Examination
Practical 10 70%
Basic principle of radiographic testing is shown in figure. The transmitted radiation after
passing through the object, is recorded on an x ray film. The image of an object produced
on an x ray film shows optical density variation depending on the internal structure of the
object.
All materials in the universe are made of different elements. Ex. Hydrogen, oxygen,
iron…
Atom
Atom is the smallest part of an element. An atom has a positively charged central portion
called nucleus. It also has negatively charge electrons going around the nucleus in
different orbits. The nucleus has two types of particles protons which are positively
charged and neutrons which do not carry any charge. An atom is electrically neutral as
the number of protons in its nucleus is equal to the number of electrons in the orbit.
Structures of some atoms are shown in figure 4. The number of protons in an atom is
known as its atomic number Z. Every atom of particular element has definite number of
protons eg. Aluminum has 13, cobalt has 27, iridium has 77. the mass of an atom is
almost completely concentrated in the nucleus, as electrons have negligible mass. A
proton or a neutron is about 1800 times heavier than an electron. Mass number A of an
atom is the number of protons Z plus the number of neutrons N in its nucleus.
A=N+Z
Isotope
Any atom having same number of protons Z, but having different number of neutrons N
is called an isotope of the element. Isotopes of hydrogen are shown in figure 5
Radioisotopes
An unstable nucleus becomes stable by emitting radiations such as alpha particle, beta
particle. This process is known as radioactivity. Therefore unstable isotopes are known
as radioactive isotopes [ radioisotopes ]
Alpha particle
Example
Beta particle
Beta particle is an electron. It has negative charge. After the emission of beta particle, the
atomic number increases by one. But the mass number does not change. Beta radiations
from a radioisotope have different energies from zero upto a maximum value. The beta
radiation are more penetrating than alpha radiations ut beta radiations could be stopped
by a few millimeters of aluminum. 5mm.
Example
15 P 32 ------- 16 S 32
Gamma radiation
If after the emission of a alpha or beta radiation, the nucleus has some extra energy ,
gamma radiation is emitted. Gamma radiation is highly penetrating and is similar to x
ray in its properties. Hence gamma radiations are generally used for industrial
radiography.
Potassium 40 , carbon 14, uranium 238 are some of the naturally occurring radioisotopes.
Many other elements can be made radioactive by bombarding them with charged
particles and neutrons. These are called artificially made radioisotopes. Cobalt 60,
iridium 192, cesium 137, are some of the artificially made radioisotopes.
Radioactivity :
Energy of radiations :
Energies of various radiations are usually specified in electron volts. One electron volt is
the energy given to a single electron as it moves across a potential difference of one volt.
1 eV = 1 electon volt
1 KeV = 1 kilo electron volt
1 MeV = 1 million electron volt
Half life
As the time passes, a given radioisotope continues to disintegrate and hence, its activity
reduces.
The half life of a radioisotope is the duration in which its activity reduces to one half of
its initial value. [ see the figure ]
• A x 1/2n
• I = Io e-µt
I = activity
Io = Initial activity
µ = linear disintegration coefficient [µ = 0.693/half life]
t=time
X rays
X and Gamma rays have similar properties. Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus,
whereas x rays are generated outside the nucleus when high speed electrons interact with
atoms. Gamma rays have definite, discrete energies, whereas x rays have continuous
energy . the maximum energy of x rays depends on the incident electron energy
Advantages :
• x ray machines have higher radiation output
• they have small focal spot size, which gives sharper images.
• The use of x rays results in better image contrast due to its continuous spectrum
• X ray units ensure complete radiation safety, when the unit is switched off.
Disadvantage :
• They are bulky, for use at complicated and inaccessible locations.
• They require electric power for operation.
• They require high capital investment.
Production of x rays
X rays are produced when a beam of high energy electrons collides with any material.
The essential requirements for the production of x rays are
• A source of electrons [ heated tungsten filament]
o Current is applied to filament and free electrons clouds are generated due
to heating of filament and this works for a source of electrons.
• High voltage supply to accelerate the electrons
• A target, usually tungsten, to stop the electrons and to convert their energy to x
rays.
o Selection of the target material is based on the following properties.
It should have a high melting point.
It should possess a high atomic number.
It should possess high thermal conductivity [ to dissipate the heat
quickly]
X ray production increases with increase in atomic number of the target atom and with
increase in the incident electron energy. In a x ray machine, less than one per cent of the
electrical power supplied is converted to x rays and the remaining power appears as heat
if this heat is not removed efficiently the target material may melt. The target is usually
of small dimension, say 2-3mm. when the electrons hit the target, much of the energy
appears in the form of heat and it has to be rapidly removed. Copper is used for the
purpose of heat removal. certain anodes are hollow in construction, so that primary
coolants can be circulated through the same to remove the generated heat. Mineral oil is
also sometimes used around the x ray unit, to remove heat and serve as electrical
insulator.
The penetration of x ray beam depends on the applied kilovoltage, whereas, the intensity
is decided by the current flowing through the filament [ miliampearage]
In an x ray machine, if the potential difference between the filament and the target or the
applied kilovoltage is 200 kv, then the energy of the electrons hitting the target is 200 kev
and the maximum energy of the x rays would be 200 kev.
Photoelectric effect
Compton effect :
Compton effect : gamma radiation interacts with a free electron [ electron of external
orbit] . The gamma radiation gives a part of its energy to the electron and travels in a
different direction [gets scattered] with decreased energy.
Half value thickness [ HVT] : the thickness of the material, needed to reduce the intensity
of radiation to half its initial value is known as the half value thickness.
• Io x 1/2n
• I = Io e -µt
I = Intensity
Io = Initial Intensity
µ = linear absorption coefficient [µ = 0.693/HVT ]
t= thickness
Construction of film
When an object is radiographed without using screens, there are two disturbing factors,
• There is lesser absorption of transmitted radiation intensity in film, which results
in longer exposure time.
• Low energy scattered radiation is absorbed more, which spoils the image quality.
Hence, to reduce exposure time and improve image quality of radiographs, radiography
screens are used.
Types of radiography screens : there are two types of radiography screens, commonly
used in industrial radiography practice, metallic foil screens and fluorescent screens,
Metallic foil screens
Metallic screens help in reduction of scattered radiation from the object. The x ray film
is sandwiched between a pair of lead screens.
During x or gamma ray exposure, each crystal in salt screen emits light and this light
diverges in all directions and gives image unsharpness. So these screens give poor
quality image. Hence these screens are not much used in industrial radiography.
Handling of films :
• X ray films should be handled carefully to avoid physical strains such as pressure
and friction on it.
• Films should be held by edges in order to prevent finger or pressure marks in
loading and unloading process.
• The expiry date on a film pack means that the film should be used before the
given date.
• X ray film should be protected from x rays and gamma rays to avoid fogging.
• Film should not be kept in a chemical storage room or in any location where there
is leakage of chemical vapours, high humidity and in high temperature.
• Films may be stored for long periods in a cool place like refrigerator.
Film processing :
After exposure to the radiation, a latent image of the object is formed in the x ray film.
The purpose of the film processing is to convert this invisible image to visible and
permanent image. There are five main stages involved in film processing.
Latent image formation : on exposure to x or gamma radiation, the silver bromide in the
films is converted into metallic silver which is black in colour.
Stop bath : after developing, if no action is taken, the developer will continue to work
producing high density, fog or irregular developer stains. The unwanted developer is
removed with stop bath.there are two types of stop baths generally employed.
1. water rinse : the excess unwanted developer is removed from the film simply by
immersing it in a running water bath.
2. acetic acid rinse : this bath is static and 2 to 3 per cent solution of acetic acid is
employed. This is more efficient in action and required films to be immersed in it
for about 5 seconds with agitation.
Fixing bath : the fixer reacts with undeveloped silver bromide in the film and transforms
it into water soluble compound which gets dissolved in washing operation. In addition, it
enables the image to become permanent. since the silver bromide is still sensitive to light
to a small extent, and so will slowly darken if it is allowed to remain on the film.
Washing and drying :washing and drying is carried out to eliminate unwanted products
from the emulsion after the fixing operation. The excess water is then removed by
drying, since a wet radiograph is not convenient to handle and easily got damage.
Characteristics of films :
Film Density : Blackening of the film is called optical density [D] and is given by the
expression,
D = Log [ Io/It]
Geometry of image formation : the radiographic image on the film is governed mainly by
basic principles of the shadow formation a sharp and undistorted image is obtained by
controlling various geometrical factors such as source size, source to film distance, film
to object distance alignment of radiation beam with respect to the plane of the object and
film.
Both x and gamma rays produce a certain unsharpness on the radiograph due to the finite
size of the focal spot or the source. This unsharpness is called geometrical unsharpness
[Ug] which is calculated as
Ug = f x t / d
SFD = d + t
It is clear from this expression , that Ug can never be zero. The magnitude of Ug can
only be minimized by proper selection of exposure variables. Considering this fact,
various codes permit a certain Ug value related to object thicknesses.
Subject contrast : is defined as the ratio of x or gamma ray intensities transmitted through
two different areas of a specimen. It depends upon the radiation quality, intensity
distribution and scattered radiation. Higher the radiation energy lower would be the
subject contrast.
Film contrast : refers to the slope of characteristic curve of the film at a given density. It
depends upon the type of film. Processing conditions, and optical; density. It is
independent of radiation quality.
Film contrast or gradient is defined as the change in density recorded on a film for a
given change in radiation intensity.
The slope of the characteristic curve at a given density is the measure of the film
gradient, Gd at that density.
Slope of straight line joining two points on the curve is called average gradient of a film.
It can be expressed as
Film Speed : a film which requires less exposure to produce required density is faster.
Film factor : the amount of exposure of a given radiation energy required on a film to
produce a given film density [ usually 2.0] under specified conditions of processing is
called film factor.
Film Graininess : fine grain films have lower graininess and speed but higher film
contrast at a given density, and coarse grain film have higher graininess and speed but
lower film contrast at a given density.
Exposure time calculations :
Radiographic Sensitivity
Radiographic Sensitivity is a general qualitative term referring to the size of the smallest
detail which can be seen on a radiograph. It is governed by the contrast and definition of
the image appearing on the radiograph.
Weld defects :
Hot cracks [ rupture of metal under stress above 400 ºF, usually associated with grain
boundary]
Incomplete fusion [ improper fusion between weld and parent metal usually with edge or
between two passes ]
Incomplete joint penetration [ failure of penetration due to poor gap. Low current.]
Gas inclusions [ entrapment of gas due to wet electrode, inadequate cleaning of weld or
inadequate protection from atmospheric gases ]
Concavity [ normally in the root due to improper movement of electrode or too much
heat in II pass over I pass ]
Slag inclusion [ entrapment of nonmetallic solid materials]
Hot tears [ due to stresses near solidification temperatures when metal is weak. ]