some parerits do send their children 11:)
some of the Anglican churches established there in order to ber'wit
from sorne of the gifts we normally send to them. This system (:~f
winning souls for Christ has been yielding dividends tremendously. It
worked for the early missionaries and it is still working for the preser-11
missionaries. The church is for both the spiritual and physical neeclr;
of man - wholistic ministry - total salvation of man, body and soul.

3.4.3 HOSYITAL OR HEALTH CAKE CENTRES

Another important strategy employed by the missionaries in
establishing their Christian faith in lgboland was the use of 'medicwi!'
for the people. The church missionaries have frorn inception placed
healing on the forefront of their activities. From the early beginnings!
the Mission has carried on a ministry of healing through attending to
the sick, the suffering and the dying. On the activities of the
! missionaries in areas of establishing hospitals and medical centres.,
t
I
I I
I 8-
11 i 1 His Gracq, the Most Revd. Dr. J A. Onyemelukwe (Rtd.), the 6ishol:l
on The Niger Archbishop Province II and Dean, Church of Nigerii:~
(Anglican Communion) opines thus:
 the philosophy of the C. M. S Niger mission in
getting involved in medical work is not far to seek
because Jesus Christ enjoins all Christians - His
disciples - the church to go to leach to preacli and
to heal. 41

One of the primary areas of work for the missionaries has been to gel
the people healed both spiritually and physically. In those early d a y s
of Christianity, there were rampant diseases found within the are;:]
under review and beyond. Medical attention was much needed t t w l
because there was very high mortality rate. There was yellow fever.,
typhoid fever, tetanus which disengaged the minds of the people
Between 1918 and 1919, there was a global epidemic which claimed
so many lives and the people had no other option than to seek out tlie?
way for extricating themselves from these deadly diseases. The
missionaries then were seen as a "panacea" to disease problems.
I
The missionaries took it upon themselves to take car of the health
problems of the people. They built hospitals and dispensaries end
doctors were sent to treat those that were sick. Many sicknesses were
prevalent in those days. The patients were nursed within the mission
premises. No wonder Agha reiterates that;
there was great need for medical missions or work
in Africa than anywhere else because of the
unhealthy climate, the prevalence of malaria, black
water and other deadly diseases. The importance of
medical work in West Africa can hardly be over-
emphasised especially in areas where there were
no laws of sanitation and health. 42

Writing on the use of this strategy, Ekechi states that,

the opening of hospitals was not based on
humanitarian reasoning but had ulterior motives,
pruned with its humanrtarian trappings. The
dispensing of medicines and gifts was conceived to
influence the people to accept the Catholic religion
. . . As a condition for treating children, the
 -. e p . r.-?-
missionaries .demanded that they should be
baptised first. 43

Many people who had health problems thronged the premises of It112

rni~sionariesand most of them were healed and this continued t(:t

attract people to Christianity as well as spreading it . .According
Isichei,
The first man to bring Christ~anity to
Arondizuogu was a cerfg-ke. He went to lyi-
Enu hospital for treatment for an eye defect in 1910,
and returned; cured and a Chrrstiar-~~n 1912 to
become the first pioneer of Chnstian~ty n
Arondizuoga. 44
'

She goes further to say that "in the days when leprosy was treatacl
with injections of hydrocarpus oil, many lgbos spent years at the
Presbyterisn leper-colony at Itu, 'founded in 1928, finally returned tr:,
their villages cured and Christians." 45 SOmany health institutions h;xI
been'established by the missions in order to meet up with the mec1ic:i:d
demands of the people and through the establishment of tht?!;ci!
medical institutions the gospel has been spread to almost all noc:ks
and crannies and many souls won for Christ. For example lyi-Eir11.1
Hospital, St. Charles Boromeo, Onitsha, Bishop Shanahan Nsultka,
~ueen
Elizabeth Hospital Umuahia, Awka Diocesan Hospital Umutizo
with its extension at Ogbunka, St. Joseph Hospital Umunze. All t h ~ ~
and many more are owned and managed by the missions - the
Anglican and Roman Catholics. Almost all the interior areas oi
Anambra State are flooded with hospitals by the missions. l-ti(:~
establishment of these medical centres has helped immensely in
taking the gospel to the grass root.
3.4.4 BUILDING OF SCIIOOLS/EDUCATlONAL INSTITU1'ION!i
Another way adopted by the missionaries for the conversion (:~f
the people was the idea of establishing schools in both urban and ruri:~l
areas. Education was a very big tool if not the most important factor
for the conversion of people. In most places, as soon as the
missionaries arrived, they started schools and persuaded people 10
come and acquire knowledge. It could be recalled that when the
missionaries came, they came with religion: Christianity, with hospil;:ll.s
for the medical care of the people and with education. Mi31-IY
rnissionary schools were established, both primary and secondary
schools. Both the Anglicans and the Roman Catholics had so mi?l-ly
schools before the Nigeria-Biafra (Civil) war (1967 - 1970). 'Tlw
worshipping places were also serving as miniature school buildi17!;1:i.
When the Roman Catholic missionaries arrived Orumba they landed at
Akpu (Ugwu Ntijiegbe) and as a monument, the only seminary sclicl~:)l
in the whole of Orumba is built there. At Onitsha, today there are
many rnissionary schools built before the war and after, being owriel:l
and managed by the missions. Such schools as Dennis Memorxl
Grammar School, Christ the King College, Queen of the Rosary
College, St. Monica's College and the rest of them are missior)
schools. There are so many of them in almost all places.
The involvement of the missionaries in education was tied to thcr
1 '
aims of missionary enterprise in their areas of operation. The mejw
objective was evangelisation by which the gospel of Christ was sprctixl
to the people. The missionaries considered it easier to achi&e their
aim of conversion using the schools when the children had riot
become fully involved in the traditional beliefs of their various cultures.
The missionaries believed, and rightly too that if children who at their
impressionable stages of development, were exposed to Illct
 catechisms and Christian teaching would be of greater assets than
adults who were already "juju" priests. The missionaries at first
thought they would achieve their goals of spreading the gospel throu!$1
local chiefs and rulers, later came to understand that it was very
difficult. They devised the strategy by way of approaching the young
ones, which was very successful.
The elders and chiefs were seen as difficult people to convince
and they (chiefs and elders) thought aspects of Christian teaching not
only uncorigenial but also absurd. According to Kalu,
Some asked uncomfortable questions about
Christian teaching, the missions therefore decided
to turn their attention to children who were not yet
fl~llyinducted into the culture and laws 'of the tribe
and who would not ask any disquieting question
about the Tthity, about virgh Birth, about turning
!he other cheek when an assailant administers slap
on the other. 46

There was the language problem in the African countries m::I

the missionaries thought it wise that through the establishmenl uf
these schools the indigenes would assist in propa$ating the gospel in
..
the vernacular languages among their people. They laid r r - 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1
emphasis on reading, writing and arithmetic - the 3 Rs. Interesl.i~"~~j
enough the schools established by the missionaries were not c ~ r ~ l y
educative centres but also used as catechism, prayer, church a-!~::l
.. centres for indoctrination.
Ekechi in his own view saw the establishment of such schc~ols
as "strateqy adopted by the missionaries as a mode of c ~ m ~ e t i t bq3n . ~
kyandele regarded the educational curricula of the mission as "religion
oriented and less creative", especially since they laid much emphasis
only on reading, writing and arithmetic. The missionaries employxl
some people who came to them for one kind of employment or 11-11?
other to serve in these schools they established. Some of 11-lei?

ernployees who were not yet baptised were later converted i31-11:.1
baptised. The missionaries came with education and they helped a Ir:.;l:
in the establishment of the edircational institutions that even exist up I:,:)
date. If they had not come, what education had done today would I-II:)~

have been possible, knowledge is power and people have s e w i l

today. In Orumba and beyond, almost every denomination
endeavours to have their own school even if it just means having .a
nursery school in their church premises. There are some who ht:i~,r:
even secondary school; some have established junior seminary. 'TI-12
establishment of all these institutions have gone a very long way in tl-1s
spread of the gospel. According to Shed Adiele,
At least, it is quite clear that these missionary
bodies. had common aims, and especially shared
the philosophy of education as the sharpest
instrument for effective and result-oriented
evangelism. 48

3.4.5 HOUSE TO HOUSE EVANGELISM

Furthermore, the missionaries adopted house-to-housc

visitation as another means for soliciting for new converts. T'I-~e
Church Missionary Society (the Anglican's evangelical arm) used mol-tit
of the native language (Igbo) in carrying out this job; hence they hizl::!
more or less a speakable audience at their disposal. Their i r d l
conviction on the use of vernacular gave them an edge over tt-~,e
Roman Catholics who were more popular with foreign languages
(English and Latin). There, were interpreters who bridged 1k1e
communication gap between foreign missionaries and the natives. -1':)
the natives, English Language was seen as a big 'asset' and order
authority. They would like to be like white people, speak like them,
 dress like them and lead a simple life worthy of emulation. TO
understand English language arid speak it fluently was a credential for
securing a better job position hence many people were made conwrts
in the process of learning the language.
It was noticed on the side of the Roman Catholic missionaric?~
th,at 'as they visited some people at their houses, they lured and
convinced many people to join their faith (Cathalicism). They even
used those opportunities to baptise some pregnant women, giving
names to the unborn children who were still in their mother' wombs
It is pertinent to note that the strategy of house-to-hoirae
evangelism required more manpower (in terms of the nurnber' of
missionaries) time and energy. House to house evangelism gave tho
. people the opportunity to interact more closely and it helped the::
missionaries in coming closer to the people in order to know thern
more as well as their problems and some other things about them bot1.1
I'
good and bad. Even today, house-to-house method of evangelisrn is
one of the good ways of winning souls for Christ because any one
visited feels recognised and cared for by the missionary.
All the afore mentioned strategies of evangelisation were
employed by most of these denominations as they carried out the
propagation of the gospel among the people of Orumba and beyond.
To say the gospel truth, God has through all these ways made the
gospel to see the light of the day and souls saved from perishing.
 END NOTES
Abraham Okeke (One of the ardent converts) C. 85 Years
Interviewed at Oy bunka on 4/3/01.

-
Ibid.

A Brief History of St. John's Church Ekwulobia 1914 - 1990,

Ayuata Printing Press 1990 p. 14.

Ibid.
-
M. K. Odeka, Christianjsation of the Iqbos, Onitsha United
Brothers Printing Press 1997 p. 32. II

0. U. Kalu: The History of Christianity In West Africa, London

Longman Publishers 1980, pp. 36 - 63.

St. John's Ekwulobia Op. cit. p. 14.

Biblical Quotation: Isaiah Chapter 9 Verse 2

S. 0 . Onyeidu: Lecture Notes on The Birth of Modern

Missionary Society In The 18thcentury, 18/4/95.

S. N. Adiele (Ed): The Niger Mission: Origin, Growth and Irnl;gw!

1857-1995. Aba lsaeco Press Ind. Ltd. 1996, p. 81. ,,;. '/

S. 0. Onyeidu: Lr~ditionalConcegt of God 1.n Africa- Nsukka,

Easy-Quality Press and Series Publishers 1998, p. 14.

S.M. Woliwo, Brief History of St. Monica's Anqlican ~ h i r c h ,

Woliwo 1987-1997, Onitsha, JIC Messi Publishers 19'37
p. 78.

16. S. N. Adiele Op, cit. p. 25.

17. Chukwuemeka Ike (Ed) Ndikelionwu and The Spread of
Christianity: St. Margaret's Church: Oyster St. lyke Ltcl.
2000 pp. 86-87,

19. Elizabeth Isichei; A History of the Iqbo People; London, The

Macmillan Press, I976 p. 162.

20. 0. U. Kalu: The Embattled Gods; Christianisation of Iqbolanc!

1841-1991, Lagos, Minaj Publishers 1996 p. 83.

22. Peter Onah; C. 79 Years; A Farmer lnterviewed at lsulo on

3011 112001.

24. V. A. Nwosu; The Laitv and The Growth of The Catholic

Church: Onitsha Story 1903-1983. Onitsha, Africana FEP-
Publishers 1990 pp. 18-21.
\.
25. Joseph Uzochukwuokike; C. 78 Rtd. IiIM lnterviewed at Akpu
on 311212001.

28. Peter B. Clarke, West Africa and Christianity, London; Edward

Arrlold Publishers Ltd, 1986 p. 125.

29. Lawrence Eze; C. 63. Trader, Assistant Local Superintendent

(A. G); Interviewed at Ogbunka on l8lWOOO. a

30. Biblical Quotation: Hebrews 10: 23-25.

31. E. 0. Babalola, Christianity In West Africq; lbadan Publicationr/

International Nigeria, 1976 p, 191.

32. S. M. Woliwo Op. cit. p. 23

33. A. E. Afigbo; An Investigation of The Relationship Between
Christian Missions and Secular Authorities in South
Eastern Nigeria From Colonial Times, Oduma Vol. 11'1.
1978. p. 17

35. G. T. Afolabi (Ed) Historv of Catholic Church In Niaeria; Lagos,

Macmillan Publishers 1982 p, 21.

36. €.A. Ayandele, The Missionarv Impact on Modern Niqeria 11.)Mi;

-
-
1914, London, Longman Publishers 1966, pp. 76 - 105.

37. John Anya; C. 81 Years (Rtd School Teacher) Interviewed at

lsiokpu - Ogbunka on 8/8/2001.

38. A. U. Agha; Christianity and Culture: A Case'Studv of U n w x !

Enugu; SAPS Nigeria Inc. 1996. p. II.

40.. A. U. Agha: Earlv European Missions l o West Africa: An

Introduction to West African Church I-iistory. Calvary
Press 1997, pp. 23-27.

Dike Ibemesi: Ivi-Enu Hospital Origins and Development I<)r3:lO-,_

1982, Enugu Max Publicity Ltd. 1981, p. 1.

A. U. Agha: Early European Missions Op. cit p.100.

F. K. Ekpechi OD. cit p. 75

Elizabeth lsichei Op. cit. p. 168.

45, Ibid.
46. 0. U. Kalu, The Embattled Gods. Op. cit. p. 191.

47. m.
48. S. N. Adiele OD. cit. p. 124.
 CHAYI'ER FOUR

Since the advent of Christianity into Orumba, the Chrisfiim

missions have had a great impact on the general lives of the people
There is no doubt that the activities of the Christian missionaries are of
outstanding significance in the emergence of, modern Orirmb,ia
community. Christian rnissionaries did not confine their activities lo
preaching and building churches. They have contributed immensely 1.1:)
the cultural, educational, economic, social and political advan.ceme1-11
of'the whole of Africa in general and Orurnba area irr particular.
Uka in his book, "Missionaries Go Home", says
. . . as such, the missionaries exercised, i~ldividually
and collectively, a powerful influence, both directly
and indirectly, over scattered villages in tin?e whole
tribes. They prepared young Africans to appreciate
the advantages of Western life and encouraged
them to benefit from the temporal and spiritual
concepts that were parfs of its foundation. The
stations subsequently became the trading grounds
of indiyer~ousleadership and at the some time the
centre of anti-European disaffection. 1

In their own way, the new culture was at first conceived of a!;
irrelevant and therefore had no need for it. Not much attention WI!;

given to it but before they could know it, the alien culture had seepxj
into the roots of their daily life. The Orumba people and even b e y m l
had thought that their own culture had superior ethical values 16 that 1:rf
Christianity. That was a comforting thought for those who concei8dlxi
Christianity as the religion of the imperialists who came to force ttlerr,
into uncompromising subjugation. Now, let us look at the specific::
changes wrought by Christianity in Orumba.
 II

4.1 CULTUIWL C H A N G E
Culture has aptly been defined as "a sum total of a peopls':s
way of life, the life-style of a society." The pre-christian society of
Orumba was dominated by the traditional religious beliefs arid
practices of the clan. Religion determined and influenced the valurr?
system and served as the principal means of integration, cohesion and
unity of each community. The belief in the ancestors and t t i c t
sacredness of A/;, gave rise to a system of laws and custon-~!;
Everybody was expected to build up his personality according to thesir?
laws and customs. But today, things have changed. "Houseliclld
utensils gradually changed from crude materials to manufactursd
v
foreign goods."
Basden in his own view has this to say about the cooking
utensils of the general lgbos in the olden days:
Cooking utensils are few and simple. In the ,

vicinity of trading factories cast-iron Negro pots are

in great favour, but 117 the interior earthen vessels
are employed. The fireplace consists of three
stones or lumps of burnt clay, or if a black wall is
available, and this is greatly preferred, two stones
suffice ... Close alongside the hearfh is the
indispensable pestle and mortar - heavy with
cumbersome articles. The latter is hewn out of a I
solid bloclt of urok timber, a hard wood similar to
I
oak.

Trade by barter was supplemented with the use of m o l i q .

Moriey became the medium of exchange as a result of the introduc:iicri
of Christianity. The lgbo money "Okpogho" and "cowries"*that were
used as money were cumbersome to carry. lsichei says,
Igboland's currencies similarly reflect the vitality
of her economic life. They incli~dedcowrie shells
from the Indian Ocean, horseshoe shaped manilas
of copper and brass, popular ill southern lgbolar~d
and brass rods. We do not know whet'?'each of
 these currer~ciescame into use, though they may
have been of considerable antiquity for cowries
were used in Benin before the Europeans came
there and the Igbo-Ukwu excavations revealed
objects very like manilas. 5
I

Also Nwala in his book "lgbo Philosophy" says,

The local markets were centres of great
importance, not only for exchange of goods, but
also for exchange of ideas. There were also
recreational political and ritual centres. The main
forms of exchange were barter and use of traditional
cilrrencies. Such cur~encieslike cowries (is; ego)
manilas (ojonma) brass rods (omumu), tiny arrow-
shaped pieces of iron were used.

He goes on to say,
Just as farming aud agriculture have deities
associated with fertility and protection of crops, so
do trading and the markets have deities associated
with t l ~ e mEach
. local market has a deity located in
and around it. and associated with its welfare and
the protection of traders and their goods. 7

Today, great changes are conspicuous in the system of trading arnong

the lgbo people in general. and Orumba area in particular as a result c:~f
the introduction of Christianity in our land. Their belief in deities ha::' :,I
swell changed.
Orumba people like other lgbo communities.bear the name r:d
their ancestors because of their strong belief in re-incarnation. l ' l w y
believe that they still need the favours of the ancestors; though r w t
every body still believes in the association with the ancestors, -rI.l.ct
coming of Christianity to this part of the world has been responsible for
the chai3ge in the ancestral belief. Also the culture of naming peclple
after their ancestors is giving way to the Christian and Jewish narnm
Even if lgbo names are given which many people prefer today, tl-ley
are not given after the ancestors. Such names as ~hukwumaot:~i.
Tukwasichukwuobi, Chukwubuikem, Ifeanyichukw[j, Onyedikachuk;v/u
Nwachukwu and the rest of them are replacing both.the ancestral and
foreign names which most of our people cannot say for sure what their
meanings are.
Before the advent of Christianity in Orurnba, nudity was ttw
order of the day. Gradually, nudit) changed hand with the covering of
the entirc body with European rnade clothes. Nudity is today a r i
eyesore in Orumba as well as the entire lgboland m d beyond. bVc!
c.an recall earlier when the first rnissionaries offered the early converls
clothes to cover their nudity. The distribution of clothes tb the ~I~E!'VV

converts was one of the means of winning more people to Christiai-~ity.

It attracted them to this new religion. As a result of the introduction of
this new religion called Christianity, the value of beauty came to 11e
more appreciated by women. "The use of beads and a rriorl:!
permanent circlet offspring-coiled brass wire called anwa-idide; kc:!.
brass worn by the girls had been in use." ' According to Agha, "otht?r
extra materials for extra beautification of the body came into uss .--
powder, black dye (tiro), bangles, earrings and necklace are only a few
examples.~"
The cultural change recorded above among the people of
Orumba was wrought by the introduction of Christianity. At the birth of
Jesus Christ it was said of Him, "the people who walked in darkness
have seen a great light, those who dwelt in a land of deep darkness,
on them has light shined." lo Actually the co~rlingof Christianity lq
"
Orurnba enlightened the people.
4.2 ECONOMIC CtIAIYGE
The economic life of Orumba people has not been withol..d a
change since the missionaries came into contact with them. Their
economic life has from time imrnemorial centred mainly on farming,
!rading and handicraft. As Christianity was introduced, new cr'ol:l:r;
were also introduced. Plantations were set up and new methods ot
producing and preparing farm products were also taught. According 1c.1
Isichei;
With the ever-spreading development of the
country, this primitive state of things is being upset
and the problem of native food supply is becoming
acute in centres like Onitsha where the population is
steadily increasing. The native agriculturist, with the
conservative instincts of his forefathers continues to
cultivate solely for the needs of his dependents, and
only here and there are to be found men who
realise that there is a ready market for yarns under
the new conditions. 1 1

The economic life of the people has been transformed. In the old
traditional lgbo way of life, in the absence of money, economy end
orientation of life along market system economic life was largely
directed by the simple necessities of the life of the extended far-rrily
community, rather than of an individual. Technological emphasis c1.1
I

individual success through ownership of property has altered scale?ol'

values. Economic pursuit has become market oriented, concentraling
on organisation and on the search for things that multiply profit in
which followers become more of labour hands rather than persons and
children of the commune.
llogu in his own contribution on the issue of economic change
wrought by Christianity says;
With Christianity and school education, coupled
with the influence of scientific technology, people
now work mairliy for money,. Sometimes for the
 absentee or faraway employer to whom the workers
cannot relate personally, and the old sense of
contribution to the conmon good learnt in tradition.al
style of life is lost. l 2

So also, the love of work as a means of welfare rather than a mean!; of

wealth is lost. Extended family's communal working togettw
diminished the danger of class-consciousness, but with the r i c w
emphasis of the market system of technological culture, individualism
hds been encouraged, and with i t class-consciousness has started 11:)
develop.
Development of industries and markets, centralisation c:lf

administration and travel facilities in roads and railways have been

experienced as a result of the introduction of Christianity in our 1m:I.
The introduction of Christianity has actually changed and improved the
ecanamic life of the peaple of Orumba area and beyand. Christ c a m
that men will have life and have it more abundantly. Also Christianity.
the religion of the followers of Christ came that the people will have lile
and have it more abundantly economic wise.

4.3 EDUCATIONAL CIiANGE

Education is another area of change brought about as a resl-~lt
of missionary endeavours in Orumba. Before the corning of
Christianity, Orumba people like any other lgbo community had nl:)
formal education. The informal education was largely unorganised,
which was between mother and daughter, father and son, just wilhn
the family circle. Children were encouraged to emulate good models
and virtues in the society. Learning was by accident because it was
never pre-planned. However, Christianity brought a tremencloc~:;
change in the educational arena.
 According to Agha, "the niissioriarios came with their ovvil
system of education and this revolutionised the entire system of Igbo
cu,lture." l3 In lgboland in general and Orutnba area in particul&, those
who received education from the hands of the missionaries bec;imri?
the bearer's of light among the "dark" cultural areas. Christianity h;:~s
always borne three objectives in mind while going out to teach, I-le!ii~l
and teachlpreach. With the establishment of educational institution-sII,I
Orumba since the inception of Christianity, people have continued 1,:)
learn new things daily. At the initial stage, it was either in the house I:$
a prominent person in the society or under a tree., Thanks be to C;WJ
that as things improved,; system of receiving education also improvecl
These days, children receive their education in classrooms with \ r A I -
qualified specialists called teachers to teach them.
It was the practice of the Church to award scholarships 11:)
deserving students who distinguished themselves in one way or II-I,;!
other. There were two main criteria for this. Intelligence was the first
condition. Children whose parents were indigent were sponsored in
primary or secondary or even to University level by the Churc;l-1.
Coupled with intelligence and poor parental background, was Iho
factor of moral purity, This qualified a personlcandidate even \vil:l-~
average intelligence for mission scholarship. On the establishment of
schools by the mission, Adiele says:
The Anglican Mission between 1857 and 1968
succeeded in establishing educational institutions
from the primary to the post primary institutions in
areas within its jurisdiction. It is also to be noted
that both children and adults enjoy organised
literacy classes in the Sunday classes on Sundays.
More brilliant ones among them enjoyed
scholarships. It was mandatory for baptism
candidates to pass a rigorous examination in the
reading, understandin and interpretation of the
Cafechism and Bible.1, P,
 Schools were established at a time when they formed the only
centres of enlightenment within a rural environment. The teachers il-I
such school became sources of knowledge and agents cf
modernisation through their influence on the rural communitiar;
Through the introduction of education in the society, discipline U V ~ ~ S

also introduced. In the view of Adiele,

The Anglican Mission maintained the policy of
'Spare the rod and spoil the child' in n~oral
upbringing of their children. To achieve this, the
teachers were subjected to a seeming draconian
systern of discipline. They tended to be slaves to
the rules and regulations throughout their career.
This was to inculcate sound moral principles as
necessary foundations for any slable society. 15

It was the Mission schoolslcolleges provided and maintained 1:)~

the mission that produced the greater bulk of educated and polil~l::i:ll
leaders who assumed the task of achieving political independenrx
Without blood-shed. Summaris~ng the influence of Missiorwy
education on Nigeria's growth and development, Ajayi opines;
The Christian missionaries introduced into
Nigeria the idea of nation building of contemporary
European. They also trained a group of Nigerians
who accepted those ideas and hoped to see them
carried out, and later began to use those ideas as a
standard by which to j~ldgethe actions of the British
administration. In doing this, the Christian
Moverner~t sowed the seeds of Nigeria/-,
Nationalism. 16

The issue is that it was the first generation of the Mission schol:)l
products tsssshat were pre-eminently equipped for a nationalist t d i
by their learning and circumstances of their age. As Ayandele puts it;^'
Unrestricted access to the Bible with its notion of
quality, justice and non racialism, provided the early
 converts with a valid weapon which they were not
reluctant to employ against the missionaries who
brushed these ideas aside in Church administration
and their relations with the convetfs. 17
Through missionary education, the educated elites becarnci!
whatever they were - whether traders, or teachers, clerks or
catechists, politicians or true nationalists. The missionary teaching of
equality and brotherhood of all men before God had the effect (:if
generating self-consciousness in the recipients and this in turn mad(:?
them nurse the ambition for self-expression and self government as ii~

corollary to the philosophy of equality. The missions built moral edil'ics

among the early recipients of missionary education. In pursuance (:d
this, character training was seen as the cornerstone of all 0 t h ~ ~
achievements in missionary endeavour. From the day a child came lo
school, his behaviour was monitored with a view to identifying any
de-viant or un-ethical habit and then negatively reinforcing it.
Christianity provided the foundation upon which the modern education
is founded. To sum up the achievements of the missionaries in area of
education, Adiele has this to say, "At the time of reckoning, the era of
mission education shall remain a point of reference." '' Many people!
after their education take to white collar jobs or move to the urt)ar;i
towns in search of wealth with the result that the villages are desertesd
and farms abandoned.

4.4 POLITICAL CHANGE

Of great importance is the contribution of the Christian Missicln
to the political fortunes of Orumba people. The political institution in
Orumba before the advent of Christianity was and up till now is ;s
democratic form of government. It was the sour'ce of unity witti IIw
accepted customs and laws. Christianity encouraged and enhar~rxd
the system. In all the communities we have in Orumba, we have 11-11:?
 family, umunna, viilage and community levels of political structwt?.
. The 'red-cap' is only a committee of elders. The delegated author.il.y,
which exists, is vested in adults in general and particularly in the oldc?r
people, rnen and women, though they run the government separakili.
-I he people elected or appointed into these offices of high honour rwst
.

be those who are greatly respected, those who show ability irr
leadership and of high moral status. The major change that has cr::me
into the community level is that it has become more open and less
conservative with so many ad-hoc committees.
\, On the other hand, by the promotion of education, they helpcst:j
to. produce the Orumba elites who became the leaders of sorrie of' 11-~e
towns within this geographical area. As a uniting' force, it provided a
bond uniting people of various towns and forrnerly hostile cornmunitis:;
in the area. Democracy, as it exists today in the Western world, is full
of limitations. Governments take decisiorls that many citizens
disapprove of, even among those that elected thern. Minorities, E!VE!!I

large ones,, have little hope of having their political ideals put inlc)
practice . The average citizen has effectively no power to alter Iht?
network of regulations that govern his life.
According to Isichei, "one of the things that struck the first
i
Western visitors to lgboland was the extent to which democracy was
truly practised." l9 She goes further to say;
visitor to a Niger lgbo town said that he
. ..an early
felt he was in a free land; among a free people.
Another, a F~-e~)chman said that true liberty existed
in Igboland, thou h its name was not inscribed o n
any monument. 2 8

lgbo political institutions were designed to combine populi~ir

participation with weighting for experience and ability. As
aforementioned, one finds in different parts of lgboland different
political institutions in varying combinations. One of the political
institutions to be included which has spread wide though not universal
is the AGE GRADE. Each age grade has defined obligations it-I
community service. In Orurnba area some of these age grades have
corltributed immensely towards the development of some town!;
Some have helped in electrification projects, construction of bridges,
hospitals, schools markets and some other veritable projects. Each
age grade is jealous of its good name so controls and disciplines ils
recalcitrant members.
Each town adopts the kind of government it entrusts tlw
administration of the town into its hands. Generally, within O~LII~I~~I
locality, there is peace, orderliness, good governance as a result of' t h i
introduction of Christianity because almost if not all the people in
authority must have had a contact with the missionaries in one way or
the other; such contact has influenced everything about the person(:;)
involved in administration

4.5 SOCIAL CllANGE I

I

In the pre-Christian days in Orurnba, there was nothing il+!?

secular personality models for instance the business tycoon, t l - ~ ~ t
influential politicians arid the schoolteachers. In lgboland generally,
shrines (where oaths were sworn), oracles and taboos were used ;rs .a
means of social and political control. People with sacred legitirnisal.icln
(e.g. the Ozo titled men, the Ofo holders) played the key roles in €!iWI
village because they were said to have been selectedlch6sen by ths
divinities.
Christians were taught not to accept shrines, oracles imrI
taboos any more as they were rightly regarded as unchrist~an
practices. But in the absence of other forms, it did no doubt constil.~.~,ic:
 the Christians into a "lawless" group in the sociological sense. Suc1-1
Christians would live under no enforceable code of behaviour against
a

which community sanctions could be imposed. Ekechi commenting r)r r

this period says:
the converts in turn became quite fanatical and
threw caution to the wind. Indeed, no doubt, by
their teachers, the Christians began to cut down the
trees in various groves and religious shrines as a
test of their earnestness in religious commitment. 21

Another important area worth mentioning here is the Ozo title

taking in the society. It has its social significance. According to E g h ,
The Ozo titleholder occupies a position in
Igboland comparable to the peerage in English
society with the same social prestige of .'lord1in the
society, as indicated it-, the new title name the man
is given at the successful end of the title taking. 22

Whatever was its political, social and economic significance, the

missionaries understandably educated their coriverts to have nothing
to do with it. Ozo titleholders at conversion must renounce their title
and burn the insignia of the title as well as the cult objects associated
with it. At the conference held at Onitsha on Tuesday, the 12Ihof May
1914 to consider many aspects of the confrontation of lgbo cuslonis
with Christianity, the Ozo title was fully discussed. It was classified 296
"political custom". Many arguments were made both in favour arid
against Christians taking the title until the consensus reached seerriwj
to be that "Ozo is idolatrous and therefore no Christian man shoi.~ld
have anything to do with it." 23 In reply to the above statment, sonie
of the people that attended the conference which included iVlr',
Nzekwu, Revd. E. Anyaegbunam said;
 1 I:;!:$

I
Scarcely is there any custom in the country that has nothing
idolatrous or superstitious in it. But what and where shall we be if wti!
reject and throw away these customs out as quite unfit. 24
Another member of the conference Mr t i . Nweje (latw-
Archdeacon Nweje) said, "he was unable to see in Ozo any evil so
grievous as to warrant Christians totally rejecting it." 25 Conferences
have been held on several occasions to draw up plans to enat~lti!
Christians take up the Ozo title. In the Diocese On The Niger
(Anambra State) between 70s and 80s, the Bishop On The Niger',
Most Revd. Dr. J. A. Onyemelultwe set up what he called, "Cultural
Issues Committee" headed by Revd. Canon Sir A, E. D. Mgbemerm
the Canon in residence and Administrative secretary of the Diocese t(:~
look into the Ozo title taking. The main aim being to remove anything
unchristian in it. After studying all involved with Ozo title taking m 9
making some necessary straightening of certain things in a Christian
way, Christians were then permitted to take the title with sonirrr
specifications. As time went on, infact in 1978 (to be specific) Bishop
Onyemelukwe introduced Knighthood into the Church to replace 0.m
title taking. This has gone a long way in solving some issues and
restoring the social status of Christians in the society. 25 NOWwith the
advent of Christianity, there are secular personalities. We now hmcj?
influential businessmen, teachers, lawyers, technicians and the rest of
them who dominate the social life of he society with out any sacred
legitimisation.
Before the advent of Christianity, the traditional 0ruhba soc:iety
had no opportunity for women to rise to any high social position JLJSI
as it was in other places. In fact, women were no less regarded as the
personal property of the men. But with the advent of Christianity, ttw
ugly phenomenon drastically improved for better. According to Agha;
..
 Women can now be seen and heard. They are no longer :so
much regarded as mere chalets to be giver1 to rnarriage according Io
the decision of the parents only. The Christian-church has deeply
influenced the marriage system of the people and also the status of
women in the society. Needless to say that educational opportunities
have now been extended to women. Girls can now go out of 1111'3

community to other places to look for gainful employment. 26

There are now many women teachers, engineers, professor:i,
doctors, politicians, people in all walks of 'life in Orumba who car) I:lli!

called at any time in comniunity development. Christianity has played

a significant role in the social lives of the people. It has actu.nll~~,
II
improved the social status of women in the society within Orumba area
and beyond.

4.6 RELIGIOUS CHANGE

From the onset, the missionaries saw the savagery of mundarie
impurities inherent in the African belief systems and practices. Tlte
missionaries unconditionally condemned the African concept of gocki.
The whole continent was seen as 'citadel' for gods and spirits.
Sacrifices of any kind to these gods were highly castigated and
forbidden by Christians. Shrines dedicated to these gods v ~ c t

pitilessly annihilated in most parts of the area.

The idea of throwing out kola nuts and pouring out libation:; 1.0
the unseen gods and ancestors was condemned. Human ~acrificelike
killing of twins and dedication of human beings to gods were abolished
to an appreciable degree. The traditional medicine used in curing arxl
preventing ailments was renounced with reckless abandon.
The missionaries failed woefully to understand the true nature
and validity of the traditional religion. The condemnation of traditionel
religion in its total context implied renunciation and destabilisation of
the moral codes, principles and ethics of life of the people that h ~ : !
been long engraved on their mode of existence. We admit the phasing
out of such debasing practices in the African traditional religion like the
killing of twins, human sacrifices and sorcery, but the belief in gods
and ancestors by the Africans should riot be seen as superstition or
vanity but rather as mode of coritrol of life of the people. It has b c w ~
established that in a country or society where religion has become tlw
I1
cement of life in social, economic and political aspects, any punctc~rc!
on its core essence will caclse its tragic ruin.
Christianity had led to the abolition of Qkpu ~ c h a a, traditior1;:d
cult in Ogbulika, one of the towns that make up Orumba area. In thci:
olden days, Okpu ocha was highly recognised as a god worshipped I:ly
the people in whose care the life and property of the people were
traceable. Also it was said to be the giver and owner of the best
stream water in Ogbunka known as Obi. The water from the stream ts
the best in the whole of Orurnba locality; coming from stone i.e.
gushing out from stone. I could remember during our secondary
school days that students from other towns even beyond the localil:y
used to fetch water from Obii, which they carried hpme during holiday
periods. Though people do not worship the god of this water iN)r
more but many people irrespective of their religious inclinations slill
venerate it. Christianity through her teachings has succeeded in
dissuading most if not all the members from worshipping Qkpu c h a
because it is God the Creator who has given this water and not Qi+:g
ocha as some people wrongly believe. 27
-
It is a well-known and acceptable fact that every traditional 1gI:a
is a deeply religious person. According to Nwala while quoting Major
Arthur Leonard has this to say
 they (lgbos) are . . . a truly religious people of whom
it can be said as it has been said of the Hindus, that
they eat religiously, sin religiously, drink religiously,
dress religiously ... religion of these natives is still
their existence and their existence is their religion
28

This statement is true of every human society in the sense Ilml.

people's ideology, which could have religious or political emphasis,
influences the behaviour in innumerable cases Orumba area inclusive?.
The place which religion occupies in the life of the people is
seen in the daily lives of the people in which prayer is offered to I l w
gods and their help sought in everything they do. Today, we still
observe that where a man is sick, libations are poured m d
incantations said invoking Chukwu i.e, the almighty God, the Irxal
gods and the ancestors to come to his rescue. Before food.is eater) or
even kola is taken, bits are thrown out for the gods and the ancestors:
During cleansing or propitiatory offerings, lizards, fowls etc are Iieltl
round a person's head and it is believed his sins are transferred 10 t h i
.lizard or fowl. Prayer and sacrifice, vital elements of religion arm a
constant feature of the daily lives of the people and they show I-low
heavily dependent the people are on the goodwill and protection of the
gods. Religion generally involves three major elements: beliefs, r.ilm
and code of conduct in accordance with the beliefs. The introduction
of Christianity has influenced these major religious elements.
From the earliest I~istoryof European Christian Mission in the
whole of Africa, there has been a strong link between the desire to
Christianize and the desire to 'civilize' the African. According 10
Thomas Fowell Buxton, "... through the use of the Bible and the
plough, Africa's "Dark Continent" could be won to Christianity and to
civilization." 29 I II
 Actually, the influence of the Christian religion has changed 117s
system of he Igboman's way of religion. The cult of "Ndi ichie" priva11:e
or public cult of the ancestors has been declining following 11-11?

presence of Christianity. Rituals of all types have been condemned as

paganistic and backward. Such rituals include birth, puberty;
traditional marriage and burial rituals. The missionaries have tried ):1
replace them with the Christian wedding and Christian burial.
The earth goddess (ala) is no longer recognized. I-ler sanctity
around which ethical principles, norms and values are built has
somehow been relegated to the background. It could be discovered
that immortality has escalated among he people. Christians sk~all
never in any way be seen as advocates of high immorality rate, I:~I.I~
they maintain that one's immorality is personal and private mattar
between one and one's godlgods. But in the African context, tl-~e
position is not viewed the same way. The iniquity of someone rattler
was believed to be visited on the entire members of the community
hence every member of the community strives tq maintain law and
order. Such Biblical quotation as Ezekiel Chapter eighteen and v e i w
four (Ezekiel 18:4) which states, "Behold, all souls are mine, the soul
of the father as well as the soul of the son is mine; the soul that sins
shall die" gives the individuals the audacity to do whatever they
would do since they are to be held responsible and their actions wcl~121:j
not affect the society at large. But in the real sense of it, what on!:!
does in a society affects the entire members of he society directly or
indirectly.
In short the changes wrought by the missionaries to the entir.lp
Orumba and the whole of Africa cannot be over-emphasized. It can 1
x1.
said to be overwhelming, touching all aspects of life, cultul~fil,;~/
I
educational, economic, social, political and religious aspects. Incl~rs$;
. t
the people have been influenced profoundly, changed a-!:I
strengthened by the Christian faith.

4.7 PROBLEMS ENCOUN'I'ERED BY 'I'IIE MISSIONA~;~~E:!~I

Havlny t r x e d the advent of Christianity and changes broir(;l-11
by it in Orumba area, let us now exarnine some of the proble,~~:.;
encountered by the missionaries in the course of evangelisirq Ibe
area. It is note worthy that these problems never stopped.them f ' r w r ~
carrying out their mission. It only succeeded in stunting the progr,:?:;?,
and stability of rnissionar'y activities. The early missior1a1-i~!s
irrespective of what they suffered never succumbed. They v v t ? r ~ ?
encouraged by the statement made by Jesus Christ, the owner of tho
~ h u k while
h sending his followers on evangelism into the whole w r ~ ~ - ' i l
or what we call the great cornmission, Jesus says; "All authority 111

heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and ~ni~lk.~:?
disciples of all nations . . . , and lo 1 am with you always to the close of
the age." 3'
Paul, the great apostle of Jesus Christ rnade a statement as I-~e
was speaking to the Christian Philippians which should also k1.u
attributed to the one of the sources of strength which helped the ~ ! i v l y
missionaries to forge ahead in the evangelisation of Orumba W ~ P I

they arrived despite all odds. Paul says, "I can do all things through
Him who strengthens me." 32 Let us now look at some of the aread
which constituted themselves as obstacles as the missionaries arriw:j
in their quest to christianise the people of Oruniba.

4.7.1 LANGUAGE/C,OPFUNICA'I'ION PROIJLEM

The problem of language or mode of communication wa::
something the missionaries had been grappling with sine they came to
 a Igboland; and the case of Orurriba was no exception. The rnului:~l
4 -
'
5

,
,
?I.:
problem was considered solved by the use of interpreters. Thess
-....
%I

interpreters again were not from Orurnba. Most of these interpreters

had never been to this area for the first time before coming along wilh
1, '

the missionaries and in fact did not know anything about the people^.^^ '
I1 ,( I
'

They like the white missionaries could not speak the people's dialect.
il ,
Commenting on this sympathetic situation, Onwubiko say~,l/
;!
"Interpreters were iriadequate to meet the ne'eds of the ever exparidin!;] :I .
Christian missions. Moreover, speaking through ,an interpreter is a;:
,. ..

, 'Ij
.i; .I

defective means of communicating one's thoughts to one's audience.'',' ,

I If1 t1
33 11
.
m ,
,

Furthermore, some of these interpreters were not

educated; hence they often gave the wrong translation of Engli:s.l\;,
. It

words. This often aroused reactions from the people which could h i w d
been the opposite had the correct interpretation been given

4.7.2 CULTURAL YRODLEM

Culture has been defined as the sum total way of life of is

people. As the missionaries arrived and started to evange!i!w' I I'

Orumba area, they disorganised the pattern of life of the people thc:ly
I

met. One of the problems encountered by them was antagonism o n

the part of the elders. The elders viewed the missionary penetrator'!;
into the area with suspicion. To them, the missionaries and the wliilli:
men who had disorganised their socio-political structure are the same.
The elders felt that their society was being threatened by h6 dernancl!;
of the christianising white men; hence they refhsed to send their
children to school. It is worthy of note that despite the warrant chil3'is'
patronisation of the missionaries, the former did not embrace the
Christian faith. This problem was partly caused by the attitude of thc3
missionaries and their local agents. According to Ekechi in I - i r ;
observation:
The difficulty associated with the conversion of
the people prlor to our period is a sad fact. 'That
apparently the gospel in the years gone by has
been dog~natically and experimentally
misrepresented by many of its advocates, and as a
result, the people have come to treat it with more or
less respectful indiff,~ r e n c e34
.

No wonder Agha quoting Walker in his book; "Early Europoer~

Mission to West Africa1'observes that;
They addressed themselves more to the eye
than the ear, and taking no account of the heart or
judgement of those, whom they sought to convert,.is
satisfied with captivating the imagination and
securing a blind adhesion to her ecclesiastical
system. 35

The warrant chiefs who saw their. position being threatened I:ly
the preaching of the missionaries started victimizing them and
encobaged victimization on Christian converts In some place::,
Christians were forced to clean the shrines or sweep the compounl:ls
of some gods; failure to do so attracted punishment. Such forced
labour caused serious problems in some communities. S1~cl.1
victimization deterred some people but thanks be to God that rrwe
than 80% of the converts stood firm. Almost all the pieces of land
given to the Christians for erecting their church buildings were p1arx:r;
regarded as bad bush and inhabited by evil spirits - they were
regarded as unfit for human habitation - all these were meted on thi?
missionaries/Christians in order to discourage them. But all tht?se,
efforts against the Christians proved abortive. They stood tenacious$
in their faith and conquered. God is always with those who put their
trust in Him. Jesus has continued to be with his people and will ncrver
abandon them no matter the odds on their way.

4.7.3 POLITICAL PROBLEM

During the early missionary activities in Orumba area ir.1
particular and lgboland in general, the political institution of the Igt)o:i;,
was largely decentralized. In fact the concept of "lgbo enwe ezc"
reigned supreme. The lgbos have no one as their rulerlking. Want of
affective government sorr~etimesinterfered with the comfort of the
missionaries at their stations. Because of this issue, there was ric)
security to life and property. There was unkind feelings, engendercxl
by jealousy or misunderstanding. In order to deal with such cases
adequately, the missionaries applied patience, and prudence; all these
had devastating effect on the evangelisation of the area. Up to date,
the lgbos have no one as their leader and advtme political situatiorl
effects the process of evangelisrn but any how God is on the throne

4.7.4 TRANSPORTATION YROBLEM

The missionaries also encountered transportation problem i 3 . ~

they came on evangelism to Orumba. There were no good road::;

when they arrived; only bush track roads, which were often too.narrcw
arid meandering that the missionaries found them so difficult and
tiresome to pass through. There was no developed transport syste~rl
hence the journeys were done by trekking. According 16 Okoye, "ttici!
expansion of missionary activity was limited by several factors . . . for
travelling from place to place was arduous, circuitous, slow and risky."
I
37 The use of mechanised means of transportation came later after ttic?
I
introduction of Christianity to the area.
 The influence of the traditional religion of the people exerted s
powerful counter-influence against the Christian religion. The priest::;
and worshippers of the traditional religion were hostile to Ihc:
missionaries who brought the new religion as they felt that their
Christianity was a threat to the growth and sustenance of the already
i
existing religious practices and worship. Indeed such deities like Udo,
of Umunze, Onyirioha of Ezira, Ajalla of Ogbunka, Okil rniri of Ist~lo.
Agwu of Owerre-Ezukala, Ngwu of Nkerechi to mention but a few,
with their influence affected the progress of the Christian faith in
Orumba. Adiele speaking on the adverse effect of the traditionid
religion on the spread of Christianity says, "the alrniyhty traditior1:rtl
religion and.culture appeared to have abhorred the planting of thci!
alien Christian religion." But at last, the Christian religion rcigr,i;
supreme today. Most of the places where these deities stood beforcir
are today where the Christian church buildings are erected. '1-111;:
Christian God is the greatest.

4.7.6 FINANCIAL PROULEM

1-he poor financial status of the missionaries irnpeded their
progress and posed a threat to their work. It would seem that the
missionaries had emptied their purse during the early years of the
missi.onary ventures. By the time they arrived Orumba area, they twj

stopped embarking on gigantic projects like maintaining large Christian

villages. They could no longer afford to build for themselves good r e s t
houses. Consequently, they depended on the thatched sometimles
leaking houses provided by the native converts. The poor conditiori r:)f
\.
these 'houses was not helpful in preserving the health of these
missionaries.
 Moreover, their ,poverty mitigated against their efforts il1'1d

initiative in erecting school buildings as well as church buildings. M(:l:iat

of the time, they left these projects to the natives which often took:
them very long time to complete the project. Even when completer:~
the missions could not provide enough schoollchurch teachers and
pastors. In most cases, the converts and the school pupils werci?
askedltasked to provide funds for their teact-iersipastors salar-its!!:,.
Towns were asked to pay in money in advance before they could hiwrr
a resident schoollchurch teacher, catechist or priest. Such practi~::es
hampered the progress of evangelism. Some of the towns that could
not pay the certain amount of money were denied resident worker's
and they could nc! progress like those that did pay.

There were also a number of local factors which played a par1 in

I
!
determining the fortunes or misforturws of the missionaries in Orun'ilx~.~
It has been observed that Orurnba had a rich and fertile land, and t t ~ t ,
palm trees grew in profusion in the area. Consequently, the people1'
were chiefly agriculturists; producing enough farm crops for-
I .*
cons'ijmption and for making money. The economic self-sufficiently'~
made the people to ignore any change agent. According to kalu,
Given enough food, nmoney and gods sufficient
to meet the demands of their ar~imisticreligion, also
enough to warrant them having a gay time dur~ng
the often-recurring feasts what more do they want?
39

The attainment of econornic self-sufficiency made the peoplc?11:)

see Christianity as a danger and distraction. Parents were afraid the4
releasing their sons and daughters to attend schoolslchurches wat~lrl
mean tampering with future hands in the farm. Therefore the schc,ol:5:
I
 ':i
were deprived of scholars even when some missionslmissionaries had
to pay for their fees. Summarizing the problems encountered by the
!.
I
early missionaries in their course of evangelisation, Okoye says, "l'hc!,

I
; I16
I

).

i
!C
:

,
. .
enemies of the Church resorted to various ways of harassing the:
Christianz. In particular they persisted in stealing various items frcur
the Church compound." I . :I
! it - . !I
..
. , Indeed, these factors contributed to the limited and stunted!/ I
.
,!
,
.
, , ::.L ,
progress of Christianity in Orumba within the period under review.' 111:;,
i;'
the real sense of the word, these early missionaries and convt~ll:s;!,' i 4i
i
. . , '!
. .! :
encountered a lot of problems in their efforts to evangelise the localil:y/l;
i5
I .
of Orumba and beyond. We hardly show enough appreciation I(:,
all;; '
1

. '!!I
; .
those who left their beautiful homes, risked their lives and travelled:
. .
I : thousands of miles to bring Christianity to others. Some of thcsrn
suffered death and other very serious sicknesses. We can har.clly
exaggerate the trials and difficulties of climate, loneliness, privaticm,
hostility and discouragement which they met. But in spite of all the:^
sufferings, they were bound to carry out the great mandate of the I-ord
Jesus Chrisi who said "... and you shall be my witness in Jerusalem
and in all Judea and Samaria and to the end of the earth." 4'
 CIIAYI'EIX FOCJIX
END NO'I'CS
1. E. M. Uka, Missioriaries Go Iior-ne New Yor'k; Paris Peter L a ~ i g
1989 p. 19.

2 B H Kato; African Cultural Revolution and Christian Faith:

Nigeria, Baraka Press Ltd. 1976. p. 13.

3 Agha. U. Ayha: Christianity and Iqbo Culture, A Case S t u d y j ~ f

Unwara,
-- Enugu; Tee Mac Global Communication Ltd.
1996. p. 34.

4. G. T. Basden; Among The Ibos of Nigeria: ~ a g o sUniversity

Publishing Company 1983 pp 52-53.

5 Elizabeth Isichei; A History of The Igbo People; London; The

Macmillan Press Ltd 1977, pp 32-33.

6.. T. Uzodinrna Nwala; Iqbo Philosophy Lagos Literarned Print~ng

Press I. td 1985, pp. 179 -1 80.

7. Ibid.
-

8. Ibid.
- -

9. Agha. U. Agha; O p cit p 34.

10, Isaiah 9: 2.

11. Elizabeth lsiche~Op. cit. P. 151

12 Edmund Ilogu Christianity and lgbo Culture; Onitsha, Univt?rs~l.y

Publishing Company Ltd, 1985 p. 94.

13. Agha. U. Agha; OP. cit p. 40.

14. Shed . N. Adiele (Ed) The N i ~ e Mission:

r Origin Growth arid
Impact 1857 - 1995, Nigeria; lsaeco Press & Ind. (NIc)
1996, p. 130.
 David Abernethy: The Political Dilemma of Popular Educa><n,,
London 1965, p. 51.

E. A. Ayandele: ne Missionarv Impact on Modern Nigeria l.!)!WIil

- 1914: A Political and Social Analvsis; London 19%. p.
176.

Shed N. Adiele Op. cit p. 141

Elizabeth Isichei; OD. cit. p. 21

F. K. Ekechi; W i o n a r y Enterprise and Rivplrv In Igboland

-1857 - 1914, London Frank Cass 1972 p. 36.

22. Edmund Ilogu; Op. cit. p. 71

23. Ibid.

25. A. E. D. Mgbemene: Oral Interview; C . 78 Years Former

Administrative Secretary and Canon In Residence -
Interviewed at Ajalli on 27Ih November 2000.

27. Agha. U. Agha; OP. cit p. 39.

28. T. Uzodinma Nwala; Op, cit p. 39.

29. Thomas Fowell Buxton: The African Slave Trade and Its
Remedv; London Frank Cass 1967 p. 37.

30. Biblical Quotation: Ezekiel 18: 4.

31. Biblical Quotation: Mathew 28: 18-20.

32. Biblical Quotation: Philippians 4: 13.

33. K. B. 0, Onwubiko: _SchoolCertificate Historv of West Africa:

Book Two 1800-Present Day, Onitsha; Africana
-
Publishers, 19'73 p. 217.
F. K Ekechi OD. cit p. 146.

Agha, U. Agha. Op. cit p. 26.

A. C. Onuigbo (Rtd. Catechist); C. 75 Years Interviewed at

Akpu on 91h Feb. 2002.
I

T. 0 . Okoye; A I-listory of St. Peters Abagana, Onitsha, Varsity

Industrial Press Ltd. 1984, p. 7.

S. N. Adiele OP, cit, p. 37

0. U. Kalu; "Primitive Methodists on The Railroad Junctions of

Igboland, 1910 - 1931", Journal of Religion In Africa, 16
( I 986), pp. 44 - 66.

T. 0. Okoye; Op. cit, pp. 10 - 11.

~ i b l i c aQuotation:
l Acts 1:8.
AREAS OF CONFLICT BETWEEN CI-IRISTIANITYNI\(IIlr
mno CULTURE
N. S. S. Iwe in Christianity, Culture and Colonialism in Ahig;g!
observes that,
Dy cr~lturalclash it is not meant here that the
principles of Christianity as a religion are opposed
to the authentic and honest values of African
culture. Cultural clash here means to be
understood as the conflict between the Western
cultural vessel in which Christianity has been
conveyed to Africa and the authentic values and
honest institutior~sof the African culture. 1

The African Traditional Religion is strongly embedded in t.he

culture of the African people, the only culture and religion natural arlcl
original to the people. No other culture or religion was known to the!
people in the early times. The process of evangelisation and
christianisation in Africa brought African and European cultures irilc~
contacts. The advent of Christianity marked a turning point in t'ht:~
cultural set up of the Africans. On arrival, Christianity constituted not
only a religious force but also a veritable social and cultural forcs
disrupting the initial idyllic, happy and harmonious life lived arid
observed by the Igbos. But it should be noted that both cultures hecl
experienced reciprocal shocks. However, the African culture hes
suffered greater disadvantages from this shock. The waves CJI'
missionary activities and westernisation have cast a stifling shatlow
over some of the cultural values of the Africans. These are now it-I 21
hard struggle for survival.
People have different views about what religion entails; sorrie
see it as an affair of the community which is closely bound up with its
 way of life that a change in religion automatically involves a change of
culture and the development of a new conscience, while some sctf?
religion as a limited set of beliefs about God and worship.
Anthropologically speaking when two cultures come into
contact, they are bound to be influenced by each other. This was tha
case between African culture as embodied in its religion and Christian
culture. Culture has been defined by Kroebar as "the mass of learned
I
and transmitted motor reaction, habits, techniques, ideas and val~.re:--
7
and the behaviour they induce." Another scholar, Taylor similarly
defines culture as "that complex whole which iriduces knowledge,
belief, art, morals, laws, custom and any othercapabilities and habils
acquired by man as a member of the society."
Culture has to do with all the aspects of life of a people, w M '
they believe in, what they do, the way they do things generally.
Culture is all embracing.
Christianity has been nurtured in the typical European society 11-1
the cultural setting or background of the European society. 'TIx!
cultural values of the African people differed from this and so whrm
Christianity arrived, there was a clash of cultural values. This situation
led the Christians and the missionaries to feel superior to the African::
-. and subsequently attempted to super-impose the Christian culture
over that of the Africans and lgbos in particular. I

The.African traditional religion could not have been passive Lo

. -
\ itsfcontact with Christianity The African traditional religion. is faced
with a lot of possibilities; modification, adaptation or even extihion. In
recognition of this fact, ldowu opines that "one or two things h a w
According to Okolo, Christianity has three tasks to tackle with regard to
culture;
First, it endorses the basic canons of culture;
Christianity is to transform but not to destroy. There
are good things in every culture and . . . it is a
Christian obligation to become cidtured according to
the best standard of one's society for Christ Himself
was a typical Jew of His day in respect to their best
traits and qualities. Secor~dly, Christianity
impreg~~atesculture with its own prir~ciples.
Christianity prlrifies culture by purifying its ethics. It
humanises c~.rlfuresby infilsing it wit11 Ch~isfianlove.
Thirdly, it challe~~ges a l ~ drejects that which is evil
5
and irr.edeen~ab/e.

Actually, the arrival of Christianity marked a turning point in the

cultural set up of the lgbo people. Though the traditional aspects of
our beliefs have been considerably weakened through the influence (:IT
Christianity and rapid developments of the modern times, they still
persist till today. Their disappearance in future is not within sight.
In this chapter we shall examine the areas of conflict between
Christianity and lgbo culture in the following areas; Rites of Passage,
Birth, Puberty, Ozo Title Taking, Death, Burial and Funeral Rile::;,
Widowhood, Osu Caste System, Masquerade Societies, taboo:^;,
Polygamy, Divination, Re-incarnation, Charms and Medicines, Killin!;j
of Twins and Human Sacrifice, Systems and Objects of Worship al-ld
the Impact of the Conflict.

"Man in African world view" according to lkenga Metuh, "can I+;:

defined ontologically and socially." Ontologically, he is a life-force Irl

vital relationship with other life-force in the universe. Sociologicall~,.~,

man is defined with reference to his position in the different groups to
i
which he belongs. As he grows biologically and assumes n ~ i : ?
 responsibilities in society, his social position may change. In mm;y
societies, the transition or change from one state of being to the other
whether it is ontological, biological or social is accompanied by a set c:lf

rituals, which have come to be called "Life Crises Rituals" or "Rites u f

Passage."
However, "Rites of Passage" are not limited to "Life Crise!:;
!,\I, I , ,,
,*,,
I
kiiyal: b u t may accompany any change from onk state o f ,being,11.:
:..,,, ~ . , . .ip ,,,*: ,k!i','t
,~\,,
8.
,
, .;
I
I
' a n o t h e r . ' ~ c c o r d i nto~ Van Gennep, whose book "The ~ i t e s i - ! ~ f
.
(I
Passage" stimulated interest in the study of this set of rituals stall:!!;
that,
The universe itself is governed by a periodicity,
which has repercussions on human life, wit/?stages
and fransifions, movements forward, and periods of
relative inactivity. We should the/-efol-e include
among ceremonies of human passage those rites
occasior~ed by celestial changes, such as the
change over from n~0nthto month, from season to
season and from year to year. '
Rites of passage include Life Crises Rituals like rituals to mark
transition into different. phases of human life like Birth, Puberry,
Marriage, Advancement to a higher social class like Ozo title takirq,
Death, Burial and Funeral rites. Other rites of passage celebrate 11-4:
passage of time or events as the New Year, new moon, planlil-lg
season, harvest festivals and national liberation or independence
Rites of passage are found in all societies but tend to reach
their maximal expression in s~riallscale, relatively slable and cyclic,itl
societies where change is bound up with biological and m&orol~~ic:~:~l
rhythms and reoccurrences rather than with technological innovaticms.
In consequences, these crises rituals not only concern the individ~~als
on whom they are centred, but also mark changes in the relationsh~;~!;
 of all the peoples 'connected with them by ties of blood, marriage!;.
political and economic associations.
According to Van Gennep, "when the activities associated with
"Rites of Passage" are examined in terms of their order and content, il
is possible to distinguish three major phases; Separation, Transilicrj
and Incorporation." ' The rites of Separation symbolically express thi:~1
one had left or no loner belongs to a particular state, place, group (11.

pi^!,,^ :
;' 1 ' ,/I
[Ihgse ofllife
i
to which he formerly belongedand should no longeril (jr
, ..
1F
associ,ated w i t h it. This 'is variously expressed ' in, different
,
,,rites:l),y , , ,
!I I
I

. ,

1,");
,J;, !; ,,:$":
,
. . ,
;,
.!,
(,,
1;. ;:, $ '11: ' J . '
, .'I: ' .
.
.,,
. .
. ..
differerlt '6'ocieties. For example the rites of separatio'nlin a number o i
, (I
: %

' 1'.
,,'I ,'
!,I r, .
'Rites of Passage' is expressed by going into seclusion, shaving one'!;
hairs, stripping of clothes associated with one's state, passing between i
*I!!.>..
:,I.'.

the parts of an object that has been halved or between two branches
or under something. These activities in the context of some rituals
express that a person has left behind one world or stage in life, and is
about to enter another.
The most important phase i n the 'Rites of Passage' is the
Transition stage. It is also called "The Laminal Stage." This does nctt
mean that the rites of separation, transition and incorporation,
necessarily follow on one after the other in a determined sequer~r:~.
Eut whether the lirninal stage is viewed as a period of time or a state or
a position in society, the individuals are "betwixt and between". Tho!/ ,

have left their former status or position but are not yet incorporatotl
into a new status. They are at once no longer classified and not y ~ 't
classified. These transitional beings are sometimes designed by a
group name different from the group they have left and the one they
are aspiring to. For example, converts to Christianity who have not yet
been baptised are called 'Catechumens'. They are no longer nor)-.
Christians but not yet full Christians. Similarly, candidates who are
training for membership of a religious order are called novices. 111
some African societies, the same name is sometimes employed tu
designate those who are being initiated into different states of life. For,
example, "the Ndembu of Zambia ernploy the term "Mwadi" both for i3

body undergoing circurncision rites, as well as for a chief-designate

undergoing his installatior1 rites." "
In so far as they are no longer classified, the symbols that
represent them are in many societies drawn from the imagery ol'
biological death and other physical processes that have a negative
import such as menstruation. The neophytes may be buried, forced to
lie motionless or ritually swallowed by a monster. The other aspwl:
that they are not yet classified, is often expressed in symbols modellc?d
on processes of gestation and parturition. The neophytes are likened
to, or treated as embryos, newborn infants, or sucklings by symbolic
means, which may vary from culture to culture. The essential feal:crre
of these symbolizations is that the neophytes are neither living n o r
dead from one aspect, and both living and dead from another. They
are in transition, betwixt and between.
Finally, there are the rites of incorporation. These rites contaip
symbols which express the fact that the initiate has achieved the new
status to which hitherto he has only been an aspirant. The ways in
which this is ritually expressed by ceremonially handing over the tool:^
or paraphernalia associated with the new status. It may also tm
expressed by a public festivity to mark the end of the rites, ceremonial
performance of some of the functions attaching to the hate, or just
sacrifices and prayers of thanksgiving to mark the end of the ritml
process.
There are two cautions which should be noted here. Firs!,
although a complete scheme of rites of passage theoretically includoii;
 the rites of incorporation, yet in specific instances these three asped.s
are not always equally important or equally elaborated, nor are l . t ~ j /
found developed to the same extent by all peoples or in every
ceremonial pattern. For example, rites of separatibn are prominent in
funeral ceremonies, and rites of incorporation in marriages. Wh In
transition rites may play an important part in pregnancy, betrothal m:l
initiation rites.
Secondly, rites of birth, initiation, marriage or death may conlz~ir'.~
'
besides the rites of passage, rituals that have other objectives. F1c:i.

example, marriage ceremonies may include fertility rites; l:)ir,i.l~

ceremonies may include protection and divination rites, while initialior'l
may include propitiatory rites and funerals defensive rites. Thc3:x)
characteristics should be borne in mind in any interpretation of' ,i:,

particular rite of passage.

5.1.1 811<TII RITES

\. Birth is the beginning of social life for an individual, and in rnc~,:it
~ f r i c a nsocieties, it is marked by very many rituals. In some societies
these rituals begin months before the child is born; in fact in SCITI~

cases these begin as soon as the mother is sure that a human beirrlj
has been formed in her womb. However, pregnancy rituals arl:?
directed more at the prospective rnother than the expected child.
Motherhood is a much sought after status in most Africixl
societies; lgbo society in particular. It is the drearn and self-fulfilrncmt
of every African young woman. According to Metuh, "A woman VV~I~::)

cannot or has not given birth is a social misfit. If she has nevw'
conceived, she is openly ridiculed and told that she is not a woman "
So in many African societies an expectant mother is hedged aroui-11:j
with very many rites, rituals and prohibitions. Pregnancy rituals like
 those of childhood include many diverse rites. They may include r-~tes
of passage to mark the attainment of motherhood by the expectall
mother. Mostly, they are made up of magical or sacrificial rites wh~):;,:?
purpose is to facilitate delivery and to protect mother and child agail-1st
evil forces which may be impersonal or personified. To expatiate up:+\
!his, Met1117 goes on to say,
A pregnant woman among the Merlde of Sierra
Leone is subjected to a riumber of restrictions.' She
must not look at ugly things lest the image mrght
influence the looks of her child and possibly result in
the birth of a monster. For similar reasons, she may
not bath alone at night. She has to abstain from
sexual relationships some months before childbirth
and up to three years after birth, because it is
. believed that this could bring illness .or death to her
I' baby. At the sixth or seventh month of her !
pregnar?cy, she leaves her,husband's hduse for her . :I . { - ,

p&-ents':house. . This is 10 make it easierfor h e r . : (I,

.
.
mother or sisters to look after her and assist her at
4 i ' , .. , childbirth. "
:
! A
,
; A', '! '
,
,

.+ .":-' llogu in his own view says,

Before a child is born, the mother miist have
offered various sacrifices to the Ala goddess, to the
C l ~ i symbol
, of her own mother and the Ndebunze
(spirit of the ancestors of her husband). What is to
be otfered (yam, chicken or goat) is indicated by a
diviner. 12

The reason for offering these sacrifices is to secure the favour of these
gods, so as to make the childbirth easy and the child to be bor'ri
blessed in advance by the gods. It was an abomination if the child
was born with feet coming out first or with teeth, or as twins. Such
children were destroyed and the abomination against the earth
goddess cleansed ritually by an Nri priest. Where the delivery is
normal, the child is taken inside the house after it has cried fairly
loudly, as an assurance that there is plenty of life in it. According If:)
Okoli Okeke,
No child is born inside the house but rather at
the hack of the n~other'sown house. The navel
cord is buried by the side of a r~ewlygerminated
palm tree, pear tree (ube) (dacryodes edvilis) or a
breadfruit tree (ultwa). It is believed that this plant,
which from then on is regarded as the child's natal
plant (akwala as it is called in Orumba) will become
fruitful in propodion to the fame of the child's
subsequent acllievetnents as an adult.

Various social and ritual ceremonies relate to the birth of' iil

child. Circumcision, especially of males, may take place within tt~nx:

native weeks, which is about twenty-four (24) days. Usually, females
are circumcised a bit later. According to Ilogu,
In a few isolated lgbo areas like Aboh on the
Southern west banks of the Niger, girls are
circumcised about the time of the puberty with
greater religious and social celebratiorxs.
Presentation to ancestors and the cleansing of the
mother from the pollutior~s of childbirth may be
pelformed after twenty-four (24) days in one area,
or after seven native weeks (56 days) in other
areas. 14

There is the presentation of the child to the people on the day ell:
naming ceremony (Asa.nwa). This is performed after seven native
weeks (56 days). Parents and grand parents from both the father's
and mother's sides play prominent parts. The extended farnily ;31-:cI
sometimes the minor sub lineage members are expected to attend. Prt
the Obi, Iba or Obu of the child's father, (or grand father where 1Re
father is still fairly young) where the cerernony takes place, the seriic:lr.
titled member, that is the Okpara of the lineage called the U r n u ~ i ~ : ~ ?
presides. The child is placed by the Ndebunze, (the culture ~ymbl::~l
of
the ancestors) shrine. Names are given by the parents im..I
sometimes by the grand patents while the senior titled member holds
the child in his hands.
To the Mende of Sierra Leone according to Metuh,
the birth itself is witnessed only by women. If the
baby is a boy, those present would shout "Hooyo".
This is to hfonn the rnen folk that a future member
of the Poro (a men secret society) has arrived.
"Hooyo" is the cry used by initiates of the Poro
society. 15

He goes on to elaborate on the naming ceremdny by saying thal it

is called "kpua gita ya" (presentation to the street) because it is the first
time the child is brought out of the hut and introduced to the outsitlct!
world to which he would henceforth belong. This ceremony take:;
place in the early hours of the morning of the fourth day after birth: if' it
is a boy but on the third day if it is a girl. The woman whose name irr

girl child is to bear takes her out in the early morning faces the sur-I
spits on the child's face and says "remember me in all my ways arid
deeds, because you are narned after me." The boy's naming is done
either by the father, the father's brother, or the mother's brother.
l6 /
The details of what follows immediately after childbirth vary
widely. According to Mbiti,
In some societies, the baby may not be given its
mother's milldbreast until rituals of purification have
been performed; in others, the molher and child are
kept from each other for some days in others both
child and mother may be kept in seclusion from the
public for several days or even weeks. 17

As a rule, the whole occasion of birth is marked with feasting and great
..
rejoicing among the relatives and neighbours of the parent::i
concerned. All the ceremonies surrounding birth show some of the
characteristic features of the rites of passage. The birth itself supplicsi
for the rites of separation from both the pre-natal spirit world and the
 physical world of the mother's womb to which he hitherto belonged
The few days' seclusion after birth constitutes the'larninal stage. I-le
no longer belongs to the pre-natal worlds, nor has he yet beer-I
incorporated into the human world and human society. The early
missionaries never saw childbirth like that and it became a kind c:f
conflict between the two cultures.

"Puberty" as defined by Ilogu, "is the passage from boyhood or

I
girlhood into adult life." '' Various religious and social ceremonie.~

:- ,.; ." , .
first menstruation period. with the accompanying sacrifices of chick.el;s
, i,.l$;y,:
,, \:,,:
.,&o.~, .
:.;.,<,a , , ! I,!. :, :.
fip,:
Jra:. ,
-I.'
I_. .r,
to various gods according to the direction of the diviner. At Isuloi(;d~(ll$/:
.. I L. . i,,.;;;;
' of the towns in brumba), the Uhie Akwal;, a yearly festival for maidew,
4

takes a special turn for all such maidens who have reached pubc?r,l:,/
and are about to go to their husbands' hornes. A goat is killed, put into
a basket and another basket is filled with yarns and they are carried 11:)
the mothers of the maidens concerned. Sacrifices and prayers offered
during this puberty rite observance are intended to secure the good
will of the gods to grant happy home life to the young woman,
especially through the gift of children. The market parades of young
maidens at the end of various puberty rites and these ceremonies art:!
great social occasions in most areas, just as in many things the
I
religious is not far removed from the social. l9

MGiii says that in the Ndebele community, when a boy has I-lit;
first night emission of sperms, he gets up early the next morning
before other people are up and goes naked to the river where tie
washes himself. Then he returns home and stands outside the
homestead near the gateway that leads to the cattle shed. When
other boys see him there, they come and beat him with sticks. I-ic
flees into the woods and remains there for two or three days bein!;]
carefully watched by the other boys. During that time he is qot allovisd
to eat in the daytime but only at night. When the period is over, IT:?
returns home and is given medicated food by the traditional doctor'.
This is done ceremoniously. The medicine man puts maize meal id
the end of a stick, which he thrusts at hirn and the boy must take 1,~:111:.1
of .it with his mouth. When he succeeds in dong so, the medicine nlzln
gives him three or four blows with a stick. People say that this make:;
the boy hard. His father and relatives give him presents of cattle,
sheep and goats. The girls undergo a prolonged washing in c:old
water after their first menstruation. Some days later, their par~mts
make a big feast, after which the girls begin to wear a full skirt. l'his
now entitles them to get married. 20
There are no known cases of late circurr~cisionof boys in
lgboland as a puberty ceremony. The more familiar puberty rites .fl:)r
boys are initiation into the masquerade secret societies and the
installation for the boys of the first shrine or personal gods. WI$
Amanwulu ceremony is more or a less a puberty rite. In Orumba, rnosl:
parents who can afford it install the Agwusi cults symbol for the sons
as a puberty rite. Agwusi is the introduction to the personal gods and
shrines, which a man acquires gradually in life. This therefore
becomes the first shrine of the young adult, where he learns to offer
his first prayers and sacrifices to the gods.
The initiation into the secret societies involves sorne ordeizlls
and tests in manly endurance, expected of a villager who has through
puberty passed from childhood to adulthood. In some areas ol
lgboland both boys and girls mark their bodies with tattoos as puberty
rites. Others cut spaces into their front upper teeth by thinning the . h r ,

frontal upper teeth. Almost everywhere, young men newly initiated

into the muo (masquerade) society take new salutation or praise!'
names by which people greet them formally in the homes and at social
or ceremonial meetings. Christianity never approved all the practices
associated with puberty rites hence conflict arose.

. I
OZO TITLE TAKING RITES . j .j
Ozo title was one of the most institutions 'that were held !;(I
esteemed in lgboland before the advent of Christianity. The taking (17:.
this title was a manrfestation of increase in wealth and prestige. Even .
up till date many people still go for this title taking in spite of all that
Christianity has said against taking such a title. Many stages are
passed before one takes the main ozo title and these stages and ~zIII
that is done seem unchristian hence most of these practices arc?
condemned by the Church. Those stages to pass include; Ime Agwf,
Ememe Nwa, Fajioku, Ife Ayukwu and the main Ozo. The title holc1c;r-)
I
must be a free-born and it rnust be ascertained and confirmed that III$
acquired his wealth honestly. Egbo described the Ozo title holder ;is:
occupying a position in lgboland comparable to the
peerage in the English society, with the same social
prestige of "Lord" in the society as indicated in the
new title name the man is given at the successful
end of the title taking. 21

Whatever was its political, social and economic significanc.~,

because most of the Ozo rites of initiation were associated with mimy
religious rites, the missionaries understandably. educated their
converts to have nothing to do with it. Ozo titleholders at conversiori
must renounce their title and burn the insignia of the title as well as tlw
cult objects associated with it. The Roman Catholic Church started
 with antagonism to Ozo'but in the recent times they seemed to have
worked out some acceptable scheme of accommodation. According to
Ilogu, "For Shanahan, (later Bishop) in 1911 at Onitsha suggested ttwt
Christians should be organised to form their own kind of Ozo soc:~ei~j
as a counter and a way of ignoring the traditional one." 22
The former Archbishop of Onitsha Roman Catholic Archdiocesci!
His Grace, Most Revd. Dr. Stephen Ezeanya (of the.blessed memory)
devised a method whereby Roman Catholics could take the Ozo I.itlc;,.
In the Anglican denomination, it could be recalled that in the 70s, mi31-1y
Anglican faithfuls aspired to be initiated into the Ozo society. -T'h(:t

. Church spoke against it vehemently because of some idolatrm~s

practices involved. This caused a havoc arnong the Christians v h : ~
indicated their willingness and those who opposed Christri31-I:;
associating thernselves with Ozo title taking. Being led b y the I-!cIy
Spirit., the bishop On The Niger (Church of Nigeria, Angl~i:i:r,.r
Communion), His Grace, Most Revd. Dr. J. A. Onyernelukwe instit1.111:l:l
what he called, Niger Diocesan Cultural Issues Committee headed 1hy
Revd. Canon Sir Amos E. D. Mgbemene (Canon Superior, Canon irt
Resigence and the Administrative Secretary of the Diocese). It hellx4
immensely in minimising the conflicts. The Church set up the stanc:lar.cl
that any one wishing to be initiated should follow'but it is still notiixd
that even up till date, there are some deviants. Frankly speaki-g,
there are some traditional rituals associated with it that lo:k
'paganistic' and that is why it is still causing some conflicts im1
misunderstanding between Christians and non-Christians.

5.1.4 DEATII, BURIAL AND FUNERAL RII'TES

The lgbo people believe that life here on earth is r-lot
interminable. Death is seen as a transition - a means of passing f ~ w l
the world of men to the world of Spirits. No matter how long a per!ion
lives, death must come as a necessary end. Mbiti describes death i 3 ~

"a process which removes a person gradually from the Sasa period to
the Zamani" 23 While Awolalu and Dopamu define death as "the l'ined
turning point in the life of man here on earth." 24
, . '.
, 'Man is made up of the physical, tangible body and the::
personality soul, which is the real human essence.. People believe that
when death occurs, the personality scul, which is the spiritci.11
substance, the essential person is separated from the physical body.
The physical body decays, while the personality soul returns to thcrt
source of Being from whom it comes. This belief is demonstrated in
the importance which the lgbo people attach to the funeral rites.
Death, burial and funeral rites constitute a problem between tlw
Christians and lgbo culture since their understanding and practices
associated with them vary. The lgbo Culture hold the same belief wil.l.,)
I'
Awolalu and Dopamu that there are two categories of death: bad arid
good deaths - the death of a youth and that of the aged. Bad deaths
do not normally receive funeral rites. When a child dies, the parents
and relatives lament the death and dispose of the corpse as quickly as
possible since it is regarded as a bad death. Deaths caused by 11-x?
anti-wickedness divinities like the gods of thunder, small pox and ir-cln
are regarded as bad. They are capital punishment from the divine at-113
must not be mourned. The deceased are buried with purificatory a r d
expiatory rites to appease the divinities concerned. Other types of bad
degth~.includethose who die of leprosy, people who die of accidents
like falling from a palm tree, women dying in child birth, women dying
in pregnancy, lunatics, suicide and those who have been murderel:l,
drowned or burned. All these are not given formal burials, but they are
buried without delay by specialists or priests. 25
 This observation is true of Orumba area.. Furthermore, tticr~
burial of a person who died a bad death was not attended by common
people but by specialists who were knowledgeable in essential rituals.
For instance, a person killed by Egbe-Miri, (the god of thunder), must
be' buried by an Nri priest at the spot where he was struck or in the
"evil forest." All his belongings must be shared into two, the Nri pries.t
takes half, and no other person could use the remaining half unless'
1
, .
the burial rites are completed. . ,'
I

The good death was that which came when one lived to a ripe'
i I,
old age. Although there were occasions when the death of a young '

man or woman was not considered totally bad. Such a person rnu:h':
have lived an exemplary and a good life and must have left behind,
some children. Such deaths were mourned and given befitting buri;31!1i.
The Orumba people before they embraced Christianity believed lilw
some other Africans that the cause of death of any human being mu!:it,
be found out. This led them to the oracle divinity (Afa) which they
believed could indicate the cause of the death of the deceased; 10
know if he broke some taboos, or oaths or neglected certain divinity fir
ancestor or committed a grievous sin in terms of abomination or ths
death caused by the enemies of the deceased so that the relativw
would avenge.
When the nelvs of the death of an elderly woman \rViZlS
.- announced to her relations, sacrifice of a chicken was offered by ttw

extended family head before the young men and some not too old (1n:r:)
titled men together with the wives of the lineage mournfully march tr:)
the late woman's home. After a long day of mourning in songs m:l
dances, various articles are prescribed by the relatives of the dtm:j
woman such articles include goat, chicken, yards of cloth, some cl*-1;:1'6;
and calm wood lotion. These articles would be taken home by the
 relatives. On the day of the burial proper, some sacrifices woulcj 1112

performed in the woman's family home by her people.

According to an Ozo titled man in Ogbunka; lchie Ezeka Ikpcl,
the death of a titled nian involves all amounts of religious and ritu;ni
-
observances. A cock is killed and its blood mixed with some leaves
with which a "medicine man" washes the hands of the deceased It:)

cleanse him of evils committed with hands while alive. A white plumed
cock is then offered to the ancestral spirits to announce the.death. All
the shrines installed by him are encircled with the tendrils of palm
leaves (omu nkwu) whilst another white plumed cock is tied alive head
downwards at the point where the dead man is laid in state. Before his
corpse is buried, a goat and or a cow, according to his children's or
relations financial means, is slaughtered and blood poured into the
grave where he is to be buried. For the burial of chiefs, heroes and
men of high social status in the society especially in the past, hu~nan
beings must be captured and buried with them. The 'ikoro' ~~.LII-II

would then announce the interment of the corpse when it is being

lowered down. When the grave is being filled, cannon shots are fired
intensively. Prayers and incantations are said to the spirits of 11-16

dead ancestors to receive the dead man's soul and to punish arty
human being who in one form or the other might have caused the
death of this man. All these things are done to ensure a peac:eful
passage of the soul of the deceased to the land of the dead. 26
According to Awolalu and Dopamu,
On the day of burial, a live cock is usually buried
with the corpse, with the belief that the deceased
will need it in the spirit world. In the old times,
slaves were buried with the corpse to form a kind of
retinue for the deceased in the spirit world. 27
Various age groups are represented and most of them (those willing)
are given the opportunity to read their oration or send message to the
 ancestors in the spirit world through this deceased. Some use tt;i:i;
medium to ask the deceased to revenge especially if it was suspected
that some one else caused the death. The relatives of the deceased
.. mourn his death and are confined to their houses for some period
The period of confinement is determined by degree of relationship. 11-1

most of the lgbo communities, the relatives of the deceased :)re

compelled to shave the hairs on their heads especially the immediatci!
family members.
There is the second burial ceremony, which follows later. It is
intended to make the dead man secure his place in the company of
the ancestors. As the name suggests, it is the second burial. There is
no rigid rule about its performance. It is believed that the sooner it is
'.
performed, the better for both the living and,the dead. People also
believe that it cannot be evaded without disastrous consequences. It
is believed that unlil it is performed, the dead do not enjoy the f ~ d l
privileges of the dead, and are not able to intercede for the living. The
dead man himself will be unhappy, he is a homeless wanderer si17c.e
he has not been offered a permanent place in the spirit world. In the
alternative, he will persistently haunt his former dwelling place, and
assuredly bring calamity on his family for such unfeeling and
unwarrantable negligence. 28
In course of years, Christians were taught to ignore all t l x
Ii
practices and beliefs associated with death, burial and funeral riles;,
which are paganish. The lgbo traditionalists categorise death inlo
bad, good and natural deaths; but to Christians, death isadeath m?cl
they believe that, "it is appointed for man to die once and after death
comes judgement." 29 The lgbo traditionalists believe that after one's
death, one will be wandering on earth until the second burial has been
performed before one settles finally in the spirit world.
 Again the lgbo traditionalists believe that the dead could avenge
for the evil deeds done to him while alive on earth. To the Christians, 1
they are taught to bless those who persecute them. Also that they (tl-11::
I
. . Christians) should never avenge for themselves but to leave it to tt-10
Wrath of God for it is written, "vengeance is mine, I will repay says the
Cord: .30 Many of these teachings, practices and beliefs of the
traditionalists constituted a big obstacle in the efforts to evangelise the
people by the Christians especially the early missionaries. So there
were some conflicts but thanks be to God that today, things have
changed for better.

5.1.5 WIDOWHOOD RITES

Widowhood traditionally is a long established religious m : I
sociological practice observed in different societies by women that I ( x t
their husbands. According to Nwoga,
A woman becomes a widow when her husband
dies and it is from that point of the death of the
husband that widowhood practices start. These
practices are sets of expectations as to actions and
behaviour by the widow and rituals performed by or
on behalf of the widow from the time of the death of
her husband. 3'

Widowhood rites of passage were among the issues that have caused
conflicts between the Christians and the traditionalists.
The fear of widowhood frightened most women especially tho
dreaded unchristian rituals which widows were forced to undergo in
the name of tradition that it raised dust between the traditidnalists and
the Christians. One could even notice that in some places today, the
widows are subjected to such unchristian treatments. Some of those
idolatrous practices were inherited from the past non-Chris,lian
 generations whose beliefs, practices and value systems were based
on inadmissible assumptions and unchristian promises.
1
Let us at this juncture recount what the widow passed througl?
before the advent of Christianity and even now that Christianity coc~ltl
be said to have firmly been rooted on our soil. Many of the widows !;l.ill
suffer terribly, though it differs from place to place. Before the a d \ m t
of Christianity, some widows were forced to drink the water that was
used in washing their dead husbands as a mark of proving innocence'
of the death. Some widows were not allowed to see the dead bodic:~
of their husbands (Nanka episode being an example even in the late,
nineties when Christianity had firmly rooted on our so.il).
In some places, the widows were forced to sleep on bare floor
or with ordinary mats for months or even up to a year. The widow':%
movement was restricted even when she was going to ease hersall,
one of the female relatives of the deceased husband must accompiany
her. In cther places, the widow would be led naked to a shrine at night
by men where she would be made to undergo rituals which would
make her actually "AjaduNwanyl' or "lfeajana".
In some towns, the widow might be forced to eat and'drink frmn
1
i
old rejected plates and cups. Some were compelled to have Itwir
pubic hairs shaved and such sacrificed to an idol and the widow
naked round the town at midnight. In some places, the widow wol.tld
,
$ not be allowed to wash her body for months. In some other plams;,
w h i d the dead man was still lying in state, the widow would be
assigned to another man who would have sexual .intercourge with her
as part of ritual. If she refused, it would be counted as abominable
and sanction would be ostracism. In some places, the widow and ticx
children would be forced out of the matrimonial home if the father-in-
law was still alive on the pretext that the woman and her children had
witnessed an abomination. 32 The afore mentioned were among the
wicked and "inhuman" practices associated with widowhood whic;h
Christianity met on arrival and has been speaking against them.
These practices were regarded as parts of the culture of the people.
These and more terrible things were what Christianity met c n
arrival being perpetrated daily in towns and villages in Igboland. All
these practices were and still are contrary to the Christian beliefs a r ~ d
practices. They have been conflicts between the Christians and nor-]-
Christians. \

I:

To fight against these negative attitudes meted to the widows i r l ;

our society, Margaret Ezeokonkwo has the following submission,
The Bible says, bear one another 's burden, so
fulfil the law of Christ. (Galatians 6:8). We need
regular sound and down to earth theological
teaching on God, man, woman, nature of marriage,
death, life after death especially as it regards our
subject matter. Culture and tradition are not meant
to be static but should change with the changing
times. Christ is our Saviour and the Church which
is the body of Christ lives to proclaim and serve
Him. He is with the Church always. Christians
should be the instruments of deliverance and an
agent of change. 33

In the course of this research, I discovered that the Chl~rch

especially Diocese On The Niger (Anglican Communion; mother W I ~

nurse of many infant seas, teacher of doctrine unsullied by grease.)

has continued to champion the fight against maltreatment on the
widows. In the Diocese today, there is a ministry known as 'Cari-ig
and Sharing Ministry', which focuses on the widows.
.. Its member'!;
always protect the interest of the widows (the bereaved) by making
sure that some Christian women are with them (the widows) during tlw
period of mourning, especially immediately the death of the marl is
announced, during burial proper and after.
 14 4 ,)

The Christian women shave the hairs of the widow memberg,,

11 1 1
after saying prayers on the day of burial. They make sure that thesra , ,,
Christian widows are never forced into anything satanic, immoral ort8ii
8 [I
idolatrous in the name of culture or tradition of the people. The lapsss;; V'

we notice today in some localities in spite of the teachings ufjj :;

',:I
Christianity are as a result of the weak Christian men and women wti.c!'iII !('
cannot stand firmly for JESUS CHRIST to defend their right and tti6iril:,,
faith.
The summarv of this section states that the influence "hfh
.q!111 i: ,I

Christianity has over-shadowed the negative widowhood practices a~"!i!:iiI:~!

';I: lid ,
time is coming when there will be a total eradication of thd!/' !
maltreatments and defilement of widows. Human beings shoulcl lit#
1
1
(1,

!i
,

. I

treated like human beings and no burdens should be added to thg! :.

already existing ones.

6.2 OSU CASTE SYSTEM

i
"Osu" system was an integral part of lgbo religious practicx,.
The origin of the system is not very certain. It is controversial. It is
definitely not an enviable status in life and therefore a bad thing.
According to Basden,
The word "Osu" means a slave. In fact he is the
property of a god in plain language, a living
sacrifice . . . Once devoted to a god there is
practically no prospect of such a slave regaining
freedom, and his movements were rest~ictedto the
precincts ... Redemption is possible but of
extremely rare occurrence; even then the fact is
remembered against the one redeemed. 34

Also Arinze says that,

An Osti is a person who is socially consecrated
to a spirit that has a shrine (Alusi). He is
symbol~callyimmolated, and is then left to live on as
 a 'child' or 'slave' of his 'alusi'... A person could
have himself so dedicated to a spirit to escape the
unscrupulous molestations of evil neighbours. 35

People became Osu voluntarily' or fear of death frolr~

antagonistic party. In social life the position of the "Osu" is not .an
enviable one. They were regarded as the lowest in the social ladder
and as even more despicable than slaves. They could intermarry only
among themselves and were excluded from many social gatherings
When a person became an Osu all his descendants became ipso fac:t(:l
'ndi o w ' . To call a freeborn Osu is worse than giving him a knife cut.
When Christianity came, the missionaries condemned C)SU
caste system. The Christians were housed together including the new
converts. According to Okoye,
~ h e s eearly converfs lived close together in
communal settlements, which they tailed "ogige"
consisting of small thatched houses built closely
fogether. Parf of their purpose for living in the
communal setflements (ogige) was to enjoy some
measure of seclusion, to be free from molestation^
from non-Christians and to be able to sfudy
together. 36

The Christian missionaries never discriminated against the :;(:I-.

called "Osu". They preached that there should be no Gentiles or J m q

instead they taught that before God all is one and that Christ is for all.
In the words of St. Paul to the Galatians, "for as many of you as wer?
baptised into Christ, have put on Christ. There is neither Jews r d r
Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nbr feniale
for you are all one in Christ Jesus" 37 Once you believe, you have
been made a member of Christ's today, the CHURCH.
Despite the devastating influence of Christianity on this conc:ept
of Osu, it is still very much alive and active in lgbo Society. This IS

clear evidence that the level of our conversion is merely skin-deep

The so-called free men deny the Osu free participation in local po1i:lc.s
and in the area of marriage where the trend is endogamous, It11:s

perpetuating the obnoxious practices. Onwubiko in making an appei~~l

says,
The bishops, priests and people in lgboland
must unite and speak out in one voice against the
Osu Caste System . . . as leaders in the religious -
cultural spheres of life, must lead the people and
point out for them the right way. 38

. In spite of Christian teachings and government condemnaticn

on the Osu Caste System, the stigma still persists. We should all lorn
hands together as we fight it in our society. Christ came to set us f r w
and He has done that why should we make ourselves and our fellow
human beings captives any more? The practice of Osu Caste Syst~xn
h.

poses a problem to Christianity.

5.3 MASQUERADE SOCIETY

The most important and highest respectable secret society in
Orumba is 'Muo' or 'Mmanwu' - the masquerade society. It is t.lw
impersonation of ancestors or the dead through the use of mask.
Masquerading therefore implies assuming a false appearance ar
disguising oneself. According to Parrinder, "maskers speak in gutteral
voices, impersonating the voices of ancestors who are conceived as
having broken noses and therefore speak in a nasal falsetto." 39 I

The popular ones are 'Ijere; Agaba, Ejionu, Mgbadike, Achikwi,

Ichoku, Oke n'ohia, Ome na Ikoro, Onyekuru, etc.' They featute during
funeral ceremonies, new yam festival or even during Christian feasts
like Christmas, Easter or New Year. A masquerade is greeted as 'Nna
any( - our father or 'Onye nwe obodo' - the owner of the town. The
initiation ceremony is for boys only and it is always tasking, long,
I
arduous and rigorous. According to Onyenaka;
Part of the initiation formalities is an oath or
solemn promise imposed on the candidate t o
restrict the knowledge gained to initiated members
only, and never to divulge controlled information to
people outside that society. .. The uninitiated are
called Ogbudu. 40

Masquerades perform political, social and religious functims

According to Ilogu,
The "Otu mud' (masquerade society) members perform sotrio
political duties. They guard the village against thieves, collect fines
from people pronounced guilty of offences and help in seeing that a/-!/
(pollutionlabominations) are not hidden in the society. 41
The "muon makes use of charms to effect some harms. TI-12
missionaries condemned the masquerade society. To them secret
society is a dysfunctional body. The missionaries even went as far as
soliciting the support of the colonial government in order to fruslralo
the society. They succeeded to some extent because the sectxt
society was not an open and fair system through which justice cculfl
be enforced. It could be used for entertainment. For example in
Anambra State, for some years, the government was spending a h q l e
amount of money in sponsoring what they called 'annual muo festival'
in which over three thousand masquerades would gather to entertain
people. This was being done in order to promote culture. But one of
the things that has not been appreciated adequately by the partake:!:;
is that the traditional masquerades celebrations enhanced the
influence of demonic force because it involves elaborate pagan
sacrifices and rituals which help to promote the dignity and status 1:)f
African gods. For Christianity we have only one God to worship and
adore. He is the almighty God; we have no other god(s).
6.4 TABOOS
Taboos are those prohibitions, which every member of ;:I

community must observe. Any violations of such taboos attract

punishment in the form of pestilence, epidemic or drought. Us~lally
any violation of the taboo upsets the relationship between the sacred
(God) and the profane. According to Enile Durkheim,
. . .a taboo represents a channel of contact in which
the spirits of the gods dwelt . . . This is why taboos
have become a kind of religious practice by which
things prohibited receive sanction or punishment on
their defaulters. The guilty man will suffer the
punishment for his action; either alone or with the
members of the family depending on the gravity of
the offence committed. 42

However, cultural laws consist of rules and social conventions

which are generally condemned and disapproved behaviour, or~ly
punishable when one is caught in the act. In fact it becomes z!n
offence once the person is testified to have committed such a.11
offence. Unlike taboo that is connected with deity and spirits which is
always present to wreck vengeance on the defaulter.
In certain parts of Igboland, there are some animals that ere
regarded as sacred animals and are therefore not hunted down or

.
killed for food. Such animals are respected and treated kindly by the
adherents of the traditional religion and to kill them is a serious taboo,
the violation of which is regarded as an abomination. For instance it is
a serious taboo for any Agulu man to kill or eat tortoise whether tl-10
person is a Christian or not. Also it is a taboo for an Awka man to kill
or eat the meat of a donkey. In Idemili, no matter your level of
Christianity, it is a taboo to kill python (Eke), which they associate with
their founding fathers. Any one who kills Eke Idemili, knowingly o r
unknowingly is in a serious trouble. A lot of rituals must be carried CIIA
to appease the gods. One dares not defile or kill such an anilnal,
because to be a deviant calls for special sacrifice for the appeasemelit
of the gods.
The most serious taboos are those against the Earth Deity.
Committing any kind of taboo without appeasing the earth-deity means
threatening the stability of the society itself as well as that of nature,
because the lgbos say and believe that apart from the sky, every other
thing rests on the earth
In Orumba area, below are some of he examples of their tabolx
and cultural laws;
1. Killing of human being.
2. Killing of totem animals.
3. Committing of evil against the land (imegide ala) in any way
Removing yam seedlings from the mounds (ground).
Development of upper teeth first before the lower teeth
Making known the secret of mmanwu masquerade cult I:I:)
women.
7. Sleeping with another man's wife.
8. Committing incestlsuicide.
9. Women climbing cola nut tree.
10. Beating one's parents.
Plucking of 'uzuza' leaflseed by women under menstruaticq,
etc.

When one looks at sonie of these taboos and cultural laws, b n e can
see that there are some of them that are in line with the tenets of
Christianity. They should be upheld while the other ones that do I-II:)~

glorify God should be wiped out. From inception of Christianity, true

Christians have never regarded any bush, riverlstream, fish ~:r
whatever as sacred and untouchable. But to the traditionalists, it is not
the same. In Ogbunka, people are prohibited from killing any fish in
Obii Nwokpuocha stream. There was a time some Christians fished
there and it caused serious problem between them and non-
Christians. Any time the Christians contravene any of the taboos or
cultural laws they defend their action by quoting portions of the Bible
like Genesis 1:31 which says "But God saw everything that He hael
made, and behold it was good . . . " or Acts 10: 13, 15; "rise Peter, k1I1
and eat; ... what God has cleansed, you must not call common."
According to Ilogu,
It is in utter disregard of and organised
disobedience to these taboos and customs of ritual
avoidance that the conflict between Christianity and
lgbo traditional life first started to manifest itself. 44

5.5 POLYGAMY
From the earliest contact of Christianity with lgbo life i31-~d

society, polygamy seemed to be one of the most difficult institutior~s1:)f

lgbo life to be easily thrown away by converts. As llogu se&
marriage, "it is together w,ith the many customs associated with it
another avenue through which an individual shares in the group life of
the lgbo community." 45
In the lgbo traditional context of marriage, the religious aspecls
of marriage include the preliminary divination by which the young rrlan
who seeks a wife is enabled to find out from what clan or lineage hi:;
chi (guardian spirit) him to take 'a wife of fortune." He goes cwl
to say that when the diviner pronounces the clan and lineage fi-om
where the future wife will be found, he also prescribes the sacrifices In
be offered to the ancestors to prosper the young man and help him
find a 'good' wife which invariably means a child bearing worr~~m.
When the girl is found, her own parents consult the diviner to rnid<ci!
sure that her own ancestral spirits would permit her to marry the young
man. When all the preliminaries gre finished and bride wealth is p i M
and the girl is ready to go and settle in her new husband's home, :; I
that time, the mother gives to her daughter chi cultus symbol. This
consists of two small clay pots and four small wooden pieces 117 iil

wooden plate. After the birth of her first child, the chi cultus symtml is
ceremoniously installed by the mother of the young wife. This reliyilx~s~
custom is to ensure that the girl going over to the family of her rtew
husband retains some part of the ancestry spirit of her mothw's'
lineage. 45
., A man could marry as many wives as he could. And havil-~y
many wives was a sign of being wealthy and another purpose was l l - ~ t t
they could help in farm work. Negotiation to contract a marriage coultl
begin immediately the girl was born between the girl's parents and the
parents of the boy. Coconut could be offered to the parents of the g ~ r l
to show the interest of the boy's parents in having their son marry the
girl. Marriage (Ilu nwanyi) has a paramount place in lgbo social
economy. According to Basden, "It looms upon the horizon of evwy
maid and youth as an indispensable function to be fulfilled with as little
delay as possible after reaching the age of puberty." 46 ~ a r r i a g eritm
have been very strong in lgboland - so important and all embrac:inQ
and all involving as the saying goes in lybo "Ofu onye au'ighi alu

.
nwanyi" literally translated as one person does not marry a wife. It
involves families, kinsmen and at times villages or towns.
According to New Dictionary of Christian Ethics and Pastoral
Theology,
Mar-r~ageis a mutual, exclusive, life-long, one-
flesh union befween a husbar~d and wife
characterised by troth. Troth is an old English word
 for fidelity, truth, trustl love and comrnitrne~~t.
Marriage is the ultimate human connection in which
two people only commit then~elves fully and
trothfully to each other in a life-long journey of deep
sharing, rrwtual respect and growing intimacy. 47
I I

When Christianity arrived, it was noticed that some of the

marriage practices and systems by the lgbos were contrary to thr:
Christian marriage especially as it concerned polygamy. The conl'1ic:t
has been there since the inception of Christianity. The case of thosci!
who were polygamists before becoming Christians is quite differeri!
from those who make themselves polygamists after becorning
Christians. Christianity has never advocated for polygamy in any v4a;y
and will never because the injunction of Christianity is one man one
wife no matter the situation. The attitude of the African Churcl-I
Incorporated and the United African Church that only the clergy werrr!
required by Biblical injunction to marry only one wife whilst the ordinar!i
members of the Church could have more than one wife was and is :;till
not acceptable to Christianity generally.
Another area where the lgbo traditional culture and Christianity
have been conflicting themselves is on the issue of divorce. E \ w
from the original Jewish point of view as well as the belief of he Igtm;.
divorce could be effected so easily but to Christianity, such is never.
allowed. The Christian religion teaches that the only thing that could
cause marriage to be dissolved is infidelity. The man and wornar-I
joined legally in marriage should remain united till death do them par1
But the lgbo traditional culture never saw it that way. Some of Itm
conflicts between Christianity and lgbo culture in marriage would
continue to linger on. Christianity does not ostracise any one \ ~ / h o
after marrying one wife 'as a Christian slides back into polygamy 5irl
such a person does not have the full rightstbenefits that any one \ A ~ ( I
sticks to one wife and maintains monogamy should have. Polyyi:~cny
has been a thorn in the flesh as far as Christianity and Igbo'tr.aditiori:t!
culture are concerned. W~ttiinOrumba area, the major occopatior-I of
the people is farming. Sorne of the men marry many wives so as t ( : ~
have large families for easy farm work. Some would prefer to tw
polygamists and certain rightslbenefits denied them to beiry
\.
monogamists and would not be able to cultivate enough farm crops for.
domestic and econornic purposes. The point is that the conflic:l!:i
between the Christian religion and the traditional culture of the Igt>cr
people as far as polygamy as a system of marriage have b e w ttwti!
and will be. Though with time and more knowledge of the worrj of
God, Christianity will eventually win the day hopefully.

5.6 DIVINATION
According to Awolalu and Doparnu, "Divination is the practice 01
attempting to foretell the future, reveal the unknown or find out ttici!.
I

wish of a divinity or spirit," The lgbos have one of the most hiqllls;l
developed divination systems in Nigeria. In an assertion made Iz1j1
lkenga Metuh, he says, "Divination is connected with deity said to 1:~: iil

child of the Supreme Being, and his deputy and oracle on earth... Ttic
diviner is called father of mysteries." '"hose who engage in the art of
divination are called diviners. 'They may either be priest connec1er:l
with the cults of certain divinities or they are men with religicxi:;
influence. .
Religion is a vital and essential part of the worldviek Vihl
because it deals with man's relationship with his maker which givlx;
meaning to his life and necessary connecting link which IS

indispensable.
 People consult oracles and diviners in order to find out the
strength of their relationship with the spirit world, to maintain healthy
relationship with it to appease and maintain the ontological balat-ic(<
Metuh goes on to say:
Diviners are consulted a1 all important occasions
in a person's life. It is consulted when sornelliir~gis
lost, when a harrer? vvonian desires ch~ldren,at
bi~tli,before malmge, after a series of n~isforiur~es,
when there is an inexplicable disease, when one
has a strange dream, during the cr~sesof life, to
obtain a job, to pass an examination, before buildir~g
a uew house, at death to f M out the cause of the
death and during an rideriakir~g.50

Different peoples in West Africa use many different syste~w;(A

divination. According to Dopatnu and Awolalu, "Sorne diviners use
four-value ltola nut l'he values are thrown or cast on the ground atid
the way in which they fall gives the answer to the diviner's questiorw."
51

The functions of the diviners are to help a client fc)r:~.x;

reflectively on his problem and provide him with an apparatus rooted I I ~ I
accepted cultural values for analysing them, and above all to give an
authoritative backing of the spiritual world to whatever decision im::1
course of action he many want to take on his own situation. Thus a
diviner provides confidence and certainty in a world of anxiety i31-11:..1

doubt. According to Ifesieh,

Diviners are in every village in Igboland, and the
known or;r7cles include the following, long juju of the
Aro, the Agbala of Awka, the Agbala of EnugwlS
Ukwu, the Odo cult of Nsukka, The Edo of Nnewi,
The Ajala of Ogbunka, the Udo of Umunze 52.
With the advent of Christianity, the missionaries viewed Il-~e
whole system of divination with contempt and apathy. They 1'1r:;t
started with dismantling and crushing the whole oracle and I h l x
system of divination. Nevor'theless, some Christians today still r o w l
to their village and local diviners in times of trouble, childbirth m:l
other forms of misforturie, But this practice is not approved for ttw
Christians in any way. Christianity is totally against divination.

5.7 REINCARNATION
Common to the Orumba people is the belief in re-incarnatior:
The re-birth of the dead within a family or close relation is known as re-
incarnation. This concept is universal among the lgbos and e v w
beyond. It is believed to be the rightful heritage of every freet>orn
person. However, ~ f ~ . i c abelief
n differs substantially from the Indial
ideas about re-incarnation in a number of ways. According 10
Parrinder;
The notion of a round of existence gripping all
beings in cycles of rebirth and from which men
might escape only by great effort to Nirvana is quite
lacking 111 African thought. Similarly, the not1011of
reward or pu/.~ishment being administered by rebirth
i i ~ t oa higher or lower state such as one finds in
Plato as well as in Indian belief is missing in Africa.
53

\. In contrast to the negative vision, the lgbos look forward to

reincarnation as a desirable blessing. Men and women regard
marriage and the begetting of children as a sacred duty to the
ancestors and to themselves because not to do so would be to deny
the ancestors the opportunity to reincarnate in their children and d m y
themselves the chance of reincarnating in their own grandch'ildren atld
great-grand children. This explains the continuing interest of the
54
ancestors in the affairs of their families.
The beliefs in reincarnation could be proved in Orumba area
and the entire Igboland. Firstly by consulting a diviner soon after tjirll,
to identify the ancestor who has been reborn in the new b;i~b!/
Secondly, reincarnation is established by judging the circumstanc:o:s;
surrounding the birth of a person. When a baby boy is born soon after
the death of a husband, it is generally believed that the, husband tla!ii

come back to the family. In such cases, the newborn baby boy is
given such.name as "Onochie". Thirdly, through mere resemblance: If
a newborn baby resembles a dead ancestor from the way he or :;IN::
appears or through the contours of hislher nose or eyes, the child is
declared a reincarnation of the dead ancestor or relative. Sornetiriw:;
one may be bold enough to say who reincarnated hirnlher. A story
was told of a boy who told his grand mother that he was reincarr1ater:l
by the dead husband of the grand mother. It was accepted beca~.l!x
since the boy was of age to speak, what he uttered was accepted lo
be true; very authentic. Finally, dreams about a dead person :mi
about his coming back to the family are also associated with any t)ocly
born immediately into the family.
Churches, Christian leaders and committed Christians h;3,v,e
continued to speak against reincarnation in its entirety that il is
unchristian. The extent to which the teaching against reincarnalioi!~
has penetrated into the rank and file of the people and the entire!
Orumba needs much to be desired. In deed despite the fact Ihir~t
medical research has shown that people can reserrible one another,
based on the gene interaction, people still enquire from diviners on -this
fact of reincarnation. There are some so called 'Christians' vrt~<:)
accept reincarnation whole and entire, but such people are accused of
syncretism. Reincarnation is not generally accepted to all.
5.8 CI-IAKMSAND FIEDICINE
Many lgbo people used charrns and medicine in various f o r ~ r ~ s
to solve their problems. According to Anyika, "By charms i;d
medicines we mean any concrete object possessing mystical powers
which can be used for positive or negative purposes." 55 Arinze in his
book, "Sacrifice In lgbo Religion" submits as follows;
A cl~ar-~n is an object which by some
mysterious, immanent and unconscious
power is believed to preserve from evil,
disease, bullets or motor accidents, or to
make one succeed in trade, in a love affair, in
fishing, ill catchirlg thieves, in passing
exanlinations, in being successful generally
in life. The general name in lgbo is "Ogwu"
which means tnedicine. 56

The "ogwu" could be a root, a leaf, the bark of a tree, a feather.

a rag or a cowrie shell which is held tenaciously by the virtue of its
association or connection with an invisible force or forces such as G:d
or gods. As Little puts it, "the charms and medicine can be used !:o
offer protection to life and property, to detect and check evil doers am1
for a peaceful settlement of cases." 57 Many people wear t k r r l .
sometimes they are er~closedin pouches, they write them over tlieir
doors as protection; or place thern beside fields or in trees to preber~t
stealing.
Some Orumba people believed that their illnesses could k w
healed effectively by these medicine men. In almost every home ; m l
village, people who feel sick or meet with accidents and miSfortur~es
consulted medicine men. They regarded the medicine men as heai~!i?;
that were helped by their gods and the supreme God. The rnedic~rw!
men believed that they were doing their work by the powers given .to
them by their ancestors. They prescribed cures, which might incl~-tdc!
herbs,. religious rituals and the observance of certain prohibitions or
 directions. Before the advent of Christianity, the medicine men alm
acted as counsellors. They acted not only as doctors, but alscl iEIS

1; listeners to people's multifarious problems. According to G. T

1 . 1 . ,
It.' j 'Basden,
-1) \, , i ,
1
, '! It was a general belief that before any
traditional ceremony, medicine men and
diviners were consulted, and charms
. obtained to protect the bereaved family, and
ward off any evil spirit or men that would try
to disrupt the ceremony.
9

They also acted as priests and prayed for their communitis:~:

They took the lead in public religious rituals and in many ways
symbolised the wholeness or health of their communities. It w t ~ s
'believed that their medicine not only cured the sick, but also drove
away witches, evil spirits, brought success, detected thieves, protected
from dangers and harms.
With the advent of Christianity, some modifications were
brought in the method of dealing with diseases, misfortunes arid
sufferings. Hospitals were built by the missionaries'and qualified
Christian doctors were equally brought to take proper care of the
people medically. The villagers were taught that their illnesses could
be cured through the administration of drugs by these Christian
doctors. They were also taught how to approach God in prayws
because He is the only one that can solve all problems. The Christian
I

doctors also served as counsellors. The converts now instead ot'

performing rituals to the gods again whenever they feel ill took drugs
prescribed and given by the Christian doctors. Yet some nominal arid
double standard Christians still dance to the whims and caprices of the
traditional medicine and charms in the recent times. Some of these
traditional medicine men camouflage themselves as Christians arid
deceive people while in the real sense of it, what they claim to be is
not what they are. A typical example is that of "Prophet Eddy Okck~<'
popularly known as "Eddy Nawgu" who was killed by the Anan1br.a
Vigilante Service men commonly called "Bakkassi ~ 0 ~ s . "
He was a traditional medicine and charm man who covered what I-+?
was doing with Christianity but at God's appointed time, every 11-ing
was made known to the public. Christianity teaches that it is cmly
thro-ugh calling on the name of Jesus Christ that one could be savtscl;
"And it shall be that whoever calls on the name of the Lord shall 1213

saved." 59 SO, Christianity from time immemorial has been havi1-14;;j

some conflicts with those who have charms and medicines tIl~!y
prepare for carrying out their nefarious activities.

KILLING OF TWINS AND HUMAN SACRIFICE

Among the Igbos, childbirth is a thing of joy. A child is regardtxl
as a communal gift from God and not only belonging to the immeclii:~ll~e
parents Gi family hence the name Nworah. Childbirth is one of Il-le
most desired things by couples/families. Any married couple 11-1;i1t
gives birth to a baby especially a baby boy assumes a new social
status. However, the birth of twins was no cause for celebratior~ It
was regarded as an abomination and the twin babies and their mottiw
were regarded as people who have desecrated the land. In fact wl-,en
a wdman gave birth to twins, she would need a special sacrificxr,
ceremony and the twins would be destroyed sometimes along with
their mother. This was the practice before the advent of Christianity.
The practice of killing babies born as twins, triplets o r
quadruplets had been there in the custom of the lgbos and people of
other races before the missionaries came. To give birth to more than
a child at a time by any woman was an atrocious act agains Earlh-
goddess - the mother god of ltle land. According to Agha, "-C'l-~e?
 woman was seen as being guilty of a great sin and that either of the
children must be a monster. Consequently they were brutally
murdered at birth." 60
As a result of the killing of the children and sometimes with their
mother, people devised another means of where to be delivered c f
their babies while in labour. As Mbiti put it,
The Udhuk custom is that when a woman is
about to deliver, she goes alone into the bush to
give birth there. She might, however ask a relative
to go with her. Afier giving birth in the wilderness,
she returns home with her child. The cusiom seems
to have arisen from another custom by which a
woman who gives birth to twins is killed together
with the twins. By giving birth away from other
people, noijody would know it if she gets twins, in
which case she would return home with the other.
!I 'i
'I 1

8;" he Orumba people dreaded this phenomenon because of i:s

,\I, ., I :
believed,'potency to upset the orderly and peaceful living in tl-w
community. The elders believed that if cleansing rites were nut
performed, to ward off the evil or if the people involved were not
destroyed, misfortune would befall the whole community. The
misfortune might be of varying types including epidemics, poor harvest I

and the like. It was in view of this that llogu noted;

. . . a woman giving birth to twins would therefore
need a special cleansing sacrifice and the twin
children would be destroyed, otherwise the land
thus abominated would incur the wrath of the
ancestral spirits which would plague the
community because the 'natural' harmony
between man and the spirit world and t h e .
cosmos in general had been destroyed. 62

Twins, triplets or quadruplets were destroyed because it was

considered unnatural for human beings to be born more than one at a
time, only lower animals like goats, pigs, cows and the likes could give
birth to more than one at a time. The destruction of twins was 'a
widespread practice throughout lgboland arid beyorid. There were
varying methods of dealing with twirls in different parts of lgbolancl.
Most of these methods were both horrifying and pitiful. People \vhc)
lived in the riverine areas dealt with twins by putting them in a pot arid
setting them adrift. Others who lived outside riverine areas killed and
buried the twins in dreadful forests. Parrinder was right whilc?
remarking that "the lgbos generally and some of the Yorubas formerly
allowed twins to die. The twins were put into a large pot and exposed
alive in the bush to die." 63
All these things posed a major problem to the missionaries wtw
did not pretend to be ignorant of this precarious state of the t \ ~ i r i
!
mothers who were abandoned and sometimes killed after their babieg
had been eliminated. This practice came into sharp conflict with
Christian values in Orumba. The missionaries resolved to take the t ~ r ~ l l
by the horn and fought relentlessly to stop the inhumane praciicct.
They condemned this in-toto and persuaded people to see that there
was nothing unnatural about giving birth to more than one baby at ::I

time. They emphasised that twins or triplets or even quadruplets are

special blessings from God and in doing this they &ew inspiration frorn
the promise made to Abraham in Genesis Chapter 1.7 verse 2 sayirw,
"And I will make my covenant between me and you and will multiply
you exceedingly." " This shows God's acknowledgement of twins or
even more for it is via such means that the world would multiply
exceedingly. The ugly practice is no longer in vogue hence
Christianity has succeeded in saving many lives. In the presidenI.ii~d
I

address of His Grace Most Revd. M. S. C. Anikwenwa, Bishop of

,4wka and Archbishop of Province II, delivered during the Awl(i~1
Diocesan Synod at St John's Church Nise on Monday 10"' June 2002,
he said among other things "... Mrs Elizabeth Okafor gave birth to .lvv+in
I

babies ... the Church received them without hesitation and assisted i n
their upkeep."
- ".Some people contend that it was the colonial government rather
than the missionaries that succeeded in eradicating this custom o f
killing twins. It was said that the government gave grants - in aid 10
people who gave birth to twins to dissuade them from killing the twin!;.
The Church in collaboration with the government fought the stigma
together. According to Ilogu,
' It took the added efforts of other
missionaries like Mary Slessor in the extreme
South East of lboland at Aro-Chukwu and the
influence of British Colonial master to end
"
this practice of twin killing.
I

Today to give birth to twins, triplets or quadruplets is a thing of'

special joy and thanksgiving to the Almighty God. It is today seen as a
special favour and blessing from God rather than a curse as the
people saw it before the advent of Christianity. We must not fail 11:)
register our humble gratitude to the missionaries as well as the
government for bringing such a hideous culture'to an end.
A related problem with twin killing was that of human sacrifice.
Prior to the arrival of Christianity, human beings were used for
sacrifice. According to reliable sources,
Three types of human sacrifice existed in
lgboland before the arrival of Christianity - the
sacrifice of atonement when extreme abomination
to the land had led to breach of harmony between
the spirit world and the community. The second
was when chiefs and some noblemen hold the Ozo
title holders were being buried with their slaves
partly to ensure a smooth passage to the land of the
spirits where they join the restful bliss of the
ancestors. It was believed that such slaves would
also serve their masters in the life after death. The
 third occasion was where the priests and
manipulators of secret cults, oracles and shrines
made of human sacrifice to appease the gods of
such oracles for example the water spirits at
Onitsha. 67

The missionaries in lgboland were naturally worried about thi!;

I
practice and at once did whatever they could to stop it. Sometimes tlie
missionaries paid ransom in money to goods to redeem a slave abc11.1t
to be sacrificed. The missionaries' fight against this custom continued
until they succeeded. The political officers of the colonial
administration joined in the efforts by destroying shrines. Cows warx?
then and are still being used to make those sacrifices instead of
human beings. The contributions of Christianity towards the extinciicln
of these obsolete and outrageous customs needed not be o\tw.-
..
emphasised.

5.10 SYSTEMS AND OBJECT OF WORSHIP

The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics defines worship 21s
"comprising all modes of giving expression to the various feelings
entertained towards the divine power - feelings of awe, reverence,
obligatiot~,deprecation, gratitude, hope and others." The phri;l~~e
'towards the divine power' in the context of the above definitior-I c:lf
worship presupposes that there has to be an object of worship The
question of the object of worship of the African in general and il:~?,
Orumba people in particular is what the researcher hopes to grapple
with that is as compared with the object of worship in Christianity.
.
'
"..Taking a leap from this definition of worship above, the t e m
'object of worship' here means the object of reverence, to whom or
what did the people of Orumba resign their reverence of worship'? lln
reference to the immediate question one wishes to assert that tl-11s
 people of Orumba who professed traditional religion had the Supremo
4

Being - Chukwu, Chineke, Ezechitoke - as their ultimate objecl of

I.'

fiw
1
8 ! 1 , .

Forship. The people worshipped Him rather indirectly through h ,Ia ; I,

1
'1 1

i.
'
. I
agency of dther gods. .These other gdds could be categorizedinto hi-
. ,

r
". . , tminor gods, divinities, deities and'ancestors. These were regarded i 3 ~
f ,,,

ILL ,!
t
&.I
intermediaries
. . who served the purpose of bridging the gap (as si$$i):
,,I.,! ;, j.;i
.

between the great God and His people. The people made extensive
ilse of symbols such as trees, stones, carved images, etc. in their
worship. The presupposition deduceable from this is that'there VviaS,

little or no direct worship to God among the Orumba people. Shririe,:~

abound where these lesser gods were "worshipped" for the ultimalr~?~
reverence of Ezechitoke on the final analysis. There were virtually no
such places of worship for the Supreme Being in Orumba area and
k.

even beyond. However, there were shrines for the worship in solno
places. For instance, the NKlSA shrine in Okija (Ihiala L. G. A). tlir?
explanation for the absence of such shrines in Orumba area would be
that though they held Ezechitoke to be immanent, He was at the
same time so transcendent and great that no shrine whatsoever was
thought to qualify as His abode - that was to befit His unimaginatlle
qualities.
This situation the missionaries misconstrued to mean that 11-w
people of Orumba were not worshipping a Supreme Being. Tliey
thought the people were mere 'idol' worshippers and worshippers c ~ f
I(
the dead (ancestors). They did not understand and in fact were in no
mood to reason as Revd. lfesieh notes,
... that over and above the physical appearance of
the seemingly object of worship called 'idol' is the
Supreme Being who is the final recipient of aN
worships and whose agent and messen er is only
concretised and materialized in the idol. 6 8
 Parrinder also gave credence to the above fact made by lfesieh when
he writes;
How the religion of African peoples is not just the
worship or use of the work of man's hands. It is
known today that no "heathen" in blindness bows
down to wood or stone. The "heaven" worships a
spiritual being who may be approached through a
material object. 70

In Orumba, all the missionaries were out to do was to turn thcr!

people away from their old ways so as to adopt the Christian faith. A s
indicated above, thejl advertised their ignorance of the religion t l i q l
.. have come to conquer by taking 'idols' - material things as the crljl
object of worship of the people. They thus believed that one of thrr?
easiest ways of turning the people away was t.,y attack and destruc:lion
of the 'idols' (material things) which unknown to them symbolized the
abstract and the immaterial. Convinced without much reasoning ttii:~t
once the material was assaulted, the people would adopt the Chrisliim
faith, the missionaries moved to deliver frontal attacks on 'idols';
harms etc. once a person was converted, the next thing was for the
missionaries to go to his house and destroy charms, most times kly
burning' all objects that symbolized his former religion includin!;~
"powerful charms and shrines."
Several other times it was the converts themselves who wo~ild
volunteer that these their charms would be destroyed to demonstre1.1rt
their zealousness in their new faith. Credence is lent to the above
situation in Orumba by Ekechi's assertion that ""the converts in turn
became quite fanatical and threw caution to the wind, Induced 110
doubt by their teachers, the Christians began to cut down the tree:; in
their various sacred grooves and religious shrines as a test of their
earnestness in religious commitment." " This zealousness exhibitwl,
I'
by the native cgnverts resulted in some callous actions that steadily
propelled the missionaries to an encounter with the traditional religicm
The question of the system of worship need not be taken up lo
avoid boredom and repletion since the system of worship is
consequently bound up with the object of worship, which has beer]:
dealt with above. It is instructive however to note that the Christians
make direct worship to God in their daily services, prayers, sacrifice!;
and songs. The traditionalists on the other hand are more or le!;!;
given to indirect worship through the minor deities.
In all these points of differences mentioned above and morc
made the system and objects of worship is a necessary area of coni'licl:
between the two religions.

6.1 1 SECRET SOClETlES

Due to mainly the nature of the general traditional belief system
of the African people in general and the (Igbo) Orumba people ir-I
particular the term "secret society" is simply commbn and nothing out
of the ordinary. For purposes of clarity and to save any risk of
ambiquity, the researcher wishes to 'give a go' at the definition of the
term 'secret society' more or less as it concerns the scope of the
research. The word secret as defined by the "Chambers 20Ih Century
Dictionary" means kept back from, of others, guarded agairwt
discovery or observation, unrevealed, hidden, secluded, . . . a facl:;
purpose, method, etc. that is kept undivulged . . . 72 may be defined by
one as Professor Awolalu did as "a number of persons constituting a
single group or community ... 91 73
This definition of society at least fol.I
I

the purpose of what the writer intends to discuss is acceptable. R

coalescence of the definition of these two words will appear roughly at
least to mean a society whose knowledge, activity and evcw
sometimes purpose is undivulged and kept back from the knowledge
of others. Secret societies are therefore close associates, guilds
whose activities are kept hidden.
They are secret in the sense that rnernbership is usually
restricted, and they often engage in mysterious activities. They are
numerous categories of secret societies but the researcher does not
intend to get into any detailed discussion on this in consideration c:lf
both the scope and utility of necessity of such an exercise here. They
are the Ogboni, Oro, Egungun, etc. among the Yoruba, the Ekpo
among the lbibio and the Mrnuo among the Igbos. Each of these hijis
diversified functions predicated by their nature. 74
Moving closer to the particular, the principal secret society in
lgbo is Mmuo.known as Mmanwu or Mmgnwu in Orumba, which is our
area of concentration. The activities of the M m ~ n w usociety in
Orumba as opposed to Christian ethics is the bias of this discussio~~.
Among the Orumba locality, the M m ~ n w usociety could be equalled to
the masquerade society. This includes the Onyekuru, Achikwir,
Ogbagu and Ichoku. (All these are masquerades). The functions of
these masquerades that come under Mmonwu are not only r e l i y i o ~ ~ s
but social and political oriented hence llogu notes that,
the otu muo (masquerade society) members
perform some political dirties. They guard the
village against thieves, collect fines from people
pronounced gl~iltyof offences and he1 in seeing
that aru (abominations) are not hidden. P
llogu in this has summarised the functions of the Mmomvr.~
society among the Orumba people. Another function not mentioned is
that of entertainment. The Mmonwu society formed the predomiriari!
social control institutions in the pre-Christian era. For example peopltr!
swore (and still swear today for non-Christians) by the Achikwl.~1 0
 exonerate themselves from false accusations. This qystem acted bolkl
as a check on false accusation as well as a check on carefree denial
since such is believed to be catastrophic.
When Christianity arrived, it taught its converts that oath taking
(in the traditional waylsense) is unchristian and quickly tagged the
practice 'trial by ordeal'. The situation sequel to this was that the
Christians came to constitute what could be.sociologically called a
'lawless group' since the community in which they lived and belonged
I
could not control them. The Achikwu masquerade also acted a!; 9
social control agent by moving about at night and telling the wholts
community in a rather blunt manner what a person has done. This
was a way of correcting people in the society by letting them know thcat
others know what they do and in doing so they feel ashamed and
therefore readjust. For example, a young girl who become:;
promiscuous in her sexual dealings will be embarrassed with blcmt
revelations of what she does. In this way not only, that those attackcxl
re-adjusted but others for fear of being attacked behaved correc:tly.
This has come under stern criticism from Christianity. Ct lristianity ha:r,
always taught that through teaching and preaching people would he
convicted and turn away from immoral living and not throwJ-,
castigation or trial by ordeal.
The Onyekuru and Ogbagu are of similar in nature. They are
used to enforce social sanctions. They bounce on stubborn offend&;
and in fact served as the police of the pre-colonial political system. An
offender who proved stubborn before either of them might be killed or
P

face interdiction/ostracism. The missionaries not only criticized the

use of such means in enforcing social sanctions as an act of terrorrsln,
.. but also persuaded people on the uselessness of ostracizing a fellow
human being.
. \.
 . On the whole, the rrlissionaries regarded the secret soc~~:!ty
(nimatiwu) as dysfunctional and something that should not be allow:'l
to continue. They thus threw in everything and even solicited the
support of the coloriial government (which they got) to pull this soc:it:ll
control irlstitution down. They succeeded to some extent becausr:?
.' .
they were right to some degree in the sense that the secret society
was not an open and fair system of enforcing justice. According 1x1

Ilogu, "The destruction of these social control instituti0n.s constitulcxl

dislocation in the social structure of the lgbos until the Britisrl
administrative and judicial systems were fully introduced . .. 76 11

5.12 TIIE RESULT OF TIiE CONFLICTS

The lgboland in general and Orumba area in particular prior 11:)
the advent of Christianity were a place where traditional religion Iacl
the basis of behaviour. Social and cultural identifications and tIi$
principle of socialization from the older to the younger gerleration'werl:?
clearly understood.
With the arrival of Christianity, the pattern became disturbecl.
The interaction gave rise to various situations. There MWC?

confrontations between traditional moral life and Christian ethics,

between the western norms associated with Christianity and Igbc~
concepts of norms and values learnt through organised traditional
community. life and religion. Plurality of religious beliefs and valuer!
concepts appeared for the first time to start the rapid socio-religiol-I!;
change. Christianity attacked almost all traditional customs end
institutions (including those not discussed above) of the Orumh;.)
people.
The first effect of the Christian activity was a dwindling impact o f
the traditional religion and a feeling of Christian impact. lriducetl 1y;
missionar~es,African Christians refused to abide by such traditions ;:I;

swearing of oath rather they swear to their faith in the Bible. They ;i~l:;cr
refused to participate in certain communal labour e.g. clearing the roed
for some traditional festivals or even sweeping of the market square
In 1971, the researcher was a witness to a conflict, which arose ix; ,:I

serious misunderstanding between the Christians of St. Ma:yls

Anglican Church Ogbunka and some traditionalists. It happened Ilsi:~t
all the women of Awuka village irrespective of their religiocls,
inclinations were asked to go and clear the Ayaya square for their f'orlcl
coming festival. The Christian wornen refused to participate in clearbg
and sweeping the square because it wasagainst their belief to be pr31.t
of the festival. The Ayaya has a shrine where traditionalists up to dal.li:!
go and make sacrifice. As the trouble continued, it attracted tlw
attention of 'the men who used masquerade to collect fines from 11-11::
Christian women. It took the Church as a whole, good time and effort!;
before the matter could be solved. Such situation fortified at-11
strengthened the relationship existing among the Christians and their
faith too. The Christian women who refused to participate in clear-it-11;j
the shrine of Ayaya stood firrnly for the truth. But there were few 1:)f
them who could not stand the test of their faith; they joined in the
clearing of the shrine and square and they were nicknarnetl
Ebekendere - those shaking in the faith. T h q l were excommunicat~~:i
for a while' and when they repented and showed remorse, they wore
forgiven and accepted back. But within this period of
excommunication, some of the women and their families-were lost tc.)
other denominations especially the Roman Catholic Church who did
not see much evil in clearing the shrine of Ayaya.
 Objects of r c l i g i o ~ ~worship
s were wantonly destroyed by ovc?r'-
enthusiastic Christiaris in Orumba. The destruction of these objects
and places of worship put the people afar.
I
The positive irnpact of Christianity is clearly demonstrated in tl-11it
question of its fight against twin killing and hurnan sacrifice, against
slavery, against taboos, against Osu Caste system and the rest I:I~
them. Except for Christianity, and partly the colonial governmcmt,
these inhuman practices would have continued. It has also put asicili?
the law of jungle, "survival of the fittest" which was operational in SOITIE
societies. It is unfair therefore to omit a vote of thanks to Christianiyy
at the instance of the above positivity.
Christianity has been able to create such an impact through the
help of certain features of western origin that go with Christianity.
These include education, science, urbanisation and proliferation (:if

churches.
Through education for instance, the missionaries exposed some
Africans to the Western Culture and these people turned back to se-li?
African traditional religion as primitive and full of barbaric practices th;d
should not have been allowed to remain on the face of the earth. With
this, their ethical values changed running across the highly valued
traditional ones. The missionaries wanted to give Christianity a l'i1-171
root through creating a local African elite through an imaginative atid
energetic educational programme. 77
Science also followed education and this has to a grei:(t
dimension influenced the traditional religion. Many people now hi2~~lS
scientific approach to the solving of their problems. Inexp1ical:~l~rt
diseases such as small-pox, tuberculosis, yaws and the rest of them
which were hitherto mystified by the religion could now be medic,slly
explained and cured. Other phenomena in nature which is religiously
Religion and blended them in such a way that they looked cnorci!
attractive. They talked about witchcraft, sorcery, magic, Ogbaqc
visions just as in traditional religion. This has been a big temptation for
Africans who run into them as a rneans of seeking practical solutionl:;
to their problems.
On the whole it is worthy and instructive too to assert that the
impact of Christianity has not been so positive and overwhelming as 10
totally swallow the traditional religion. The traditional religion is well
rooted in Orumba and even beyond before the advent of Christianity
It still thrives in spite of all it has suffered at the hands of Christianity
When the missionaries arrived, they asked the converts 11:)
abandon their customs in-toto. The impression was that of a cultyral
vacuum which Christianity could not fill. The situation is still largely the
same and the African cannot but go back to some aspects of I-ti::;
religion to fill the cultural vacuum. The implication is that commitment
to Christianity is not total and in fact that the person's religion is st.ll
alive in him
Closely related to the above is the fact that the African does nc>t
a

know how to exist without religion. Religion comes into every minuk
existence of the African; they could not therefore feel satisfied with
Christianity, a religion they accuse of being locked up six days a week,
on.ly to meet for two hours on Sundays and perhaps once during the
week. The rest of the week is empty and the Africans who traditional!,,/
do not know religious vacuum feel that they do not yet enough
religious satisfaction from Christianity. The tendency i s always 11:)
' I

fall back on some aspects of his old religion. Mbiti emphasizing on the
unsatisfactory nature of Christianity opines thus, ". . . this form c;f
Christianity (the traditionalists say), made rrlo positive attempt to
incorporate ancestors and witches, song and dance, into the Chris,tian
 - 4 I

4
&hems." 79 For this k a s o n the people have do! been so much~arriecl
tb far from the traditional religion.
Further, the inseparable nature of religion kom social life t1as
continuously played down the fortunes of Christianity. It is genora!ly
accepted that religion f o r m the basis of socialization. The initiation
rites, for instance, must be undergone by every member of the socicly
in'order to socially belong. These rites mark the passage from orio
stage of life to another. For example from birth to puberty, the rww
state of marriage. This one needs to go through so that others woulr:l
recognize one's new social status.
Another point is that Christianity lost its fight against certzin
customs to some extent. The issue of second burial is s-tljl
everywhere. According to llogu as he throws more light on this sys,
.:
. in more recent times, ~ l v i s t i a n sin lgbo
communities have started to perform the second
burial of their late relatives with or without religious
memorial services, recapturing as it were, the
traditional practices of the past generations yet
without any oficial cl~urchpronouncement. 80

Some other Christians remember yearly with church services and

other elaborate ceremonies the death of their relations or paren%
This is clearly a carry-over of the idea of second burial in Afr11:an
Trad~tionalReligionlCulture to Christianity. The fact that this can hi?ivt>
its own impact on Christianity attests to its virility. The Chrislien
recognition of some . traditior~al titles (e.g. Ozo) indicates anothec-
'chunk' of influence on Christianity.
Furthermore, because of the need for immediate solution 1.1:)
man's problem, some Christians always turn to traditional mE!iXl!i
whenever they encounter problems in life. 'They still consult 1I-ie
diviner, dibia, priests of different deities, etc, for practical solution:; 10
 their problems. 'These people are not Christians at heart but
traditionalists.
Some people join Christianity essentially for economic reasor;!;
As J. B. Schuyler puts it:
Christianity has impressed many as being largely a
soclal organisation capable of worshipping God and
mammor~simultaneously, and demanding payment
for symbols of membership. . . . Many conversions
have been for material reasons . . . Thus for many,
Christianity is quite superficial, and so has no real
answer to life's personal difficulties or any real
ir~fluenceon the people's social problems. 8 1

Similarly, Ayandele notes that "while the objective of the missionar,ir?i;

was spiritual success for Nigerians, the spiritual side of missiotiw,,
enterprise was of the slightest weight." For many Christians in
Orumba, this is so even today
In summary, it does appear that both the African Traditiot-;ill
Religion/Culture and Christianity have survived the encounter of ach
other but not withou! blemishas. The traditional religion/culture realr,~
. seerns to have been more affected but not totally swallowed up in the:,
clash.
 CtIAYTqH FIVE
END NOTES

N. S. S. Iwe: Christianity and Colonialism In Africa; Port

Harcourt; He Reigns Publishers 1985 p. 78.

A. L. Krneber: Anthropoloqy l ' o d Cambridge

~ University Prer;::;
1953, p. 12.

E. B. Taylor: Primitive Culturn London; Murray Press; 1981

p. 36.

E. B. Idowu: African Tradjtional R e l i ~ i o nA: Definition , r on don',

S. C. M Press 1973 p. 203.

B. C. Okolo: The Igbo Church and Quest for Go_& Obosi, Pacific:
College Press 1985 p. 27.

Emeife lkenga-~etuh;Comparative Studies of African

Traditional Reli-qions; Onitsha, lmico 13ublishers; 1992:
p. 185.

Van Gennep: The Rites of P a s s a ~ e: London Routledge and

Regar P a d Publishers 1960 p. 3.

Turner Victor (Ed) The Forest of Symbols: London, Cornell

University Press 1970 p. 7.

10. Emeife Ikenga-Metuh OP. cit p. 188.

12. Edmund Ilogu: Christianity and lqbo Culture: Onitsha, Unjversity

Publication Company, 1985 p. 43.

13. . .Okoli Okeke C. 72 Years; Farmer, Interviewed at lsiokpu

Ogbunka on 1 April 2001.

14. Edmund llogu Op. cit p. 44.

.15. Emeife Ikenga-Meluh Op. cit. p. 189.

10. '<. ud.

17. John S. Mbiti; African Religions and Philosophy Great Britair 1

Richard Clay (The Ckraucer Press) Lid 1982 p. 114.

18. Edmund Ilogu: Op. cit p, 46.

19. Ibe Ofoje: C . 63, A Farmer Interviewed at lsulo on 3'"pril

2001.

20. John S. Mbiti: Op, cit p. 131.

21. E. 0 . Egbo: "Conflicts Between Traditional Religion and

Christianity In Igboland" In West African Religion Nsiic,k,;:!
No 10 July 1971.

23. John S. Mbiti Op. cit p. 25.

.

24. J. 0 . Awolalu and P. A. Dopamu: West African Traditional

Religion; Ibadan: Onibonoje Press; 1979 p. 253.

27. J. 0. Awolalu and P. A. Dopamu Op. cit. p. 57.

28. lchie Ezeka Ikpo. Op. cit.

29. The Holy Bible: Hebrews 9: 28.

30. The Holy Bible: Romans 12: 14-21.

31. D. I. Nwoye, "Widohood Practices; The Imo'Experience", In

Proceeding of The Better Life Programme Fo? Rural
Women Workshop.

32. Madam Grace Onu; C. 71 Years - Trader, The General,

Chairperson of The Umuokpu (Umu Ada) Ogbunka
Interviewed on 8IhApril 2001.

33. Mrs Margaret Ezeokonkwo: In An Article; "Resist Cultural

 Maltreatment of Widows" Published Ir) Diocese On The
Niger Worne~l'~:Magazine, Voice & News - 008 19913,
I
pp. 12 & 1 3

34. G. T. Basden; Niger Ibos: Frank Cass & Co Ltd 1966 p. 213

35. F . A. Arinze: Sacr'ifice In I r n R e l i y j o n : Ibadan; University Prc:is,i;

1970, p. 01

36. T. 0. Okoye; History of St. Peter's Anglican Church Abaqarig~:

Onitsha; Varsity Industrial Press Ltd, 1984 Pp. 10-1 1.

37. St. Paul's Epistle to The Galatians 3: 27 - 28 ( R . S. V).

38. 0. A. Onwubiko: Facing The Osu Issue in The African S y ~ i o g ~ , .

Enugu: SNAA13 Press 1993 p. 66.

39. G. Parrinder; West African Traditional Religiorn: I-ondon;

Epworth Press 1975 p, 129.

40. A. 0. Onyeneke: The Dead Among The Living: Masquerades -- - - -11-1

-..
Iqbo Society, Enugu; Chuka Printing Press 1987 p. 3

41. Edmund Ilogu; O p . cit p. 14

42. E. Uurkheim E l e m e r i m F o r m s of The Reliqious Life: Londcm,

George Allen & Unwin Ltd; 1976, p. 300.

43. Amailo Obi; C. 78 Years Interviewed at Nkerehi on 51612001

44, Edmund Il.ogu: Op. cit, p. 24

45. m.
46. G. T. Basden Op. cit. p. 21 3.

47. David J. Atkinson & Co. (Ed) New Dictionaril of Chriitian Etllik;j;l
&
-
Pastoral T'heology; U. S. A. Inter-Varsity Press, 1995 p.

48. J. 0. Awolalu and P. A. Dopamu Op. cit. p. I47

49. Emeife Ikenga-Metuh OP. cit. pp. 227 and 228.

51. J. 0 . Awolalu and P. A. Dopamu 0p.cit. p. 147.

52. E. I. Ifesieh: Reliqion at The Grassroots (Studies In lgbo

Relicpn), Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Compmy
--
1989, pp. 53 - 54.

53. Parrinder, E. G . Af[icari Tradfiitnal R e l i ~ i o nLondon; S. P. C I:,

1960 p. 138.

54. Emeife Ikenga-Metuh Op. cit. p. 255.

55. F. Anyika: Ethics In African Traditicnal Religions In African

Humanities, Nigeria, Mekslink Publishers, 1992 p. 17.3.

56. F. A. Arinze Op. cit. p. 20.

57. K. Little; "The Mende In Sierra Leone" In Africa World, Londcm:
Oxford University Press, 1954 p. 127.

58. G. T. Basden: On. cit. p. 245 - 256.

59. Holy Bible Acts 2: 21.

60 Agha. U. Agha: Earlv European Missions to West Africa: An

-Introduction
---- -- -- to
--West
- Africa
-- Church Historv: Enugu:
Calvaryside Press 1997 pp. 23 - 27.

61. John. S. Mbiti; Op. cit p. 112.

62. Edxund Ilogu; Op, cit p. 64.

63. , G. E. Parinder Op. cit. p. 112.

64. Holy Bible (R. S. V) Genesis 17: 2

65. M. S. C. Anikwenwa: Presidential Address; Svnod 2002 Lagos,

Elcoon Press Ltd 2002 p. 7.

66. " Edmund llogu Op. cit p. 64

James Hasting (Ed) Encyclopaedia
-..-- of Reliqion -
.- arid.. Fttiics,
-. -. --
Edinburgh, Varsity Press 1985 p. 63.

E. I. Ifesieh; Lecture Note on Worship In African Traditional

Religion 16/2/95 U. N. N.

G . E. Parrinder Op. cit. p. 15.

F. K. Ekechi: Missionary Enterprise and Rivalry In Iqbolancj

1857 - 1914. London; Frank Cass, 1972 p. 36.
--.----

E.M. I<irkpatrick (Ed) Chamber 20Ih Century D i c t i o n a x

Edinburghl W & R Chambers Ltd 1983 Edition

J.O. Awolalu: w e s t African Traditional Reliqion, Ibadan:

Onibonoje Press Ltd 1979 p. 207.

Ibid. p.223
-

J. F..A. Ajayi: Christian Missio~

ISIn Nigeria 1841-1 891. Lonrlori
Longman, 1969 pp, I 4 6 - 156.

J. S. Mbiti Op. cit p. 234.

Edmund Ilogu: Op. cit p. 68.

J. B. Schuyler, S. J. "Corlcepts of Christianity, In The Context of

Tropical Africa; Nigeria Reactions to Its Advent" Essay in
- - --- --In
Christianity
--- -- -- --- Africa (Ed) C. E. Baeta,
-- Tropical
Lorldori/Oxford, 1968 p, 200.

€.A. Ayandele Op, cit p. 1

 CHAF'TER six
INDIGENISATION OF CHRISTIANITY AND
CONCLUSION

Andrew Walls recently stated that the centre of gravity of

Christianity . . . the heartland of the Church are no longer in Europe I:~I.I!
I
most importantly in Africa.
By this statement it means that the numerical strength of
Christianity is now more visibly felt in Africa. This then implies thal tl-11;:
,, theology that matters will be the theology where the Christians are iw:J
it looks as if the bulk of Christians are going to be in Africa. In o t t i c ~
words, there is a growing number of Christians in Africa.
However, it looks as if the effect of Christianity on the gene1-;11
attitude of the adherents and on their inner being is shallow. DUI.II-IV;J
crisis moments, Christians easily look for alternatives.
frustrating, however, is the realization that over a century or SO of:
Christian presence in Africa, the Churches' theology, rituals,
symbolisms and thought forms are still largely exotic. It looks as if
\.
Church in Africa plays shy in grappling with real issue of indiyenisal.icm
of thought forms, practices and interpretations of the gospel.
The irony is illustrated with the following antedote by the Ial:e
Harry Sawyer who spoke of the Christian ship with theological and
liturgical cargoes loading and unloading at different ports. Accordirq
to this erudite theologian and scholar,
When this ship left Palestine and barfhed at Asia
Minor porfs, it deposited large theological, l~turgical
and symbolic consignments, which was unique and
particular to Palestiriian cities. In turn it took in
various shades of other consignments peculiar to
Asian towns. From Asia Minor to mainland, Europe,
to ~ r i t k hIsles and America, similar operations were
carr~edout. None of these theologies, liturgies and
 symbolisms was sacrosanct. When however the
ship arrived at the African ports, it depos~tedall the
commoclities and has since not carried anytI7it7g of
silbstance away fi.otn Africa, as Africar~sow17 legacy
to the Ct7ristiar~world. Can it be said that Africa is
destined to utler consumerism, both commercial,
ed!lcatior~al,,tl~eolog~cal
and rel~gious?

It seems incredible that African churchmen and theologian:.

appear not to see this as a sad situation, a life lived colourlessly. E\/c?r~
where a conscious effort was made, this was done with a jitter'q
contemplation'lest their western masters accuse them of abandor~in!:~
the universalistic trend in their accepted religion. African theologiar-.i
are scared away by he accusation that they are veering towar(:::;
syncretism and idolatr-y in their'conscious effort to indigenise conctqA i:
and practices. 3
There is nothing intrinsically universal about Christianity except
that its message is interpreted by particular persons and accepted I:ly
particular group. According to D. C. Okeke,
Christian theology is a way of ordering,
developing and discussing Christian revelation in
the context of the world of the theologian. Christian
revelation and Christian doctrine are not abstract
systems; and they have nothing intrinsically
4
universal in them.

The sheer wealth of the Bible renders inevitable a vast pluralism wilt-i1.1
theological activity. There is this view that without St. Paul, and 1-1:;
radical and dogged interpretation of the Christ-event, the gospel crsi-h:l
have been rejected by the Gentile world. With radical rnodificatiol-I!;,
he created a new theological atmosphere, which made the Gknt~lri?
world regard, the Church a place where they would feel at home
There are, however, various tt~eologicalnorms and doctrir-tiill
positions in various Christian denominations, which grew out (:IF
 traditions and customs of particular area; for example the feasts c:lf
Christmas, Easter and Rogation; the various irreconcilable forrns ol' the
Eucharist and m~~ltiplicity
of doctrinal form~~lations.Churcti traditms
and doctrine originate out of a particular cultural revolution. The
survival and continued relevance of Christianity in Africa in gencml
and lgboland in particular depends on how keen the Churches arc in
identifying arld becoming implicated in this search for the soul c:~f
~ f r i c e nand lgbo authenticity without which adeeper appreciation of
Christian message becomes superficial. Okeke goes on to say IPii~t
African Christian dilerrima stems from her desire for 'par'ticular,ity',
'authenticity' while she associates with fatalistic universality; this is
clearly seen in her indigenisation efforts. 5
Let us have a cursory look at this experience. The Freetown (1:.
M. S agents who carne to lgboland were nurtured in the evangelical
radicalism. It considered basic traditional patterns of though and lii'lil?
as conservative, legalistic and devoid of any redeemable value.
new ideas received by the lgbo converts, they thought were the v e r y
ones in which traditional wisdom has nothing to say or which it l d
deemed inferior 'They saw lgboland as no more than a bastior1 111
darkness and they the purveyors of light.
With the rise of enlightened lgbo teachers and workers in bi2l:h
Mission and Government employment, a critical assessment of issues
was unconsciously started. By 1913, the Church in lgboland was
under heavy pressures from within and from without. The Church oil
the one hand tried to live up to the lofty evangelical idea4 and this I d
her into the trouble with the enlightened and critical-minded converts
There were on the other hand, the pressures awakened by the visit!;
and publications of Negro-philes like E. D. Morel, who criticised tl-I+?
imissionaries of dehurnanising and defacing the Africans and turr~irq
'
,I>,!I
1
1
: 1
! '
1 I

ii!.
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., !,
,

e ,;,,,
' I
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them into half-baked Europeans. In the face of these trends and ltw
unrest they generated, Bishop Tuywell ordered a conference on Nalivl:-:!
Customs. This was held in May-June 1914. '
The Bishop wanted to find out why converts were finding life
difficult and the reasons for the opposition to or acceptance of sonie c:lf
his Episcopal directives, such as on marriage and baptism. It was held
under the chairmanship of Archdeacon Dennis. The issues MWE!

discussed under three categories - political, social and religious.

Much was not achieved because the Conference rejected thc
incorporation of lgbo traditional songs, music and ballads into Christia~
worship. The conference also tried in vain to dissuade converts from
either swearing accordi-ng to native custom in order to lay claim!; !I:,
their disputed property or from performing the burial ceremonies of the
deceased relations (without which they were not entitled 10
inheritance). They resolved to ask government to enforce the rights of
Christians who were unprepared to abide by customary stipulations
failed to carry weight. This is because the government had already
legalized the customary law of inheritance. Substantially, nothing
significant emerged to change the undiscerning attitude and
approaches to these traditional and customary imperatives. '1-tw
attitude and approach were no more than that the lgbo Church should
not separate itself from the 'universal' principle handed down fi-om
Britain and Europe. They never thought of indigenisation. It was not
in their interest.
lndigenisation has been taking place knowingly or 'unknowingly
since then. We do not deny that African life has been invaded by
foreign ideas, new visions and horizons. These are invariatlly
beneficial. However, there are fundamental things and ideas which
touch the depth of a people's being, and which are not easily invacled.
They lie latently dormant. These are what are indigenous
people; what they possess and wish to share with the wider
This is the soul of their existence. It is true that the Christ who becarne
a man, a particular person, the Jew was also the new and secc)nc:l
Adarn; the new humanity of all. Yet he lived in a particular
environment; and it is frorn this particularity that His univers;?lity
becomes meaningful The church's ongoing task is constantly to kw1:)
these two axes in view and not try to assimilate one into the o t k r
According to Okeke, "The skenosis of the gospel in Europe n ~ u s l
challenge and be challenged by the skenosis of he gospel in Africa
Only then can the wholeness of the body of Christ, the church
universal be clearly understood." '
Theological authenticity is an African business. It is tho
responsibility of African theologians and churchmen to articulate those
laudable -;slues, particular systems and experiences, which they k e l :
can become paradigms of universal experiences. Amidst the breaking
of old patterns of authenticity and the emergence of new ones, ttie
African Christian seeks his roots in the particularity of his experienl::csss
He tries to create new perspectives out of his understanding of biblir:.;:~l
imperatives, his vocation, tiis suffering, trials and hopes. Kwlt!:~i~
Dickkon says;
I personally find it a great help in teaching the
Old Testament to have my knowledge of African
religion ready in the background ... the fact is that
certain ideas and customs in the Old Testament,
which are replete with human interests, can be
br-ought o1.d alive, with the consequent stoking of
student interests through comparison along the
lines. 9

The African must determine his universal through his partic1.1lar

The authentic community is the hermeneutical community under the
Spirit. It determines the actual enculturated m.eaning of scriptures
The Bible, as guide and exemplar for authentic witness, car1 find it:!;
rightful place and function only in a community of discernment arid
obedience.
Serious theological thinking and writing must be done in Africa
and lgboland because theology that matters is one, which comes f~orri
I '
where the Christians are. The lgbo theologians and churchmen niur;l
see themselves as formidable factors in interplay of two faces, each
legitirriate in itself. In the first place, the theologian is constrained tc:j

make his people feel at home with the gospel. This he achieves k'y
rooting the gospel in the culture, language, habits and thought-forms c:lf
his people. This involves intellectual emotional, spiritual and religio~xs
interests. The other constraint is his commitment to vision beyond the
apparent limitations of his cultural patterns. Fortunately each culti~rci:
10
has this in-built mechanism for adjustment and progression.
His task, therefore, is to explore those dynamic factors withiri
his given culture. He develops a deep awareness of the great spiritmial
and theological entities, which can be thrown up by the interplay of hi:;

cultural and religious particularism and those of the gospel, which tic i::i

called to proclaim. He is sensitive to the fact that no culture is sti3.t~::

and within his cultural and spiritual heritages are fundamerl1:i:tl
mechanisms for change and continuity.
He knows that God accepts people as they are, on the gr0~11i1:l:i
of His grace; accepts them with the ideas they already had in their
minds and their community relationships. However, h6 is equ.slly
aware that God wants a transformation of the world, creating IK!W

communities out of various nations and kindreds in an expandint;]

community of purpose. It is this sort of internal generative universality
that is advocated The lgbo rnan who advocates for indigenisatiori of
Christianity which is proper so that Christianity will have its headway iu
the lives of the lgbos and Africans deeply believes in unity ancl
universality. But those are contingent upon the Spirit who is older t l ' m
Christianity and who has been operating in African theological field.
Each generation will have to re-examine the basis of the Afric:ar,t
search for a place to feel at home. I t will try to restate the issw!:;
involved. For this project, certain areas are uppermost in my miincl
which are in the domains of language and personnel; ljturgy arxl
worship, marriage, baptismlnarning cerelrloriy, death and burial.

6.1.1 LANGUAGE AND PERSONNEL

In 4.7.1 of this work, it was mentioned that "the problen,) cil
langw.age or mode of communication was something the missionarier;
had been grappling with since they came to Igboland." 'The mut~iid
problem was considered solved by the use of interpreters. For
Christianity to be well rooted in the lives of the lgbos especially tlirs
people of Orumba, it is very necessary even inevitable that the
language of the people should be used as they are taught the
Christian tenets and norrrls. The use of foreign languages has nclt
helped much in imparting the teachings and practices of Christian11.y
into the people. No matter that interpreters were used but they crnl,lll:J
not help much in passing the message across. Onwubiko reacting 11::)
the problem posed by the use of interpreters in christianising 11id
people says "interpreters were inadequate to meet the needs of thlr!
ever expanding Christian missions. Moreover speaking- through 21-1

interpreter is a defective means of communicating one's thoughts t1:1

one's audience." "

The mother tongue of the people is necessary as they are
educated and christianised. The Anglican Church started as early a s
 possible to use the language of the people in teaching and condcrctiwj
servlces for the people unlike the Roman Catholics who continued ,((:I

use Latin language even in some lgbo places, they still use it today b ~ t
the fact slill remains that it does not help to bring the message home.
How can one attend a rnasslservice without full participation becal-~cx
of language barrier? Also the kind of personnel used contributed i:o
the slow progress of Christianity. The white missionaries who carrtc:!
could not communicate with the people very well and things could 1-11:)t
move as it ought to because of language and personal barrior'h~.rt
when some of the natives joined, evangelisation progressed faster.
According to Okeke;
In matters of larquage and personnel, the leaders of Iglrl::)
mission displayed a successful and progressive understanding, whic:h
resulted in continued use and study of lgbo language today. 'l'hc?!~.
smcesses are also noted in the high degree of indigenous people u v l x j
started to occupy positions of trust and responsibility in Ihe mission
lgbo language and Igbo leadership became lwo vilal progressi~~i:?
indigenisation attempts that had characterised evangelislic
endeavours in Igboland. '*
Christianity needs to be well indigenised and for that to I:!!?
achieved, the local language of the people must be used by the Icl~:~i~l
people who would carry the act of evangelisation'more eftectively. 1
was much excited to watch a film entitled "/ma na Jisos na-asu lgl~o';'
translated to mean Do you know that Jesus speaks lgbo." the l ' i h
showed how Jesus ministered to people in lgbo language. The Iclc;r~l
congregation were very much impressed and they appreciated it SI:~

much and highly benefited from it. The impact of Christianity would h i ?
felt more if we use our local dialectllanguage and p'ersonne~to minister-
L

1 ;
1 1
.,.
! , .to .the people.
6.1.2 LI'J'UIWY A N D W O R S I I I P

According to David Owen in his book Sharers In Worship, "tl?~::

roots of the Christian liturgical tradition go back beyond the birth c:lf

Christianity into the theology and setting of the Old Testament ''

Dostoievsky, the Russian writer, also says, "the one esser?t.;:~l

condition of human existence is that man should always be able 11:)
bow down to sornething infinitely great" l4

This is another very important area to be touched in our efforl

to indigenise Christianity. In Exodus, God took the initiative ir~.
I'

delivering his people, and at Sinai he called them to a solernr~

assembly, addressed them in unforgettable commandments and dr.~!,~v
them into a covenant relationship, which was endorsed by a service o f
sacrifice (Exodus 19-24). In time, the people broke the covenant mc:l
again in a solemn assernbly God's word was heard, his people were
(6:
forgiven and the covenant was renewed in the ceremony of Passovei-
(2"d Kings 23). It was these events that lay at the heart of Israelis
l i t ~ q yand to this day, they are rememtmr'ed in the worship of tlics!
Jewish people.
All this and more Christians adopted in their liturgy and the Old
Testament records of redemption and restoration seem as clear to u:;
who are the people of Christ as they do to our Jewish friends. VVr?
cannot imagine Christian worship without reference to God's mighty
acts of love even before Christ, nor would we dream of discarding thci
richness of old Testament psalmody or the lofty declaration of the
15
prophets.
Worship may be said to be at the heart of the Christim
experiment. Worship is a drama of the belief of the Gospel. T~I':?
Christians central drama is the Eucharist - a drarna of the death m:l
resurrection and the parousia of Jesus Christ (1'' Cor. 11: 26:)
Worship properly understood has a wider as well as resliw
dimensions. The whole of a person's life is expected to be an offering
ia God (Rom: 12. 1-2). This means that active identification with ttw
poor Ihirsty, naked widows, orphans, the deprived and the degraded 11 I

the name of Christ are acts of worship (Matt. 25: 31-46, James 1:2i7,1
John 3:lG). Worship in a narrower sense, is 'cultic' practices. Th::
!gbo people love cultic activities in the domestic life, in agriculti~ra
pursuits, in social drama during naming ceremony, in death and aI
birth.
Worship is communication with a real people who have i:I

wavelength, which must be reached. This wave length includes

language, music, liturgical colours, gestures, dates, times, syrntlc~l:;
Through these, the people try to capture the awe and majesty of Gc:.c:l,
the sense of the Spirit and the sense of community. Kwesi Dick:;c:l-.~
said that most attempts in Ghana at Liturgical reforms were merely a
lethargic aiming at rnaintenance of systems, a restoration of tliti?
16
unstimulating. Okeke goes on and asks, "what Dickson said of
Ghana can it rrrtrtatis mutandis be said either of the Anglican Church
or the Rornan Catholic C h ~ ~ r cinh Nigeria?" It would be recalled ll-al
some years ago the Church of Nigeria (Anglican Communion) issued
for a trial use its own Eucharistic liturgy both in English and 1!1j:11:)

languages and other languages such as Hausa and Yor~tba. 'TI.1::

liturgy takes into serious consideration the cultural instincts of 11-lr?

people it is meant to serve.

The Eucharist is the nerve centre of the Christian &orship. TI-11::.
hallmark of this worship is the sharing of the Eucharistic meal. In t h ?
Nigerian concept, fellowship meal is both generative and reconciliativc!
As we indigenise our worship and liturgy, we should find a ~ v a y
whereby the reconciliative noticm would become explicit. If this is
clearly and practically done, the new liturgy will help create new bard
among those participants in the bond of this unity. Thus i t can provitl(:.!
the fullest ground for bridging the gulf which has been caused by q ~ i l r
and sin
Our liturgy, especially the Eucharist, must make conscio~x;;
efforts to reflect these important African theological notions. When ttw
missionaries came newly, the Christians were banned from using local
musical instruments in singing and praising God, but thanks be to C;oc;l.
that since after the Nigerian Civil War, which ended in 1970, things
have been changing. It is no more an abominationlidolatry to use oirr
locally produced instruments as we sing and praise God durin!~
,
Christian gatherings.
Initially, it was the only imported organ that was allowed, ttlei-1
also allowed was the imported gospel band, but today, some of those
things could be produced locally and be used. Let the people be
allowed to'use what they can produce and what they can lay their
hands on as they worship their God as they are led by the Holy Spirit
which can also be present among the IgboslAfricans. They sh0~111.1
sing their native airs and hymns using the African tunes and be
accompanied by drums atld other locally produced'instrurnents. I g I m
are craftsmen - they can perfectly produce the local instruments al-113
they ought to use what they can produce as they worship their C h c J
who has graciously endowed them with the intellect. We should I-II:I~

depend on the foreign and imported instrurnents.

8.1.3 MAIWIAG E
Marriage is another sphere that deserves our thinking. It is
another important aspect of lgbo life. It is never an affair between two
I
peple alone; or with only few of the friends. According to Mir:t-,aril
McGrath, "Marriage is not siniply an affair between two people t ~ t
rather between families or even between two clansltowns." ''
Invariably, much importance is attached to the traditional
wedding ceremonies like I b i ~nmanya or lgba Nkwu. Every { j r l
should know that she should not let herself loose to her husband uriiil,
these traditional ceremonies are completed. Thereafter, she rnovt?!;
about with an unrepentant glee even when she is almost nine ($1)
months pregnant. For her and the spouse, the church weddirq
becomes a mere appendage which could be dispensed with at ease or
performed at her own convenience. Invariably, the hands of ttw
Church are tied. The church has to choose between the Scylla o.f
wedding a girl of over 8 (eight) rnonths pregnancy and by so doing,
give her a supposed ecclesiastical authentication or the charybdis (:~f
denying them the marriage solemnization and thereby exposing the
girl to the uncertain complexities of the time. More often than not, th~it
Church chooses to wed thern.
Does the Church have to wait for another sp,ecial fixed weddin!;j
day, when in fact for the couple, their relations and friends, the road
marriage had already taken place in the traditional Ibdlgba N ~ W I : I
Nwanyi. I am of the view that the solemnization of marriage taker;
place on that traditional fulfilment day. In the gaze of friends and
relations, the priest arrives to seal the marriage.
The paradigm of both traditional marriage and that of various
other Christian denominations runs thus:
(1 ) The lritroduction
(2) The Exhortation
(3) The Marriage Proper -
*: questioning
-3 hanciover
 *P exchange of syrnbols
*: lhe nuptial knot
*: Ihe invocations.
(4) The Meal.
These are the things that matter. It seems to me that the
traditional voices must be lislened to lest our eccl&iastical entreatiet;
fall on already reslless ears.

6.1.4 15RYTISPI/NAMIIYG CEKEPIONY

Another important area that calls for our explorations is in tlw
area of baptism, or naming ceremony. Baptism is both izr\

incorporation into the body of the Church and also a sacramental

commitment to a new life within the farnily. As Owen puts it; "Baptisrr~
IS the sign that says we belong to the Body of Christ ... baplisrr~
I
signifies our belonging to Christ's Church and fellowship with 11-16:
people of Christ." '"
The Church receives a child and pledges to guarantee himltier
a safe ground for development and maturity. The members are ur'litc:l:l
in this pledge with the "saints on high" and the ancestors of fi3il.1'1
Likewise in many African countries and lgbo communities in particula!.
there is usually the naming ceremony or other initiation ceremonies Iclr.
the infants, This varies both in content and. in the degree nf
implementation. However the salient features are: - .
(i) the assemblage of relations and friends at the famil$?i
homestead.

(ii) the presentation of the child to the eldest in the family.

(iii) the symbolic presentation of the traditional implements I:I~

manhood or womantiood
(iv) the giving of the name and the sacramental invocation ort'ttir.!
child.
(v) the traditronal fellowship meal.

Let the baptismlnaming of infants be conducted in the context of

the life - situations of the people, as the family and friends gather in
common prayer and acceptance. Accordirlg to Kofi in his boc:ll(,
African T h e o l o ~ vEn Route "Among West African peoples, the concept
of corporate responsibility is very strong. The birth of a baby is 11111:

greatest blessing for the family and to a large extent for the commuli.ty
as a whole." O'
Baptismlnaming ceremony should not be a private affair for
individual infants. It should involve as many people as possible.
Another important area that noeds our serious thought is on lt~l:.~
kind of names we give to people at baptisrnlnaming ceremony. Mo::;t
of the early converts to Christianity were given foreign names w h ~ h
they could'not tell their meanings. The first converts even up to lalet
seventies were given such names as Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Ishmael,
Rebekah Absalom, Elijah, Amos, Hezekiah, Elizabeth, Mary, Mon~c:;:l,
Juliet at baptism. Up to date the real meanings of these names cannot
be given. Most of them are just Biblical names, w h k h we do not know
what actually they mean. W e should use our lgbollocal meaningl'l-11
names like Chukwumaobi, Tukwasich~lkwuobi, Chukwubuikert,
Ifeanyichukwu, Chinedum, Ogechukwu, Ifunanya, Udoka, Obinr-IEI, . I.,
Nnaemeka, Nnediogo, Chukwunenye, Onyedikachukwu and the r e s t
of them. It has been the culture of Orurnba people to name ttic:ir
children after their ancestors but there has been a little shift from 11-I<?
practice. According to Agha,
. . . the culti~reof narnir~gpeople after their ancestors
is gradually yielding way to the Christian and
 western Jewish names. Foreign names now seem
to be pwler-r-ed to our native names, which are
wrongly conceived as meaningless. 2 1

The lybo rrleaningful names have helped a lot in ident~fyiry

people with their parents, cornpounds and circumstances surrountliricl
their births. The native narnes also help to identify people as eili-IE~
from Orurnba, Ohafia, Asaba, Nsukka or other parts of lgbolantl or.
even an event that occurred at the birth of the person. With the giving
of foreign narnes, it is obviously very difficult to idehify one i3:-;

belonging either to lgbo or not. This is as a result of the introduction o!

Christianity and the neglect of lgbo names as they are giver1 to people
at Baptism Lel us give native meaningful names at Baptisrn ar1c.l
make them good Christiarls. As we indigenise Christianity, let us al:w
indigenise the names we give to peoplelchildren at baptism.

6.1.5 UEAI'II AND BUHIAL

To bring this section of the work to a close, let me touch anol.hw
vital area of serious consideration. It is as it concerns death ar11:l
burial. Despite our protestant extrerne evangelical theology of t h t

dead, every true lgbo man in his dire moment of deep experienrx
abandons his exotic mental bulwarks and recoils into the traditior~al
rnould
Traditionally, we don't want to "throw" our dead away and ju::.t'
forget them. The traditional lgbo ser;cjx histher dead to the land
beyond peaceably and also constructs monuments for commur-lion
with those ancestors within narrower and wider families. We need la
ask ourselves some serious questions, which include:
Those who have shared fellowship with us here on earth, an:!
they gone and forgotten?
(b) Is there something more except our theological entreaties 1t1i;d
God would enable us behave well as they did?
(c) What really is our definition of the communion of saints?
All these are simple thoughts which need serious answers. As VVI:?

provide the answers, it will help us to understand our attitudes to dealh

and burial more as lgbo Christians. Our burial ceremonies must reflw:t
the deeper instincts of our people for visible symbolic representatior-115,
which will help their mental and spiritual pilgrimages. The Igbo
Christian should be able to discover his true self. He should be faithf~.~l
to his traditionallcultural instirlcts and behave 'like a good 1gt11.1
Christian churchman, instead of trying to behave like a good Western
churchman. The lgbo true self should be brought to bear on I-~!s
theological and liturgical church life. Any religious or theological or-
liturgical experiment, which dehumanises a people or makes them ;.I
perpetual appendage to the other people deserves to be thrown into
the pit.
The Africar.~~
desire for a Church where they may feel at home
and for Christianity to be well rooted it must be Africanised. The
Christian message has shaped the African life style but the A f r i c q ;
have not lost their identity as Africans. Their desire to have a churcl-I
where they feel at home has shaped their worship, beliefs ml:l
practices of the traditional churches to make these churches distirrl.ly
African. The churches of Africa are seeking more adequate way:; c f
worship then those given them from Europe or America. Newell Booth
in quoting Dickson says, "current efforts to establish an Prfrim-1
Christian theology are being made by both Protestant and Catholic
scholars." 22 He goes on to say that
an adequate account of their work would take us
beyond the appropriate limits of this essay, but in
general it can be said that it involves a serious
 attempt to relate the Biblical wit17ess to African life,
without r~ecessarilygoing by way of the Hellenistic ,
Europear) and Amencan ~nferpretat~onsof the
wrtrwss .'.I

It is admittedly true that the African Traditional Religion is r w t

alien to the people. The culture of the people as well as their religic1.1
are so valuable and indisper'lsable to the Africans that they can nevci'
separate thernselves from it. In as rnuch as I believe that it is IIO

longer necessary to give pass mark to Christianity and cynical rel-nct.k:s

to the traditional ways and mechanisms in life, I equally hope that tl-l:i!
deal approach should rather be to use the best intellectual device:; 11:)
sort out those decorums, be it in the material or immaterial forms Ihii~t
will enhance human's mundane and transcendental existence as fhlq
are found in both the traditional way of life and the foreign ideology 1:1f

existence. It is riot out of place if few things are pointed out tersdg
here.\.
The fact must be ackriowledged that on arrival, Christianity clll:;i
not only compete with lybo culture as a whole, but it threatened its
very existence. Chr.istianity sapped her of her features and thre~vits
viability into question. Left for the rnissionaries especially the whiixr:;,
%

they wished the lgbo c~rlturea hasty leap into oblivion. To make 11-K?
culture face extinction was a prominent divine duty they had in th1:.11-
minds hence they descended heavily on every aspect-of Africx1.1
culture and ways of life. The rnissionaries under-estimated the degr.l_:i?
of effort that was needed to achieve their rather impossible aims. (11

fact the missionaries were to realise later that by holding such an i d ~ ! i ~

to erase the Africans of their cultural ways of life, they wc:~:
unnecessarily and tantalizingly given to illusion and mere fantasy.
They should have realised earlier than they did what Mbiti rnearis I q
saying,
wherever the African man is, there is his religion, he
carries it to the fields where tie IS sowing seeds or
harvesting ,a new crop, he takes it w ~ t hhim lo beer
party or lo attend a funeral ceremony and if he is
educated, he takes religion with t i to the
examination room at school or in the oniver-sity. If
he is a politician, he taltes it to the House of
Representatives. Wherever he is goitig, lie has his
religion atid cullure with him. 24

If they had known all these things they would have done more t t l i ~ ~
they did for the kind of result they expected.
Similarly, the Africans had in the same vein under-rated tli~i?
missionaries. At. first, the problern Christianity presented to the?
Africans was not regarded as a serious one by the people becal~:;~~?
conversion to Cllristianity at the initial stage was no picnic. Latw t
dawned on the people that Christianity had become a veritable agent
of chaqge, forceful enough in its demands to create more than a I
ordinary impact. There came an attempt, which succeeded subtlg in
have a major overhaul of the people's traditional ideas.
Upon all the distortions (negative impacts) and of course the
good trimmings (positive impacts) Christianity has given the Igt~r:~
culture the wind of cultural nationalism and renaissance is blowing i~tI1
African efforts towards res~~scitating
all the functional elements (:'/

cultural institutions and values. Africans are increasingly becorning

proud of their culture so much so that indigenisation has become iii

household term.
Researches are being carried out here and there by scholars
and what is more, African culture and Traditional Religion are new
studied in African universities and many other uniyersities in Europe?
and America, hence giving it a due world recognition and respect. *l-ti~:;
lgbo CulturelReliyion recoynises the importance of peaceful c:o,-
existence hence the lgbo saying "Biri ka m biri' - live and,let live 1.1
will be inane to leave the substance and chase the shadow and nwrc?
still gross inanity to be ignorant of modus vive~idiand modus operiilric!i
of man's terrestrial existence.
On the whole much as Christianity ignited a chain of changes in
both.African religion and culture, from all that has been said in 11-tis
particular research and beyond, it should be seen as a "machine" that
has bulldozed and demolished African values in-toto. Christianity and
lgbo Culture have existed together since they came into contact and
they have influenced each other both negatively and positively.

SUGGESTED AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCII

In any given field of study, one research work usually leads t(:)
other investigations. It is often said that one researcher's weakness is
another researcher's strength. In view of the acknowledged lirnitationa
of the present study, the following suggestions are adjudged by t t M
researcher as appropriate line along which further work should t~ci!
undertaken.
1. A similar study could be carried in any of the other geographic:al
areas of Anarnbra State. Such a study will create room for
cornparison.
2, Interested researchers could take any of the traditional value::;
singly for more in-depth studies or any of the aspects of the Igba
Culture for more in-depth studies.
3. Researches could be done on the modalities of ensuring co--
existence between Christianity and lgbo culture or even betwwr'i
different denominations.
13. David Owen: Sharers In W o r m " : London Billing and Sons l..ttj.
1980p. 14

16. Kwesi Dicksori; Towards A Theoloqy African: New Testamen!

Christianity For Africa And The World; London S. P: :C K
1979 p. 89.

18. Michael McGrath and Nicole Greyoire; Africa, Our Wav to LQW:
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19. David Owen Op. cit. p. 25.

20. Kofi Appiah-Kubi (Ed) African Theologv En Route New York,

Orbbis Books, 1983 p. 22

21. Agha. U. Agha; Christianity and Culture: A Case Studv of

Unwara; Eriugu Tee Mac Global Cpmmunications 1-11:l
1996 p. 43.

22. Newel S. Booth; African Religjons; The Africanisation of

Christianity, NOK Publishers International, New Yor%,
1979 pp. 271-272,.

24. J. S. Mbiti; African Reliqior~and Philosopb London:

Heinernann, 1969 p. 2.
 CIIAYI'EIt SIX
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