Mine Surveying In-Pit Survey

In Pit Survey
Overview:
In-pit Survey: Setting out a point of known rectangular co-ordinate. Control of directions and gradients for inclined
shafts, slopes, levels and tunnels. Maintaining alignments, simple curve laying underground, laying out and fixing of
mine boundaries claims, subsidence surveys on surface and underground. Volume calculations.

1. Setting out a point of known coordinate

What is Setting out?
Setting out is a reverse procedure of surveying. Surveying may be defined as the ‘science of determining the position,
in three dimensions, of natural and man-made objects or features on or beneath the surface of the Earth’ and draw/ plot
it on a paper/ plan. On the other hand, setting-out is process that involves defining or transferring the actual location,
size and shape of a proposed/ planned civil engineering project from drawing/ plan to actual site, such as building,
bridge, road, dam, railway line etc.
So, it begins in a layout plan (drawing or demarcation plan) and ends up to the actual site (ground), with some
particular project correctly positioned on the area (site). Setting out is also known as Stake out.
When is Setting out done?
When building a new Civil/ Mining Structure.
When renovating or extending an existing Structure.

Aims of Setting Out

The new structure must be correct in all three dimensions both relatively and absolutely.

i) i.e. at correct level, size, plan and position.

ii) Once setting out begins it must proceed swiftly with little delay so that costs can be minimised.
General principles of Setting out:
a) Vertical control (bench marks) must be within or near the design area.
b) Horizontal control points must be established within or near the design area.
c) Accurate positioning techniques must be adopted to establish design points from horizontal and vertical control.
Basic Tasks in Setting out (Horizontal Control):
i) Setting Out of a point
ii) Setting Out of a line
iii) Prolongation of a line
iv) Setting Out of Angles
v) Setting out of lines disturbed by obstacles
Basic Tasks in Setting out (Vertical Control):
i) Transfer of height
ii) Setting out a horizontal line
iii) Setting out a gradient line
iv) Setting out a contour line
Common methods of Setting Out Survey (Horizontal Control):
1. Setting out by Orthogonal coordinates (Offsets)
2. Setting out by Polar co-ordinates.

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3. Setting out by Intersections (Angle of Intersection 30o <<150o)

Common methods of Setting Out Survey (Vertical Control):

1. Setting out with theodolite and level (Ordinary levelling)
2. Checking verticality (Projected heights e.g. in Mining Surveying)
3. Trigonometric Heighting (Alignment and verticality in form work)
4. Control and calculation for route surveying
 Apart from that, it is of prime importance that the establishment and referencing of survey control stations should
be carried out at such places and in such a manner that they will survive the construction processes. This entails
careful choice of the locations of the control stations and their construction relative to their importance and long- or
short-term requirements.

Procedure of Setting out a point of known coordinate

Plans are generally produced on a plane rectangular coordinate system, and hence salient points of the design may also
be defined in terms of rectangular coordinates on the same system.

 Horizontal positions in geographic or plane coordinate systems relative to previously surveyed positions called
control points.

The basic methods of locating position of a point of known coordinates are either by polar coordinates or by
intersection.

A. Setting out by Polar co-ordinates (r, θ)

Let us assume that the point of known coordinate is P (x, y) {= (r, θ)}, along with the control stations A, B and C as
shown in the Figure 1. Thus, it is required to locate point P whose design coordinates are also known. The procedure is
as follows:

(1) From coordinates compute the bearing of line joining points B and A (BA, this bearing may already be known from
the initial control survey computations).
(2) From coordinates compute the horizontal length (L) and bearing of BP (∠NBP).
(3) From the two bearings compute the setting-out angle ∠ABP = Bearing of BA (∠NBA) - Bearing of BP (∠NBP),
i.e. β
(4) Before proceeding into the field, draw a neat sketch of the situation showing all the setting-out data.
Check the data from the plan or by independent computation.

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Figure 1. Setting out a point P by polar coordinates

The field work involved is as follows:

(1) Set up theodolite at control station B and backsight to control station A, note the horizontal circle reading
(assume α).
(2) Add the angle β to the circle reading BA to obtain the circle reading line of BP i.e. α+ β. Set this reading
on the theodolite to establish direction of BP and measure out the horizontal distance L (obtained from plan).

B. Setting out by Intersections

(1) From the coordinates of A, B and P compute the bearings of lines AB, AP and BP.
(2) From the bearings compute the angles α and β.
The relevant field work, assuming two theodolites are available, is as follows:
(1) Set up a theodolite at A, backsight to B and turn off the angle α (Bearing of line AB- Bearing of line AP).
(2) Set up a theodolite at B, backsight to A and turn off the angle β (Bearing of line BA- Bearing of line BP).
The intersection of the sight lines AP and BP locates the position of P. The angle δ (Bearing of line PA-
Bearing of line PB) is measured as a check on the setting out.

Figure 2. Setting out a point P by Intersection

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If only one theodolite is available then two pegs per sight line are established, as in Figure 2, and then string
(thread/ rope/ white line) lines connecting each opposite pair of pegs locate position P, as in Figure 2.

2. Control of directions and gradients for inclined shafts, slopes, levels and tunnels
The control of direction and gradient in Inclined shafts, slopes, levels and tunnels involves setting out of
different horizontal and vertical curves or some combinations of it. These curves have

Curve Designation:
Curves are designated/ described either by their radius (R) or Degree of Curvature (D).

Degree of Curvature (D): It is defined as the angle subtended by an arc of 100 m at the centre of the circle.

100 ×180 °
R=
D×π

The difference of the bearings of the straights provides the deflection angles (∆) of the curves which,
combined with the tangent length, enables computation of the curve radius, through chainage and all setting-
out data.

Control of direction:
Methods:

1. Setting out with Rankie’s method or Tangential Angles

2. Setting out with theodolite and tape/ chord and angles

Vertical Control: Control of Gradient

Control of Gradient includes maintaining a level or an inclination of a civil or mining structure such as roads,
building’s roof & floor, haulage roadways, haul road etc. It involves transferring the height of established
Bench Mark to sites.

There are two ways for vertical control in setting out:

1. Setting out with theodolite and level (Ordinary levelling)

2. Checking verticality (Projected heights e.g. in Mining Surveying)
3. Trigonometric Heighting (Alignment and verticality in form work)
4. Control and calculation for route surveying

Using a plumb-bob
In low-rise construction a heavy plumb-bob (5 to 10 kg) may be used as shown in Figure 10.13. If the
external wall was perfectly vertical then, when the plumb-bob coincides with the centre of the peg, distance d
at the top level would equal the offset distance of the peg at the base. This concept can be used internally as
well as externally, provided that holes and openings are available.

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3. Subsidence Survey on surface and underground

Refer Lab Manual.

4. Volume Calculations
Apart from the mine surveying activities discussed in the earlier sections, another important activity usually performed
by the mine surveyor is volume determination. For example, during a tunnel construction, as-built surveys are required
to check tolerances of tunnel structures. Surveys are also carried out in completed tunnels to check if sufficient
clearances are available for the installation of pipelines, lighting, ventilation, and so on. The surveys are to provide a
record of existing structures and the as-constructed condition of the tunnel. As-built surveys of a tunnel should be
implemented in two steps as follows:

(i) Survey the finished tunnel before and after the breakthrough.

(ii) Check if the existing tunnels have been built to within allowable tolerances,

and if the design tolerances are exceeded, to see if it is possible to realign the tunnel without remedial work to the
existing structures. In this case, cross sections at regular intervals along the whole length of the tunnel are surveyed.

Accurate and cost-effective surveying method applied by surveyors in checking profiles is using reflectorless total
stations by which coordinated points on the tunnel surface are automatically recorded, processed, and analyzed on
computers in the field.

All of the field data are stored electronically in the form of three-dimensional coordinates in the total stations, and the
accuracy between 5 and 10 mm is expected. Based on the cross-section database, volume of excavation and materials
are computed.

Whether underground or on the earth surface, mining involves moving volumes of material from one place to another.
Mapping the changes made by the mining activity and determining the volumes moved is a daily job of mining
surveyors. Nowadays, for underground and open-pit operations, laser scanning systems, reflector-less total station
equipment, GPS surveys, and terrestrial photogrammetry are used for daily mine volume determinations. One approach
for volume determination for underground operations can be described as follows:

1. Observe cross-section profiles at measured intervals (with distance between each cross section being d 12, d23, etc.).

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Figure 3. Single cross section profile of an underground excavation

2. Determine the cross-sectional areas using coordinate method based on local x–y coordinate system established for
each cross section. A typical cross section with the local x–y coordinate system is shown in Figure 3. The area (A) of
this cross section can be given using coordinate approach as

A = [(x1y2 + x2y3 + · · ·+xn−1yn + xny1) − (x1yn + xnyn−1 + · · ·+x3y2 + x2y1)] /2

3. Compute volumes between cross sections as shown in Figure using average end-area method:

The individual cross-section/end-area volumes are given as follows:

V12 = d12(A1 + A2)/ 2

V23 = d23(A2 + A3)/2

V34 = d34(A3 + A4)/2

where V12, V23, V34 are the individual cross-section/end-area volumes.

Figure 4. Different cross sections of mining excavations for volume determination

4. Compute the total volume (VT) by the sum of the cross-section/end-area volumes:

VT = V12 + V23 + V34 + · · ·+Vn−1,n