Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL

Semiconductors are the materials with small band gap energy, typically between 0.5eV to 1eV.
Semiconductors are broadly classified as follows:

 A-Intrinsic Semiconductors
 B-Extrinsic Semiconductors
(i) n-type Semiconductors
(ii) p-type Semiconductors

The elemental forms of pure Si and pure Ge are intrinsic. They are the pure form of
semiconductors and are not useful. Therefore, they doped with specific dopants to make extrinsic
semiconductors. Extrinsic forms are directly useful and widely employed in manufacturing in
solid state devices. They belong to categories of alloys and compounds. Electronic industries
required purity better than 1:109 in pure Si and Ge.

At room temperature, resistivity of semiconductor lies between an insulator and a conductor.

Semiconductors show negative temperature coefficient of resistivity. This means its resistance
decreases with increase in temperature. Both Si and Ge are elements of IV group i.e. both
elements have 4 valence electrons. Both form the covalent bond with the neighboring atom. At
absolute zero temperature both behave as insulator i.e. the valence band is completely full while
conduction band is completely empty.

The resistivity of semiconductor varies from 10-5 to 104 ohm-m.as compare to the values from
10-8 to 10-6 ohm-m for conductor and from 107 to 108 ohm-m for an insulator.

The semiconductors have following additional characteristic properties:

 They have an empty conduction band and filled valance band at 0K.
 Semiconductors are formed by covalent bonds.
 They have a small energy band gap.
 They possess crystalline nature.
 The temperature coefficient of resistance of a Semiconductor is negative

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1.1 CLASSIFICATION:
Based on the composition of materials, purity of the material and nature of band gap,
semiconductors are classified into three categories.
 Elemental Semiconductors (Si and Ge)
 Compound Semiconductors (GaAs, InPi, CdTe, ZnSe etc.)
 Alloy (GaAsxP1-x, HgCdxTe1-x etc.)

1.2 ADVANTAGES OF SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS:

 They are much smaller in size.
 They are light in weight.
 Operates at very low voltage.
 They consume negligible power.
 Highly durable.
 They do not develop any creep and edging effect.
 They can operate at wide range of temperatures.

1.3 Fermi Energy Level

Fermi level is the highest occupied energy level at absolute zero temperature. This concept
comes from Fermi-Dirac statistics. At absolute zero they pack into the lowest available energy
states. The Fermi level is the surface of that sea at absolute zero where electrons will not have
enough energy to raise the surface. The concept of the Fermi energy is a crucially important
concept for the understanding of the electrical and thermal properties of solids.

In metals, the Fermi energy gives us information about the velocities of the electrons which
participate in ordinary electrical conduction.

1.4 Fermi-Dirac Probability Function and Temperature Effect

The thermal behavior of electrons in an atom can be explained by Fermi-Dirac probability

function P(E) given by

1
P( E )  ( E  E F ) KT
(2)
1 e

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Where: k=Boltzmann constant
T=Absolute temperature
EF=Fermi energy

Fig.1 (Fermi energy Vs. Temperature)

Thus the Fermi energy level can also be defined as the level where the probability of occupation
is 50% at temperature greater than 00K.
The Fermi-Dirac distribution can be concluded by following points:

 At 0K, it shows that P (E) =0 for E > Ef and 1 for E<Ef.

 At higher temperature more and more electrons occupy energy greater than Fermi energy.

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 CHAPTER-2

Band Theory of Solids

The farthest band from the nucleus is filled with valence electrons and is called the valence band.
The empty band is called the conduction band. The energy of the highest filled state is called
Fermi energy. There is a certain energy gap, called band gap, between valence and conduction
bands.
In metals the valence and the conduction band overlaps each other. Insulators and
semiconductors have completely filled valence band and empty conduction band. The band gap
is relatively smaller in semiconductors while it is very large in insulators.
The difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors has been shown in the
following diagram. In insulators the electrons in the valence band are separated by a large gap
from the conduction band, in conductors like metals the valence band overlaps the conduction
band, and in semiconductors there is a small enough gap between the valence and conduction
bands. With such a small gap, the presence of a small percentage of a doping material can
increase conductivity in semiconductor.
An important parameter in the band theory is the Fermi level, the top most available electron
energy states at low temperatures. The position of the Fermi level with the relation to the
conduction band is a crucial factor in determining electrical properties.

Fig.2 (Energy Band Gap of Materials)

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2.1 Density of state
Density of state means the population density of electrons in a given energy state. It has
relevance to Fermi- Dirac distribution. In the last article we discussed that the Fermi probability
function p(E) determines the probability of occupancy in a given level. It tells us about the
energy level but not about the number of electrons in those levels. The density of state N(E)
indicates the number of electrons n across the energy band. This number is not uniform across
the energy band; rather it is greatest at the center of the band. The product of p(E), N(E) and the
number of electrons for semiconductors are related by

This relation is illustrated over a range of band energy at 0 K and temperature above 0 K. It
illustrates that only a small fraction of electrons within the energy range of kT can be excited
above Fermi level. Here k is Boltzmann constant and T is absolute temperature. The effective
density of energy states can be found by employing the quantum mechanics.

If the effective density of state in conduction and at the valence bands are Nc and Nv
respectively, then,

Fig.4 (variation of density of state with temperature)

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 (9)
Where me and mh are the effective mass of an electron and a hole respectively; and h is the
Planck’s constant. The number of negative and positive charge carrier’s and nh in their respective
bands may be found from

(10)
And

(11)

Where EF is the Fermi energy. Now the product of positive and negative charge carriers is

(12)

And the term depends on the band structure of the semiconductor. For a specific material,
the produced,

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 Chapter-3

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors which are chemically pure, or free of impurities, are called Intrinsic
Semiconductors or Undoped Semiconductor or type-I Semiconductor. The most common
intrinsic semiconductors are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge). Si and Ge have four electrons
each in their outer-most i.e. valence shell these electrons are called valence electrons and
are responsible for the electrical properties of the semiconductors.

Pure silicon behaves like an insulator at 0K. As the temperature increases above 0K, some of
valance electron acquires sufficient thermal energy to break their covalent bond. These electrons
move randomly in the crystal and refer to as conduction electron. Each electron leaves behind an
empty space called hole which act as current carrier. So that valance band break and electron
hole pair generates and two carrier’s conductivity is produced. This type of generation of free e-h
pair in semiconductors is called thermal generation.

At 0K the valance band is completely filled and conduction band is empty. So the semiconductor
behaves as an insulator. The electrons present in the valance band do not conduct. As
temperature increases some of the valance electron acquires thermal energy and jump into the
conduction band, leave behind equal no of holes in valance band. The electrons in the conduction

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band and holes in the valance band behave as a free carrier and increases conductivity of the
material.

3.1 Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductors:

The electrons in the conduction band and hoes in the valence band moves in a random fashion
within the crystal due to their thermal energy. When an external field is applied to the
semiconductor, a drift velocity is superimposed on the random thermal motion of the charge
carriers, i.e. electrons and holes. The drift of the electrons in the conduction band and that of
holes in the valence band produce an electric current. The electrons move towards the positive
electrode, whereas the holes towards the negative electrode. The currents produced by the
movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions and since the electron carry a negative
charge and the hole a positive charge. Thus, the conventional current flows within the
semiconductor from the positive electrode to the negative electrode. The energy of a hole is
measured downward from the top of the valence band.

The motion of the electrons in the valance band may be considered to be equvalent to the motion
of the holes in the opposite direction. The holes also contibutre to the conductivity. When the e-h
pair is thermaly created , a valance electron in a neighbouing atom can have sufficient thermal
energy to jump into the position of the hole and reconstruct the covalent bond.In doing so,the
electron leaves a hole in its initial position. Effectively, the hole moves from one position to the
other position. Thus the holes move in the opposite direction to the valance electrons.

Fig.7 left: conduction of charge carriers, right: Fermi Level for Intrinsic Semiconductor

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3.2 Sailent Features of Intrinsic Semiconductor:
 The number of electron in the conduction band is equal to the number of holes in the
valance band,i.s. n=p=ni, where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
 Fermi level lies in the energy gap exactly between the valance and conduction
bands(Ef=Eg/2).
 The contribution of the electrons to the electric current is more than that due to holes.
 An atom out of 103 atoms of an intrinsic semiconductor contributes to the conduction.
 An electron and a hole can behave as a pair bound to each other. Such bound pair is
called exciton. This pair is electrically neutral and so does not take part in electrical
conduction.

3.3 Effective Mass:

The mass gained by the electron due to application of external electric field and internal periodic
field is termed effective mass. It represented by m*. The effective mass is calculated by following
formula.

m*= -e E / a (13)

Where; e= Electronic charge

a = Acceleration due to electric current,
m*=Effective mass
E= Electric field strength

3.4 Concentration of Intrinsic Carriers:

The concentration of intrinsic carriers i.e. the number of electrons in conduction band per unit
volume is given by the expression.

n =2(2πmekT/h2)3/2exp (µ-Eg)/kT (14)

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and the concentration of holes in the valance band is given by the expression-

p = 2(2πmhkT/h2)3/2 exp (-µ/kT) (15)

in an intrinsic semiconductors, the concentration of holes and electrons are equal according to
mass action law, the product of hole and the electron concentration isequal to the square of the
intrinsic concentration, i.e.,

np= ni2=4(2πkT/h2)3(memh)3/2 exp(-Eg/kT) (16)

Where

me=Effective mass of electron

mh=Effective mass of hole

k= Boltzmann constant

Eg= Band gap

µ= Fermi level

T=Absolute temperature (K)

By multiplying and dividing by m3 in above equation, we get

ni2=4(2π kT /h2)3/2 (me mh)3/4 exp(-Eg/2kT) (17)

thus, we can conclude that the concentration of intrinsic carrier depend exponentially on Eg/2kT.

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3.5 Number of Electrons Crossing-Over to Conduction Band

If the total number of electrons available in valence band for semi conduction is N, and out of
this n numbers cross-over to conduction band, then n/N = p(E) will be .

n= Ne (-Eg/2kT) (18)

3.6 Holes, Mobility and Conductivity

If n number of electrons crosses the gap, n sites become vacant in the valence band. These vacant
sites are called holes. Thus the number of electrons ne and number of holes nh are equal (ne= nh).
Both electrons and the holes take part in semi conduction. Electrons conduct in the conduction
band and the holes in the valence band. They move in opposite directions with certain drift
velocity Vd under an applied field gradient E . This movement of electrons and holes is known as
mobility. Mobility of an electron and of a hole is designated by µe and µh respectively and
defined as

µ=Vd/E (19)

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 Chapter-4

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
The semiconductors with intentionally added impurities are called extrinsic semiconductors. This
process of adding impurities in minute quantities into the pure semiconductor material under
controlled conditions is known as doping. The introduction of impurity atom i.e. doping, is most
efficient method of increasing the conductivity of intrinsic.

Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping agent or doping has
been added in extremely small amounts (about 1 part in 108) are called extrinsic or impurity
semiconductors.

Depending on the type of doping material used, extrinsic semiconductors can be sub-divided into
two classes:

 N-type semiconductors (Penta-valent Impurities)

 P-type semiconductors. (Tri-valent Impurities)

4.1 n-Type Semiconductors and Their Energy Diagram

This type of semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent material like antimony (Sb) is added
to pure silicon/germanium crystal. As shown in the Figure each antimony atom forms covalent
bonds with the surrounding four germanium atoms with the help of four of its five electrons. The
fifth electron is superfluous and is loosely bound to the antimony atom. Hence, it can be easily
excited from the valence band to the conduction band by the application of electric field or
increase in thermal energy. It is seen from the above description that in N-type semiconductors,
electrons are the majority carriers while holes constitute the minority carriers.

The energy level corresponding to the 5th electron lies in the band gap in below the conduction
band, this level is known as donor level. The depth nearly about 0.01eV for Ge and 0.03eV for
Si.

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The electrons are easily transferred to the conduction band leaving behind positively impurities
ion. Such impurities are known as donor or n type semiconductor. Here current is carried mainly
by electrons which is called majority carrier. The thermally generated holes are known as
minority carrier.

4.2 p-type Semiconductors and Their Energy Diagram

This type of semiconductor is obtained when traces of a trivalent impurity like boron (B) are
added to a pure silicon/germanium crystal. In this case, the three valence electrons of boron atom
form covalent bonds with four surrounding germanium atoms but one bond is left incomplete
and gives rise to a hole as shown in Fig. below. Thus, boron which is called an acceptor impurity
causes as many positive holes in a germanium crystal as there are boron atoms thereby producing
a P-type extrinsic semiconductor. In this type of semiconductor, conduction is by the movement
of holes in the valence band. E.g.; group III, such as boron, aluminum, gallium, and indium

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An electron can easily have transferred from valance band to the accepter level by providing the
small amount of energy. This creates a hole in valance band which act as mobile charge carrier.
The impurities are known as acceptor, and the semiconductor containing such impurity atom is
known as p type semiconductor.

4.3 Temperature Dependency of Carrier Concentrations

The carrier concentration is a function of temperature. It is evident from the following relations.

N0=ni exp (EF-Ei) / kT (20)

P0=ni exp (Ei-EF ) / kT (21)

Where,
N0=electron concentration in conduction band.
P0=hole concentration in conduction band.

Fig.11 (Variation of Conductivity with Temperature in Semiconductors)

The following curve shows three different regions:

1. Ionization region- It occurs at large values of 1/T i.e. at low temperatures where donor
electrons are bound to donor atoms.

2. Extrinsic region-It occurs when every available extrinsic electron is transferred to the
conduction band, hence ni=Nd and n0becomes almost constant.

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3. Intrinsic region-It occurs at smaller values of 1/T i.e. at higher temperatures when ni>>Nd

Amongst the above three regions, the extrinsic region is desirable for the operation of
semiconductor devices. It is due to its constant characteristic. The extrinsic range can also be
extended beyond the highest temperature at which the device has to operate. This is
accomplished by either

 Generating the thermal electron-hole pair

 Doping Nd

4.4 Effects of Temperature on Mobility of Carriers

The mobility of electrons or holes is influenced by scattering. Main sources of scattering in a
semiconductor are phonons and ionized impurity atoms. The mobility of electron and hole
carriers are governed by following scattering mechanisms, which themselves result from
temperature.
 Lattice scattering. In this mechanism, a carrier moving through a crystal is scattered by
inherent vibration of the lattice, caused by temperature. The frequency of such scattering
increases with increase in temperature, therefore the thermal agitation of the lattice also
becomes greater. Hence the mobility decreases.
 Impurity scattering. In this mechanism, the scattering dominates low temperatures. At
lower temperatures, as the atoms are less agitated, therefore the thermal motion of the
carriers is slow. Hence, there is an increase in mobility with increasing temperature.

The approximate temperature dependencies for both the above mechanisms are as follows.
(i) For Lattice Scattering µL=a T -1.5
(ii) For Impurity Scattering µi=b T -1.5

Where a and b are material constant

Page 15
 Fig.12 (Effect of Temperature on Carrier’s Mobility)

4.5 Direct and Indirect Energy Band Semiconductors

The band structure of GaAs for momentum(K) = 0 has a maximum in valence band and a
minimum in conduction band .Therefore an electron making a transition from conduction band to
valence band can do so without any change in the value of momentum(K).
The band structure for Si has a maximum in valence band at a different value of k than a
minimum in conduction band. Therefore, a transition from conduction band to valence band
requires some change in the value of momentum (K).
Therefore, the energy band in semiconductor has two different classes:

1- Direct energy band

2- Indirect energy band

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Thus the semiconductors are falling in two categories:

1- Direct energy band semiconductor e.g. GaAs, GaN, InP, CdSe, InSb etc.
2- Indirect energy band semiconductor e.g. Si, Ge, GaP, PbTe, AlAs etc.

Fig.13 (Energy Momentum Fig.14 (Energy Momentum

Diagram for Direct Band Gap Diagram for Indirect Band Gap
Semiconductors e.g.GaAs) Semiconductors e.g. Pure Si)

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 Chapter-5

HALL EFFECT

The measurement of electrical conductivity is merely not sufficient to determine the carrier’s
concentration or type of the conductivity. These measurements will not reveal whether the
conductivity is due to the electrons and holes. Therefore it is very difficult to distinguish between
P type and N type semiconductor.
The Hall Effect is used to overcome these problems. When a semiconductor material carrying a
current is placed perpendicular to a magnetic field, potential difference is developed in the
conductor in the direction perpendicular to both the electric and magnetic fields. This
phenomenon is known as Hall Effect.

Let Ix be the current flowing through the specimen along the X direction and Bz be the transverse
magnetic field applied along the z direction. An electric field Ey is induced in a direction
perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as HALL
EFFECT, and the voltage develop is called hall voltage.

Fig.1.a. (Flow of Current in Fig.1.b. (Flow of Current in

Semiconductor in Absence Semiconductors in Presence
of Magnetic Field) of Magnetic Field e.g. Hall
Effect)

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5.1 Explanation of the Phenomenon

Consider a conducting slab as shown in the following figure, with length L in the x direction,
width w in the y direction and thickness t in the z direction.

Fig.2(Diagram Showing Hall Effect)

Assume the conductor to have charge carrier of charge q (can be either positive or negative or
both, but we take it to be of just one sign here), charge carrier number density n (i.e., number of
carriers per unit volume), and charge carrier drift velocity V x when a current flows in the positive
x direction. The drift velocity is an average velocity of the charge carriers over the volume of the
conductor; each charge carrier may move in a seemingly random way within the conductor, but
under the impudence of applied electric field there will be a net transport of carriers along the
length of the conductor. The current Ix is the current density Jx times the cross-sectional area of
the conductor. The current density Jx is the charge density nq times the drift velocity Vx. In other
words

(1)

The current Ix is caused by the application of an electric field along the length of the conductor
E. In the case where the current is directly proportional to the field, we say that the material
obeys Ohm’s law which may be written

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 (2)

Where σ as is the conductivity of the material in the conductor.

Now assume that the conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the
slab. The charge carriers will experience a Lorentz force qvB that will deflect them toward one
side of the slab. The result of this deflection is to cause an accumulation of charges along one
side of the slab which creates a transverse electric field Eyi that counteracts the force of the
magnetic field (Recall that the force of an electric field on a charge q is qE).

When steady state is reached, there will be no net flow of charge in the y direction, since the
electrical and magnetic forces on the charge carriers in that direction must be balanced.
Assuming these conditions, it is easy to show that

(3)

Where Ey is the electric field developed in the material, and is called the Hall field in the y
direction and B the magnetic field in the z direction. In an experiment, we measure the potential
difference across the sample the Hall voltage Vz which is related to the Hall field by H

(4)
After solving the equations (1), (3) and (4), we will get

(5)

The term in parenthesis is known as the Hall coefficient:

RH=1/nq

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It is positive if the charge carriers are positive and negative if the charge carriers are negative. In
practice, the polarity of the hall coefficient determines the sign of the charge carriers. Note that
the SI units of the Hall coefficient are [M3/C] or more commonly stated [M3/A-s].

5.2 Significance of Hall Effect:

The idea of Hall Effect is utilized to determine:-

a. Types of an unknown semiconductor; whether n type or P-type

b. Mobility of the semiconductor,
c. Conductivity
d. Resistivity of the semiconductor.
e. Hall voltage and drift current.
f. Hall Effect is also used in magnetically activated electronic switches.
g. Hall effect semiconducting devices are used as sensor to sense Magnetic fields.

5.3 Hall Effect experiment

5.3.1 Objectives:
1. To study Hall Effect and to determine,
(i) Hall voltage VH
(ii) Hall coefficient
2. To determine the type of majority carrier’s i.e. whether the semiconductor crystal
is of n-type or p-type.
3. To determine the charge carrier density or carrier concentration per unit volume in
the Semiconductor crystal.
4. To determine the magnitude of Pointing Vector.
5. To determine the Hall angle.
6. Mobility of charge carriers.
7. Resistivity of the sample.

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5.4 Hall Effect Experiment Setup:

Apparatus: INDOSAW SK006 Hall Effect apparatus

It consists of:
I. Power supply for electromagnet,
i. Specifications: 0-16 V, 5 Amps.

II. Power supply,

i. Specifications: 0-20 mA

III. Gauss meter with Hall Probe

1. Semiconductor p-type Ge crystal mounted on PCB

i. Specification:
P-type Ge crystal
Thickness 0.5 mm
Width 4.0mm
Length 6.0 mm

2. Multimeter with mV scale for measuring Hall voltage.

3. Hand held Multimeter with mm scale for measuring current through the
sample.

4. Hall Effect apparatus (electromagnet, pole, pieces and pillars) consists Of two 500 turns
coil.

Page 22
Fig.3 Hall Effect set-up (CIPET Bhubaneswar)

Fig.4 (Block Diagram for Experimental Setup)

Page 23
5.5 Observations:

Width of the specimen, b =4mm =10-3 m

Length of the specimen, L = 6mm =10-3m

Thickness of specimen, t = 0.0005 m

Least count for Ammeter = 0.01 mA

Least count for voltmeter = 0.1 mV

Least count for gauss meter = 0.1 Gauss

Fig.5 (PCB with p-type Ge crystal)

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 5.6 Table for Hall Voltage:

Current B=280 B=240, B=200, B=160,

S.No I (mA) ,VH Vh/I VH Vh/I VH Vh/I VH Vh/I
1 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 1
2 1 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6

3 1.5 1.1 0.73333333 1.1 0.733333333 1 0.666666667 0.8 0.533333

4 2 1.5 0.75 1.4 0.7 1.3 0.65 1.1 0.55
5 2.5 1.9 0.76 1.7 0.68 1.6 0.64 1.3 0.52

6 3 2.2 0.73333333 2.1 0.7 1.9 0.633333333 1.5 0.5

7 3.5 2.6 0.74285714 2.4 0.685714286 2.2 0.628571429 1.8 0.514286

8 4 3 0.75 2.7 0.675 2.5 0.625 2.1 0.525

9 4.5 3.4 0.75555556 3 0.666666667 2.8 0.622222222 2.3 0.511111

10 5 3.8 0.76 3.4 0.68 3.1 0.62 2.6 0.52

11 5.5 4.1 0.74545455 3.8 0.690909091 3.4 0.618181818 2.9 0.527273

12 6 4.5 0.75 4.1 0.683333333 3.7 0.616666667 3.1 0.516667

13 6.5 4.9 0.75384615 4.5 0.692307692 4.1 0.630769231 3.4 0.523077

14 7 5.3 0.75714286 4.9 0.7 4.4 0.628571429 3.6 0.514286

15 7.5 5.8 0.77333333 5.3 0.706666667 4.7 0.626666667 3.9 0.52

16 8 6.1 0.7625 5.6 0.7 5 0.625 4.1 0.5125

17 8.5 6.6 0.77647059 5.9 0.694117647 5.3 0.623529412 4.4 0.517647

18 9 7 0.77777778 6.2 0.688888889 5.5 0.611111111 4.6 0.511111

19 9.5 7.5 0.78947368 6.6 0.694736842 5.8 0.610526316 4.9 0.515789

20 10 7.9 0.79 7 0.7 6.1 0.61 5.1 0.51

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A graph was plotted between Hall voltage (VH) Vs current (I) as follow:

Hall Voltage Vs. Current

9
8
7
Hall Voltage (mV)

6
5 B = 2800 Gauss
4 B = 2400 Gauss

3 B = 2000 Gauss

2 B = 1600 Gauss

1
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
Appled Current (mA)

5.7 Calculation:
1. Mean value of VH / I= 0.668270614 ohms
2. Mean Hall coefficient RH= VH t/ I x B
= 0.00154557 V m / A T

3 Carrier concentration n = 1/(1.6 x 10-19 x RH)

= 4.04381555 x 1023

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5.8 Table for Resistivity:

S.N Current Distance between two points VL (mV) VL / I ρ = VLBt /L

I (mA) between which potential difference (10-3)
is measured L (m)
1 0.1 0.34 3.400 2.346
2 0.2 0.64 3.200 2.208
3 0.3 0.97 3.230 2.229
4 0.4 1.27 3.175 2.191
5 0.5 2.9 x 10-3 1.58 3.160 2.181
6 0.6 1.91 3.167 2.185
7 0.7 2.21 3.157 2.178
8 0.8 2.53 3.163 2.183
9 0.9 2.83 3.144 2.169
10 1.0 3.14 3.140 2.167
Mean ρ = 2.2037x10-3Ω m

Resistivity is calculated from the Tabulated Data as above is about ρ = 2.2037 x 10-3 Ω m.
4 Mobility of carriers µm = RH / ρ

= 0.00154557 /2.2037 x 10-3

= 7.0135227m2 V-1 s-1

5 Hall angle tanϴH= µm x B

=7.0135227 x0.76

=5.330277252

ϴH =79.37439462 0

Results: From the above analysis we obtained the following important results
1. Mean Hall coefficient RH = 0.00154557 V m / A T
2. Carrier concentration n = 4.04381555 x 1023
3. Mobility of carriers µm = 7.0135227m2 V-1 s-1

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 Chapter-6

FOUR PROBE EXPERIMENT:

THEORY:
This technique is also known four terminals sensing, four wire sensing. This method is used to
measure the resistivity of semiconductors. In its useful form, the four probes are collinear. The
error due to contact resistance, which is especially serious in the electrical measurement of
semiconductors, is avoided by the use of two extra contacts (probes) between the current
contacts. in this arrangement the contacts resistance may all be high compare to the sample
resistance, but as long as the resistance of the sample and contact resistances are small compared
with the effective resistance of the voltage measuring device (potentiometer, electrometer, or
electronic voltmeter), the measured value will remain unaffected. Because of the pressure
contacts, this is also especially use full or quick measurement on different samples or sampling
different parts of the same sample.

Apparatus: SK012- FOUR PROBE APPARATUS

6.1 Description of experimental setup: This setup consists a four probe arrangement
with a p-type Ge sample, oven. The basic unit contains digital display for voltmeter current and
temperature, is has in built power supply for oven. Following Figure shows various parts of
apparatus.

Specifications:

1-Probe Arrangement-
It has four individually spring loaded probes. The probes are collinear and equally
spaced. The probes are mounted in a Teflon bush, which ensure a good electrical
insulation between the probes. A Teflon spacer near the tips is also provided to keep the
probe at equal distance. The whole arrangement is mounted on a suitable stand and leads

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are provided for the voltage measurement. The probe distance is measured approximate s
= 2.4 mm.

Fig.6 (Four probe Circuit Connection)

Fig.7 (Four Probe Arrangement for Mounting Sample).

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 3- Sample:
P-type Ge crystal, 10x8x0.2 mm.
4- Oven:
It is a small oven for the variation of the temperature of the crystal from the room temperature to
about 2000C (max).
5- Four Probe Set-up:
The Set up consists of three units in the same cabinet.
(1) Digital Voltmeter
In this unit, intersil 3 ½ digit single chip A/D converter has been used. it has a high
accuracy like auto zero to less than 10µm, zero drift of less than 1µV/0C, input bias
current of 10pA max.
Specification:
Display: 7segment LED (12.5mmhight) with auto polarity and decimal indication,
Range: X1 (0-200.0mV) DC & X10 (0-2.00V) DC
Since the use of internal reference causes the degradation in the performance due to
internal heating.
Impedance: 1ΩM.
Accuracy: ±0.1% of reading ± digit.
(2) Constant Current Generator:
It is an IC regulated current generator to provide a constant current to the outer probe
irrespective of changing resistance of the sample due to change in temperatures. The
basic scheme is to use the feedback principle to limit the load current of the supply to
preset maximum value. The supply is a highly regulated and practically ripple free DC
source. The current is measured by the digital panel meter.
Specification:
Open circuit Voltage: 18V
Current range: 0 - 20mA
Resolution: 10µA

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 Load regulation: 0.03% for 0 to full load.
Accuracy: ±0.25% of the reading ±1 digit.
Display: 3 ½ digit, 7 segment LED (12.5mm height).

(3) Oven Power supply:

A suitable voltage for the oven is obtained through a step down transformer with a
provision for low and high rates of heating. A glowing LED indicates power supply is
“ON”.

Fig.8 (Four Probe Apparatus)

6.2 OBVERSATIONS:
(1) Current, I = 8.0 mA (constant).
(2) Distance between probes, s = 0.24 cm.
(3) Thickness of sample, w = 0.05 cm.

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6.3 Calculations:
(1) The temperature was converted from 0C to K with help of following expression

K = 273.15 + 0C (1)

(2) The correction factor f(w/s) is calculated from the following table:

w/s f(w/s)

0.100 13.863
0.141 9.704
0.200 6.931
0.333 4.159
0.500 2.780
1.000 1.504
1.414 1.223
2.000 1.094
3.333 1.023
5.000 1.007
10.00 1.0005

The value of w/s, =0.208, by the interpolation method:

(0.208-0.200)/(0.333-0.200) = (f(w/s)-6.931)/(4.195-6.931)

f (w/s) = 6.762736.

(3) The different values of ρ0 was calculated at different values of V, by using following

formula:

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 ρ0 = V x 2πs/I, (2)

(4) The values of resistivity (ρ) is calculated at different values of ρ0 at different

temperatures, by using following formula and an observation table is made as below:

ρ = ρ0 / f (w/s), (3)

6.4 TABLE FOR RESISTIVITY Vs TEMPERATURE:

S.N Temperat Temperat Voltage T-1 *103 ρ (Ω cm) Log10ρ

ure (0C) ure T(K) (mV)

1 120 393 7 2.544529262 0.97515528 -0.01093

2 115 388 8.6 2.577319588 1.198047915 0.078474
3 110 383 10.1 2.610966057 1.40700976 0.148297
4 105 378 11.8 2.645502646 1.643833185 0.215858
5 100 373 13.6 2.680965147 1.8945874 0.277515
6 95 368 15.7 2.717391304 2.187133984 0.339875
7 90 363 18 2.754820937 2.507542147 0.399248
8 85 358 20.3 2.793296089 2.827950311 0.451472
9 80 353 22.7 2.83286119 3.162289264 0.500002
10 75 348 24.7 2.873563218 3.440905058 0.536673
11 70 343 26.4 2.915451895 3.677728483 0.56558
12 65 338 27.6 2.958579882 3.844897959 0.584885
13 60 333 28.1 3.003003003 3.914551908 0.592682
14 55 328 28.2 3.048780488 3.928482697 0.594225
15 50 323 27.9 3.095975232 3.886690328 0.58958
16 45 318 27.4 3.144654088 3.81703638 0.581726
17 40 313 26.6 3.194888179 3.705590062 0.568857

(5)The temperature(T) and resistivty (ρ) are converted in T-1 x103 and log10ρ respectively.

(6)A graph is plotted between (T-1x103) and (log10ρ) as below:

The slope of the graph is calculated :

slope = 1.677582918

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 0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
log10(Rho)

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
2.54 2.58 2.61 2.65 2.68 2.72 2.75 2.79 2.83 2.87 2.92 2.96 3.00 3.05 3.10 3.14 3.19

-0.1
(1/T)*10^3

Fig.9 (Variation of Resistivty of p-type Ge Crystal)

(7) The energy band gap of p-type Ge is calculated by following formula:

Eg =(( 2 K x 2.3026 x log10 ρ) / T-1 ) eV

Where K=8.6 x 10-5 eV / deg, then-

Eg = 2 x 8.6 x 10-5 x 2.3026 x slope x 103 e V

Eg =0.396 x slope
Eg = 0.396 x 1.677582918
Eg = 0.664322835 eV

Page 34
 Chapter-7
APPLICATION OF HALL EFFECT:
7.1 Hall Effect Sensor:

The Hall Effect is an ideal sensing technology. The Hall element is constructed from a thin sheet
of conductive material with output connections perpendicular to the direction of current flow.
When subjected to a magnetic field, it responds with an output voltage proportional to the
magnetic field strength. The voltage output is very small (µV) and requires additional electronics
to achieve useful voltage levels.
When the Hall element is combined with the associated electronics, it forms a Hall Effect
sensor. The heart of every MICRO SWITCH Hall effect device is the integrated circuit chip that
contains the Hall element and the signal conditioning electronics.
Although the Hall Effect sensor is a magnetic field sensor, it can be used as the Principle
component in many other types of sensing devices (current, temperature, pressure, position, etc.).
Hall Effect sensors can be applied in many types of sensing devices. If the quantity (parameter)
to be sensed incorporates or can incorporate a magnetic field, a HallSensor will perform the task.

Fig.1 (Block diagram of general sensor based on Hall Effect)

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7.2 Basics Hall Effect sensors

The Hall element is the basic magnetic field sensor. It requires signal conditioning to make the
output usable for most applications. The signal conditioning electronics needed are amplifier
stage and temperature compensation. Voltage regulation is needed when operating from an
unregulated supply. Fig.2 illustrates a basic Hall Effect sensor. If the Hall voltage is measured
when no magnetic field is present, the output is zero.
However, if voltage at each output terminal is measured with respect to ground, a non-zero
voltage will appear. This is the common mode voltage (CMV), and is the same at each output
terminal. It is the potential difference that is zero. The amplifier shown in Fig.3 must be a
differential amplifier so as to amplify only the potential difference – the Hall voltage.

Fig.2 (Hall element orientation)

Fig.3 (Differential Amplifier)

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7.3 Analog output sensors

The sensor described in Fig.3 is a basic analog output device. Analog sensors provide an output
voltage that is proportional to the magnetic field to which it is exposed. Although this is a
complete device, additional circuit functions were added to simplify the application. The sensed
magnetic field can be either positive or negative. As a result, the output of the amplifier will be
driven either positive or negative, thus requiring both plus and minus power supplies. To avoid
the requirement for two power supplies, a fixed offset or bias is introduced into the differential
amplifier. The bias value appears on the output when no magnetic field is present and is referred
to as a null voltage. When a positive magnetic field is sensed, the output increases above the null
voltage. Conversely,
When a negative magnetic field is sensed, the output decreases below the null voltage, but
remains positive. This concept is illustrated in Fig.4.

The output of the amplifier cannot exceed the limits imposed by the power supply. In fact, the
amplifier will begin to saturate before the limits of the power supply are reached. This saturation
is illustrated in Fig.4. It is important to note that this saturation takes place in the amplifier and
not in the Hall element. Thus, large magnetic fields will not damage the Hall Effect sensors, but
rather drive them into saturation.
To further increase the interface flexibility of the device, an open emitter, open collector, or
push-pull transistor is added to the output of the differential amplifier. Fig.5 shows a complete
analog output Hall Effect sensor incorporating all of the previously discussed circuit functions.
The basic concepts pertaining to analog output sensors have been established. Both the manner
in which these devices are specified and the implication of the specifications follow.

7.4 Output vs. power supply characteristics

Analog output sensors are available in voltage ranges of 4.5 to 10.5, 4.5 to 12, or 6.6 to 12.6
VDC. They typically require a regulated supply voltage to operate accurately. Their output is
usually of the push-pull type and is ratio metric to the supply voltage with respect to offset and
gain.

Page 37
Fig.4 (Null Voltage Concept)

Fig.5 (Simple analog output sensor)

Page 38
 Fig.6 (Ratio metric linear output sensor)

Fig.6 Illustrates a ratio metric analog sensor that accepts a4.5 to 10.5 V supply. This sensor has a
sensitivity (mV/Gauss) and offset (V) proportional (ratio metric) to the supply voltage. This device has
“rail-to-rail” operation. That is, its output varies from almost zero (0.2 V typical) to almost the supply
voltage (Vs - 0.2 V typical).

7.5 Digital output sensors

The preceding discussion described an analog output sensor as a device having an analog output
proportional to its input. In this section, the digital Hall Effect sensor will be examined. This
sensor has an output that is just one of two states: ON or OFF. The basic analog output device
illustrated in (Fig.3) can be converted into a digital output sensor with the addition of a Schmitt
trigger circuit. Fig.7 illustrates a typical internally regulated digital output Hall Effect sensor.
The Schmitt trigger compares the output of the differential amplifier (Fig.7) with a preset
reference. When the amplifier output exceeds the reference, the Schmitt trigger turns on.
Conversely, when the output of the amplifier falls below the reference point, the output of the
Schmitt trigger turns off.

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 Fig.7 (Digital output Hall Effect sensor)

Hysteresis is included in the Schmitt trigger circuit for jitter-free switching. Hysteresis results
from two distinct reference values which depend on whether the sensor is being turned ON or
OFF.

7.6 Transfer function

The transfer function for a digital output Hall Effect sensor incorporating hysteresis is shown in
Fig.8. The principal input/output characteristics are the operate point, release point and the
difference between the two or differential. As the magnetic field is increased, no change in the
sensor output will occur until the operate point is reached. Once the operate point is reached, the
sensor will change state. Further increases in magnetic input beyond the operate point will have
no effect. If magnetic field is decreased to below the operate point, the output will remain the
same until the release point is reached.
At this point, the sensor’s output will return to its original state (OFF). The purpose of the
differential between the operate and release point (hysteresis) is to eliminate false triggering
which can be caused by minor variations in input. As with analog output Hall Effect sensors, an
output transistor is added to increase application flexibility. This output transistor is typically
NPN (current sinking). The fundamental characteristics relating to digital output sensors have

Page 40
been presented. The specifications and the effect these specifications have on product selection
follows.

Fig.8 (Transfer function hysteresis digital Hall Effect sensor)

7.7 Power supply characteristics

Digital output sensors are available in two different power supply configurations - regulated and
unregulated. Most digital Hall Effect sensors are regulated and can be used with power supplies
In the range of 3.8 to 24 VDC. Unregulated sensors are used in special applications. They require
a regulated DC supply of 4.5to 5.5 volts (5± 0.5 v). Sensors that incorporate internal regulators
are intended for general purpose applications. Unregulated sensors should be used in conjunction
with logic circuits where a regulated 5 volt power supply is available.

7.8 Input characteristics

The input characteristics of a digital output sensor are defined in terms of an operate point,
release point, and differential. Since these characteristics change over temperature and from
sensor to sensor, they are specified in terms of maximum and minimum values. Maximum
Operate Point refers to the level of magnetic field that will insure the digital output sensor turns
ON under any rated condition. Minimum Release Point refers to the level of magnetic field that

Page 41
insures the sensor is turned OFF.Figure-7 shows the input characteristics for a typical uni polar
digital output sensor. The sensor shown is referred to as uni polar since both the maximum
operate and minimum release points are positive (i.e. South Pole of magnetic field).
A bipolar sensor has a positive maximum operate point (South Pole) and a negative minimum
release point (North Pole). The transfer functions are illustrated in Fig.9. Note that thereare three
combinations of actual operate and release points possible with a bipolar sensor. A true latching
device, represented as bi polar device 2, will always have a positive operate point and a negative
point.

Fig.9 (Uni polar Input Characteristics, Digital Output Sensor )

7.9 Output characteristics

The output characteristics of a digital output sensor are defined as the electrical characteristics of
the output transistor. These include type (i.e. NPN), maximum current, breakdown voltage, and
switching time.

Page 42
 Fig.10 (Bipolar input characteristics Digital output sensor)

7.10 Why use the Hall Effect sensors?

The reasons for using a particular technology or sensor vary according to the application. Cost,
performance and availability are always considerations. The features and benefits of a given
technology are factors that should be weighed along with
The specific requirements of the application in making this decision. General features of Hall
Effect based sensing devices are:
 True solid state
 Long life (30 billion operations in a continuing keyboard module test program
 High speed operation - over 100 kHz possible
 Operates with stationary input (zero speed)
 No moving parts
 Logic compatible input and output
 Broad temperature range (-40 to +150°C)
 Highly repeatable operation

Page 43
Conclusion:
By using the Hall Effect apparatus and Four Probe apparatus we have calculated following
parameters which are as follow, Mean Value of (VH/I) = 0.668270614Ω, Hall Resistivity (RH)
=0.00154557Vm/AT, Carrier concentration (n) = 4.04381555 x 1023m-3, Resistivity ρ =
2.202483x10-3Ωm Mobility µB = 7.0135227 m2V-1s-1 and Hall angle ӨH = 79.37439462 0,
Band Gap = 0.664322835 eV and resistivity at different temperatures of the samples.
These results are useful in so many applications such as Hall Effect based Motion Sensing
Devices, Linear Hall ICs, Hall Effect Fan Motor Drivers, and Hall Effect Switches
And the work that can be done in the future on our project is as follows;

1- Facilitating easy installation of monitoring device by using alternatives like non-invasive

CT Sensor.
2- Implementing the Control Objective on every possible electrical appliance.
3- Blood Pressure Monitoring Devices.
4- Produce a digital signal
5- Used for current sensor
6- Automotive fuel level indicator
7- Spacecraft propulsion
8- Smart phones use hall sensor to determine if the flip cover accessory is closed.

Page 44
References:
1. Material Science by S.L.KAKANI, AMIT KAKANI; 5; 155-167, 15; 488-500.
2. Materials Science by V Rajendran; 7; 146-157, 10; 241-264.
o The Science and Engineering of Materials by Donald R. Askelandi, Pradeep P.
Fully, Wendelin J. Wright, Kandelin Balani; 20; 763-785.
3. Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction by William D.Callister, Jr. David G.
Rethwisch; 17; 623-659.
4. Advance Electrical and Electronics materials Processes and Application by K.M.Guptai
and Nishu Gupta.6; 185-229.
5. Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization, By Dieter K. Schroder 3rd Edition
(Arizona State University Tempe AZ, IEEE Press New Jersey 2006) chapter 2 page 94.
6. Electrons in Metals and Semiconductors, by R.G.Chambers (Chapman and Hall, London
1990) chapter 1 and 2.
7. Introduction to Solid State Physics, by Charles Kittle, Seventh edition (Wiley, New York
1996) chapter 6 and 7.
8. Band theory and electronic properties of Solids, by John Sinletoni (oxford university
press, 2001) chapter 1.
9. Electronics: Theory and Application by S.L.Kakani and K.C.Bhandr (3rdEdition: 2004).
10. S.L.Kakani and C.Hemrajanii, Solid State Physics(4th Edition:2004).
11. Rolf T.Hunnel, Electronic property of materials.(Springer, New York, 1993)
12. Hall E H 1879 Am. J. Sci (3rd), 20;161-186.
13. Hall E H 1880 Am. J. Mat. 22; 87-92.
14. Van Der Pauw, L.J (1958), “A method of measuring specific resistivity and Hall Effect of
arbitrary shape- Philips Research Report”, 13;1-9.

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