Name: Rohnesha Guppy

Date: 1/04/19

Biochemistry- Assignment 2

1. a) The disaccharide that is used as the starting substrate for the synthesis of sucralose is
sucrose which is composed of the two monosaccharides fructose and glucose which are
bonded together by an α1-β2 glycosidic bond.

b) The chemical modifications that have been made to the starting sucrose substrate were
that they added three (3) chlorine and hydroxyl bonds through substitution reaction. The two
hydroxyl groups that are attached to carbon one and carbon six of fructose that are in sucrose
are replaced by chlorine and the hydroxyl group on carbon four is replaced by a chlorine
molecule.

c) Six possible side effects of utilizing sucralose include: migraines, dizziness, seizures,
blurred vision, allergic reactions and increase in blood sugar.

d) Table 1: Comparisons of Sucralose and aspartame.

Comparison Sucralose Aspartame

Non-nutritive Sweetener
Chemical Composition
Number of Residues
Non-nutritive because it
cannot be metabolised by the
body, hence not contributing
to the caloric content.
Tri-chlorinated sucrose
molecule
Two residues
Nutritive as it is broken down
by the body producing 4 kcal
per gram.
Methyl ester of dipeptide of
the natural amino acids L-
aspartic acid and L-
phenylalanine
One residue

Density 1.69 g/cm3 1.347 g/cm3

Molecular Weight 397.64 g/mol 294.3 g/mol

Medical concerns Contributes to the Linked to diabetes, birth
development of certain defects ADHD and Parkinson
cancers and when cooked disease
with it produces a compound
called chloropropanois which
is toxic

2) Tay-Sachs is a neurodegenerative disease that affects infants severely and may be fatal. It
is caused by the defect of a gene found on chromosome 15(HEX-A). The defective gene
prevents the production of the protein hexosaminidase A. Due to the absence of this protein, a
chemical referred to as gangliosides accumulate inside the never cells of the brain, thus
damaging the brain cells. This is a hereditary disease in which it is passed on through
generations. In order for an infant to be affected, he/ she must obtain the defective gene from
both parents and therefore if only one parent passes the gene to their offspring, the child is a
carrier. The symptoms of Tay-Sachs infants include deafness, progressive blindness, decrease
in muscle strength, seizures, and paralysis etc. Less severe symptoms occur in teens and
adults such as memory problems and slurred speech etc.

Niemann-Pick, a hereditary disease, affects the ability of a person’s body to breakdown and
process fats like cholesterol an lipids in cells which results in cell destruction. This type of
disease has adverse effects on many parts of the body like the brain, bone marrow and severe
cases such as the lungs. Symptoms include difficulty walking, excessive extraction of
muscles and difficulty when eating. There are three types of Niemann-Pick, A, B and C.
Types A and B are usually caused by a faulty enzyme known as sphingomyelinase which will
affect the way the body metabolize fat. Type A is the most severed in infants and more
fatality occur in a few years of living whereas in B, they survive until into adulthood. In type
C the disease is inherited and affects the lungs and spleen.
3) Table 2: Comparison between Glycosidic and Peptide Bonds.

Glycosidic Bond Peptide Bond

Formed between Amino acids Carbohydrates

4) They are more likely to synthesize membrane lipids with saturated, long- chain fatty acids.
High temperatures allow for the membrane to be composed of fatty acids that are considered
to be more viscous since all fatty acids are less viscous at high temperatures. When the
proportion of the saturated and longer fatty acid chain is increased, which contain high
melting point (decrease in fluidity), the bacteria is able to maintain a constant membrane
fluidity at higher temperatures.

5) Avery, McCarty and McCleod used the transformation principle to show that the genetic
material DNA is responsible for transformation in the bacteria, Diplococcus pneumonia. The
experiment carried out showed that when DNA of dead IIIS pneumococci was mixed with
IIR pneumococci, there is something within the dead IIIS that will trigger the transformation
of IIR. In the experiment, three various groups of heat killed smooth strain bacteria were
separated into its components and treated with enzymes which will degrade DNA, RNA, and
protein, 1) deoxyribonuclease (DNase) was used to degrade DNA, 2) ribonuclease (RNase)
degraded RNA and 3) protease degraded proteins. They were each then tested with live IIR in
order for the DNA to transform IIR into IIIS. Only the test tube containing the enzyme
DNAse did not result in live IIIS which eliminated all possibilities that RNA and protein is
the genetic information of a cell.
6) Table 3: Comparison of DNA and RNA
Comparison DNA
Name Deoxyribonucleic acid
Function Stores the genetic
information long-term;
transference of the genetic
information to produce new
organisms.
Structural feature The B-form is double helix.
DNA is a double-stranded
molecule consisting of a long
chain of nucleotides.
Composition of Bases and Six membered deoxyribose
Sugars sugar with phosphate
backbone and adenine,
guanine, cytosine, thymine
bases ( purine and pyrimidine
bases)
Propagation DNA is self-replicating
Complementary Base Pairing Adenine links to Thymine
(A-T)
Guanine links to Cytosine
(G-C)
Reactivity The C-H bonds make DNA
fairly stable, plus enzymes
that would attack DNA is
destroyed by the body. The
small grooves in the helix
also serve as protection,
providing minimal space for
enzymes to attach.
RNA
Ribonucleic acid
Involved transferring the
genetic code from nucleus to
ribosome to produce protein.
RNA is single stranded
strands which have shorter
nucleotide chains.
Ribose sugar with
phosphate backbone
adenine, guanine, cytosine,
uracil bases
Synthesize from DNA
Adenine links to Uracil
(A-U)
Guanine links to Cytosine
(G-C)
The O-H bond in the ribose
causes the molecule to be
more reactive, compared
with DNA. RNA is not stable
under alkaline conditions,
plus the large grooves in the
molecule make it susceptible
to enzyme attack. RNA is
 constantly produced, used,
degraded, and recycled
Ultraviolet Damage More susceptible to UV RNA is relatively resistant to
damage. UV damage

7) a. The following that is associated:

i. C- Leucine
ii. D- Lysine
iii. A-Proline
iv. D- Lysine
v. B- Tyrosine
vi. C-leucine

b. A- Proline (C5H9NO2)

B- Tyrosine (C9H11NO3)

C-Leucine (C6H13NO2)

D- Lysine (C6H12NO2)

c. The other amino acids in the same group as D-Lysine are Arginine and Histidine in which
they are basic amino acids and their sides chains are electrically charged.

8) a. Table 4:Comparison of alpha-helix with the beta-strand for protein secondary structures.

Feature Alpha-helix Beta-helix

Shape The polypeptide chain is
coiled like a loosely-coiled
spring.
Hydrogen Bond Forms within the polypeptide
chains to form helical
structure
The chains are folded so that
they lie alongside each other.
Between N-H groups of one
strand and C=O groups of the
adjacent strands.
R group R groups of the amino acids
are arranged outside of the
helix.
Number This can be a single chain
R groups are directed to both
inside and outside of the
sheet.
This cannot exist as a single
beta strand; there are must be
two or more.

b. Two other secondary structures found in proteins are Beta turns also known as Beta-bends
and non-repetitive secondary structure.

9) Snare proteins are also referred to as “SNAP proteins” are soluble N-ethylmaleimide
which are very sensitive protein type receptors. They play a significant role in acting as a
transporting molecule that aid in the delivery of polypeptides and other molecules present on
the inside or outside of the cell. This is done when they bind to their vesicles or target
membrane.

10) The sequence of the intact polypeptide is Gln-Ala-Phe-Val-Lys-Gly-Try-Asn-Arg-Leu-

Gly

11) Table 4:Comparison of Kwashiorkor, Marasmus and Cachexia

Characteristic Kwashiorkor Marasmus Cachexia

Type of Disease Nutritional Nutritional Chronic illness a
deficiency, deficiency, person suffers from
edematous malnutrition from
malnutrition starvation
Nutrient Lacking Caused by the lack of Lacking of calories, Lacking of calories
protein in the diet carbohydrates and content from food
protein from diet and result of severe
illness like cancer
Target Group Mostly affect young Mostly affect young No particular group
children in children in as it can affect
developing countries developing countries anyone.
12) The addition of 8M urea and 1 Mm of mercaptoethanol to a protein structure results in
the urea denaturing the protein and the hydrophobic effect being lowered and thus the shape
of the protein is altered. Mercaptoethanol has the ability to denature some of the proteins by
the cleaving of the disulphide bonds that may be produced between the thiol group. This
affects the different protein structures that are secondary, tertiary and quaternary. This will
then inhibit the precise folding of the protein which gives a particular shape that allows for it
to carry out its specific functions.

13) An endocrine substance is a substance that will interact with the normal hormonal action
and it is produced in a localized region in which it is later transported in the blood to cell it
has to act upon. Hormones in the human body are classified as an active endocrine substance.
Autocrine substances are produced in a localized region and usually act on the particular cell
that they act on. Growth factors which will stimulate the division of cells are an example.
Paracrine substances include hormones that are released from a cell(s) and link to the receptor
on the neighbouring cells which affect the function. An example is cytokinesis which is
caused the inflammatory in the nervous reaction.