220/11kV VENKATA NAGAR SUBSTATION

ELECTRICITY DEPARTMENT
GOVERNMENT OF PUDUCHERRY

IT’S OPERATION WITH SMART GRID AND SCADA

Submitted by
V.S.SITHARTHA SOURYA

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI
 ABSTRACT

The report gives an overview of 220kv power substation. It includes electricity transmission
and distribution processes at Venkata Nagar substation,Puducherry. Its substation, an
assembly of apparatus is installed to control transmission and distribution of electric power.
Different equipments used in substation are Bus-bar, surge arrestor, Isolator, Earth switches,
Current Transformers etc. Transformer which is being used here is core and shell type
transformer for stepping up and down purposes. Different Instruments transformers, voltage,
Current and CV transformers are also being used. Finally the CVT rating which gives a total
output overview.

It also explains how smart grid and SCADA are used to use power economically
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CH.NO. TOPIC NAME

1. INTRODUCTION
2. ABOUT SUBSTATION
 Definition
 Sub-Station
 Types of Substation
 220/132 KV sub-station  About the substation
3. SELECTION OF SITE
4. EQUIPMENT IN A 220KV SUB-STATION
 Bus-bar
 Insulators
 Isolating Switches
 Circuit breaker
 Protective relay
 Instrument Transformer
 Current Transformer
 Voltage Transformer
 Capacitor Voltage Transformer
 Metering and Indicating Instrument
 Miscellaneous equipment
 Transformer
 Lightning arrestors
 Line isolator  Wave trap
5. SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
6. TRANSFORMER
7. INSULATOR
8. CIRCUIT BREAKER & ISOLATOR
9. CONTROL AND RELAY ROOM
10. WAVE TRAP
11. SMART GRID
12. CONCLUSION
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
The present-day electrical power system is ac i.e. electric power is generated, transmitted and
distributed in the form of Alternating current. The electric power is produced at the power
station, which are located at favorable places, generally quite away from the consumers. It is
delivered to the consumer through a large network of transmission and distribution. At any
place in the line of power system, it may be desirable and necessary to change some
characteristic (e.g. Voltage, ac to dc, frequency power factor etc.) of electric supply. This is
accomplished by suitable apparatus called sub-station for example, generation voltage (11KV
or 6.6KV) at the power station is stepped up to high voltage (Say 220KV to 132KV) for
transmission of electric power.
Similarly near the consumer’s localities, the voltage may have to be stepped down to utilization
level. This job is again accomplished by suitable sub-station.
 CHAPTER-2
ABOUT THE SUBSTATION

1. Definition of sub-station:
“The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristics (e.g. Voltage ac to dc freq. p.f. etc)
of electric supply is called sub-station”

2. Sub-Station:
A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system.
Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several
other important functions. Between the generating station and consumer, electric power may
flow through several substations at different voltage levels.

Substations may be owned and operated by an electrical utility, or may be owned by a large
industrial or commercial customer. Generally substations are unattended, relying on SCADA
for remote supervision and control.

A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high transmission
voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different
transmission voltages. The word substation comes from the days before the distribution
system became a grid. As central generation stations became larger, smaller generating plants
were converted to distribution stations, receiving their energy supply from a larger plant
instead of using their own generators. The first substations were connected to only one power
station, where the generators were housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station.

3. Types of Substation:
Substations may be described by their voltage class, their applications within the power
system, the method used to insulate most connections, and by the style and materials of the
structures used. These categories are not disjointed; to solve a particular problem, a
transmission substation may include significant distribution functions, for example.
• Transmission substation
• Distribution substation
• Collector substation
• Converter substation
• Switching station

Transmission substation:
A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where
all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, substation contains high-voltage
switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A
transmission station may have transformers to convert between two transmission voltages,
voltage control/power factor correction devices such as capacitors, reactors or static VAR
compensators and equipment such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow
between two adjacent power systems.

Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small "switching station" may
be little more than a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest transmission substations can
cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers
and a large amount of protection and control equipment (voltage and current transformers,
relays and SCADA systems). Modern substations may be implemented using international
standards such as IEC Standard 61850.

Distribution substation:
A distribution substation in Scarborough, Ontario disguised as a house, complete with a
driveway, front walk and a mown lawn and shrubs in the front yard. A warning notice can be
clearly seen on the "front door". Disguises for substations are common in many cities.

A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution
system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the main
transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution station
reduces voltage to a level suitable for local distribution.

The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub-
transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is common in the
area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage,
between 2.4 kV and 33 kV depending on the size of the area served and the practices of the
local utility. The feeders run along streets overhead (or underground, in some cases) and
power the distribution transformers at or near the customer premises.

In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also isolate faults in either the
transmission or distribution systems. Distribution substations are typically the points of
voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits (of several miles/kilometers),
voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.
The downtown areas of large cities feature complicated distribution substations, with high
voltage switching, and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side. More typical
distribution substations have a switch, one transformer, and minimal facilities on the low-
voltage side.

Collector substation:
In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation may be required.
It resembles a distribution substation although power flow is in the opposite direction, from
many wind turbines up into the transmission grid. Usually for economy of construction the
collector system operates around 35 kV, and the collector substation steps up voltage to a
transmission voltage for the grid. The collector substation can also provide power factor
correction if it is needed, metering and control of the wind farm. In some special cases a
collector substation can also contain an HVDC converter station.

Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants of
comparable output power are in proximity. Examples for such substations are Brauweiler in
Germany and Hradec in the Czech Republic, where power is collected from nearby lignite-
fired power plants. If no transformers are required for increase of voltage to transmission
level, the substation is a switching station.

Converter substation:
Converter substations may be associated with HVDC converter plants, traction current, or
interconnected non-synchronous networks. These stations contain power electronic devices
to change the frequency of current, or else convert from alternating to direct current or the
reverse. Formerly rotary converters changed frequency to interconnect two systems; such
substations today are rare.

Switching station:
(Switchyard at Grand Coulee Dam, USA, 2006)

A switching station is a substation without transformers and operating only at a single voltage
level. Switching stations are sometimes used as collector and distribution stations. Sometimes
they are used for switching the current to backup lines or for parallelizing circuits in case of
failure. An example is the switching stations for the HVDC Inga–Shaba transmission line.

A switching station may also be known as a switchyard, and these are commonly located
directly adjacent to or nearby a power station. In this case the generators from the power
station supply their power into the yard onto the Generator Bus on one side of the yard, and
the transmission lines take their power from a Feeder Bus on the other side of the yard.
An important function performed by a substation is switching, which is the connecting and
disconnecting of transmission lines or other components to and from the system. Switching
events may be "planned" or "unplanned". A transmission line or other component may need
to be de-energized for maintenance or for new construction, for example, adding or removing
a transmission line or a transformer. To maintain reliability of supply, no company ever brings
down its whole system for maintenance. All work to be performed, from routine testing to
adding entirely new substations, must be done while keeping the whole system running.

Perhaps more important, a fault may develop in a transmission line or any other component. Some
examples of this:

A line is hit by lightning and develops an

arc

A tower is blown down by high wind.

The function of the switching station is to isolate the faulted portion of the system in the
shortest possible time. De-energizing faulted equipment protects it from further damage, and
isolating a fault helps keep the rest of the electrical grid operating with stability.

4. 220KV Sub-station :
220KV Sub-Station forms an important link between Transmission network and Distribution
network. It has a vital influence of reliability of service. Apart from ensuring efficient
transmission and Distribution of power, the sub-station configuration should be such that it
enables easy maintenance of equipment and minimize interruptions in power supply. Sub-
Station is constructed near as possible to the load center. The voltage level of power
transmission is decided on the quantum of power to be transmitted to the load center.

5. About the substation:

220 KV Venkata Nagar sub-station is the newly commissioned substation. The most important
of any substation is the grounding (Earthing System) of the instruments, transformers etc.
used in the substation for the safety of the operating personnel as well as for proper system
operation and performance of the protective devices. An earths system comprising of an
earthing mat buried at a suitable depth below ground and supplemented with ground rod sat
suitable points is provided in the substations. These ground the extra high voltage to the
ground as it is dangerous to us to go near the instrument without proper earth. If the
instruments are not ground properly they may give a huge shock to anyone who would stay
near it and also it is dangerous for the costly instrument as they may get damaged by this high
voltage.

CHAPTER-3
SELECTION OF SITE
Main points to be considered while selecting the site for Grid Sub-Station are as follows:

i) The site chosen should be as near to the load center as possible.

ii) It should be easily approachable by road or rail for transportation of
equipments.
iii) Land should be fairly leveled to minimize development cost.
iv) Source of water should be as near to the site as possible. This is because water
is required for various construction activities (especially civil works), earthing
and for drinking purposes etc.
v) The sub-station site should be as near to the town / city but should be clear of
public places, aerodromes, and Military / police installations.
vi) The land should be have sufficient ground area to accommodate substation
equipments, buildings, staff quarters, space for storage of material, such as
store yards and store sheds etc. with roads and space for future expansion. vii)
Set back distances from various roads such as National Highways, State
Highways should be observed as per the regulations in force.
viii) While selecting the land for the Substation preference to be given to the Govt.
land over private land.
ix) The land should not have water logging problem.
x) Far away from obstructions, to permit easy and safe approach/termination of high
voltage overhead transmission lines.
 CHAPTER-4
EQUIPMENT IN A 220KV SUB-STATION
The equipment required for a transformer Sub-Station depends upon the type of Sub-Station,
Service requirement and the degree of protection desired.

220KV EHV Sub-Station has the following major equipments:

 Bus-bar
 Insulators
 Isolating Switches
 Circuit breaker
 Protective relay
 Instrument Transformer
 Current Transformer
 Voltage Transformer
 Metering and Indicating Instrument
 Miscellaneous equipment
 Transformer
 Lightning arrestors
 Line isolator
 Wave trap
Bus-bar:
When the number of lines operating at the same voltage have to be directly connected
electrically, bus bars are used, it is made up of copper or aluminum bars (generally of
rectangular X-Section) and operate at constant voltage.

The bus is a line in which the incoming feeders come into and get into the instruments for
further step up or step down. The first bus is used for putting the incoming feeders in LA
single line. There may be double line in the bus so that if any fault occurs in the one the other
can still have the current and the supply will not stop. The two lines in the bus are separated
by a little distance by a Conductor having a connector between them. This is so that one can
work at a time and the other works only if the first is having any fault

Insulators:
The insulator serves two purpose, they support the conductor (or bus bar) and confine the
current to the conductor. The most commonly used material for the manufactures of insulators
is porcelain. There are several type of insulator (i.e. pine type, suspension type etc.) and there
used in Sub-Station will depend upon the service requirement.

Isolating Switches:
In Sub-Station, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for general maintenance and
repairs. This is accomplished by an isolating switch or isolator.

An isolator is essentially a knife Switch and is design to often open a circuit under no load, in
other words, isolator Switches are operate only when the line in which they are connected
carry no load. For example, consider that the isolator are connected on both side of a circuit
breaker, if the isolators are to be opened, the C.B. must be opened first.

Circuit breaker:
A circuit breaker is an equipment, which can open or close a circuit under normal as well as
fault condition. These circuit breaker breaks for a fault which can damage other instrument in
the station.

It is so designed that it can be operated manually (or by remote control) under normal conditions
and automatically under fault condition.
There are mainly two types of circuit breakers used for any substations. They are

(a) SF6 circuit breakers

(b)Spring circuit breakers

For the latter operation a relay which is used with a C.B. Generally bulk oil C.B. are used for
voltage up to 66 kV while for high voltage low oil & SF6 C.B. are used. For still higher
voltage, air blast vacuum or SF6 cut breaker are used.

The use of SF6 circuit breaker is mainly in the substations which are having high input kV
input, say above 220kV and more. The gas is put inside the circuit breaker by force i.e. under
high pressure.

When if the gas gets decreases there is a motor connected to the circuit breaker. The motor
starts operating if the gas goes lower than 20.8 bar. There is a meter connected to the breaker
so that it can be manually seen if the gas goes low. The circuit breaker uses the SF6 gas to
reduce the arc (arc quenching medium) produce in it due to any fault in the line. The circuit
breaker has a direct link with the instruments in the station, when any fault occur alarm bell
rings.

Protective relay:
A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the C.B. to
isolate the defective element from the rest of the system”. The relay detects the abnormal
condition in the electrical circuit by constantly measuring the electrical quantities, which are
different under normal and fault condition. The electrical quantities which may change under
fault condition are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle. Having detect the fault, the
relay operate to close the trip circuit of CB.

Instrument Transformer:
The line in Sub-station operate at high voltage and carry current of thousands of amperes. The
measuring instrument and protective devices are designed for low voltage (generally 110V)
and current (about 5A or 1A). Therefore, they will not work satisfactory if mounted directly
on the power lines. This difficulty is overcome by installing Instrument transformer, on the
power lines.
There are two types of instrument transformer-

1. Current Transformer:
A current transformer is essentially a step-down transformer which steps-down the current in
a known ratio, the primary of this transformer consist of one or more turn of thick wire
connected in series with the line, the secondary consist of thick wire connected in series with
line having large number of turn of fine wire and provides for measuring instrument, and relay
a current which is a constant faction of the current in the line. Current transformers are
basically used to take the readings of the currents entering the substation. This transformer
steps down the current from 600A to 1A. This is done because we have no instrument for
measuring of such a large current.

The main use of this transformer are:

(a) distance protection

(b) backup protection
(c) measurement

2. Potential Transformer:
It is essentially a step – down transformer and step down the voltage in known ratio. The primary
of these transformer consist of a large number of turn of fine wire connected across the line.
The secondary way consist of a few turns and provides for measuring instruments and relay a
voltage which is known fraction of the line voltage.

3. C V T:
A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT ) is a transformer used in power systems to step-down
extra high voltage signals and provide low voltage signals either for measurement or to
operate a protective relay. In its most basic form the device consists of three parts: two
capacitors across which the voltage signal is split, an inductive element used to tune the device
to the supply frequency and a transformer used to isolate and further step-down the voltage
for the instrumentation or protective relay. The device has at least four terminals, a high-
voltage terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal and at least one
set of secondary terminals for connection to the instrumentation or protective relay. CVTs are
typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one hundred kilovolts
where the use of voltage transformers would be uneconomical. In practice the first capacitor,
C1, is often replaced by a stack of capacitors connected in series. This results in a large voltage
drop across the stack of capacitors that replaced the first capacitor and a comparatively small
voltage drop across the second capacitor,C2, and hence the secondary terminals.

Metering and Indicating Instrument:

There are several metering and indicating Instrument (e.g. Ammeters, Volt-meters, energy
meter etc.) installed in a Substation to maintain which over the circuit quantities. The
instrument transformers are invariably used with them for satisfactory operation.

Miscellaneous equipment:
In addition to above, there may be following equipment in a Substation :

i) Fuses
ii) Carrier-current
equipment

iii) Sub-Station auxiliary

supplies

Transformer:
In case of a 220kV or more kV line station auto transformers are used. While in case of lower
kV line such as less than 132kV line double winding transformers are used Auto transformer.

Transformer is static equipment which converts electrical energy from one voltage to another.
As the system voltage goes up, the techniques to be used for the Design, Construction,
Installation, Operation and Maintenance also become more and more critical. If proper care
is exercised in the installation, maintenance and condition monitoring of the transformer, it
can give the user trouble free service throughout the expected life of equipment which of the
order of 25-35 years. Hence, it is very essential that the personnel associated with the
installation, operation or maintenance of the transformer is through with the instructions
provided by the manufacture diverted around the protected insulation in most cases to earth.
Auto transformer:
Transformer is static equipment which converts electrical energy from one voltage to another.
As the system voltage goes up, the techniques to be used for the Design, Construction,
Installation, Operation and Maintenance also become more and more critical. If proper care
is exercised in the installation, maintenance and condition monitoring of the transformer, it
can give the user trouble free service throughout the expected life of equipment which of the
order of 25-35 years. Hence, it is very essential that the personnel associated with the
installation operation or maintenance of the transformer is through with the instructions
provided by the manufacturer.

Basic principles:
The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an Electric current can produce a
magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil
of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing
the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing
magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

It is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively
coupled conductors — the transformer's coils. Except for air-core transformers, the
conductors are commonly wound around a single iron-rich core, or around separate but
magnetically - coupled cores. A varying current in the first or "primary" winding creates a
varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the transformer. This varying magnetic field
induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the "secondary" winding. This
effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding
and electrical energy will flow from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load.
In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion to
the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary to
the number of turns in the primary as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current
(AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped down" by making
NS less than NP.

Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden

inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect
portions of national power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the
range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers
in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices
designed for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage power
transmission, which makes long-distance transmission economically practical. Pole -mounted
single-phase transformer with center-tapped secondary. Note use of the grounded conductor
as one leg of the primary feeder.

Induction law:
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction,
which states that:

Where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil and
Φ equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic field strength
B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional
area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the
excitation. The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular
the primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to
the field due to current in the secondary circuit.

Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two
windings of zero resistance, when a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current
flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the core. The current required to create the
flux is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-
zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required to create the
magnetic field.

The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding. Since
the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltage
VP and VS measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs.
The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed
the "back EMF". This is due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would
always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.

Lightning Arrester:
To discharge the switching and lightning voltage surges to earth.

Wave trap:
Wave trap is an instrument using for tripping of the wave. The function of this trap is that it
traps the unwanted waves. Its function is of trapping wave. Its shape is like a drum. It is
connected to the main incoming feeder so that it can trap the waves which may be dangerous
to the instruments here in the substation.
 CHAPTER-5
SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM (SLD)
A Single Line Diagram (SLD) of an Electrical System is the Line Diagram of the concerned
Electrical System which includes all the required ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT connection
sequence wise from the point of entrance of Power up to the end of the scope of the mentioned
Work.

As these feeders enter the station they are to pass through various instruments. The instruments
have their usual functioning.

They are as follows in the single line diagram:

 Lightning arrestors
 CVT
 Wave trap
 Isolators with earth switch
 Circuit breaker
  BUS
 Potential transformer with a bus isolator
 Isolator
 Current transformer
 A capacitor bank attached to the bus

The line diagram of the substation:

Fig: single line diagram of 220 KV substation Venkata Nagar

This substation has the capacity of 220kv and can step down to 11kv
 CHAPTER-6
TRANSFORMER
Transformer is a static machine, which transform the potential of alternating current at
same frequency. It means the transformer transforms the low voltage into high voltage
and high voltage into low voltage at same frequency. It works on the principle of static
induction principle. When the energy transformed into higher voltage, the transformer is
called step-up transformer but in case of other is known as step-down transformer.

Fig: 220/11KV 31.5MVA Transformer at Venkatanagar sub-station





 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER:
 Power Transformer
 Instrument Transformer
 Auto Transformer

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER:

Fig: Instrument Transformer at Venkatanagar Sub-Station

 Auto Transformer:

 POWER TRANSFORMER:
o Single phase transformer
o Three phase transformer
 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER:
o Current transformer
o Potential transformer
 AUTO TRANSFORMER:
o Single phase transformer
o Three phase transformer
 On the basis of working:
o Step down: convert HIGH VOLTAGE into LOW
VOLTAGE

o Step up: convert LOW VOLTAGE into HIGH VOLTAGE

 On the basis of structure:
o Core Type o Shell Type
 CHAPTER-7
INSULATORS
An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely, and
therefore make it nearly impossible to conduct an electric current under the influence of
an electric field. This contrasts with other materials, semiconductors and conductors,
which conduct electric current more easily. The property that distinguishes an insulator is
its resistivity; insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors.

A perfect insulator does not exist, because even insulators contain small numbers of
mobile charges (charge carriers) which can carry current. In addition, all insulators
become electrically conductive when a sufficiently large voltage is applied that the
electric field tears electrons away from the atoms. This is known as the breakdown voltage
of an insulator. Some materials such as glass, paper and Teflon, which have high
resistivity, are very good electrical insulators. A much larger class of materials, even
though they may have lower bulk resistivity, are still good enough to prevent significant
current from flowing at normally used voltages, and thus are employed as insulation for
electrical wiring and cables. Examples include rubber-like polymers and most plastics.

Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical conductors
without allowing current through themselves. An insulating material used in bulk to wrap
electrical cables or other equipment is called insulation. The term insulator is also used
more specifically to refer to insulating supports used to attach electric power distribution
or transmission lines to utility poles and transmission towers. They support the weight of
the suspended wires without allowing the current to flow through the tower to ground.
INSULATING MATERIAL
The main cause of failure of overhead line insulator, is the flashover, occurs in between line and
earth during abnormal overvoltage in the system.

During the flashover, the huge heat produced by arching, causes puncher in insulator body.

PROPERTIES OF INSULATING MATERIAL:

For successful utilization, this material should have some specific properties as listed
below:

 It must be mechanically strong enough to carry tension and weight of conductors.

 It must have very high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage stresses in High Voltage
system.
 It must possessed high Insulation Resistance to prevent leakage current to the earth.
 The insulating material must be free from unwanted impurities.
 It should not be porous.
 There must not be any entrance on the surface of electrical insulator so that the moisture or
gases can enter in it.
 There physical as well as electrical properties must be less affected by changing
temperature.
TYPES OF INSULATING MATERIALS:
Two types of insulating material are mainly used:

i) Porcelain insulator
ii) Glass insulator

i) Porcelain insulator:

Porcelain in most commonly used material for overhead insulator in recent times. The
porcelain is aluminium silicate. The aluminium silicate is mixed with plastic kaolin, feldspar
and quartz to obtain final hard and glazed porcelain insulator material.

The surface of the insulator should be glazed enough so that water should not be traced on it.

Fig: porcelain insulator

ii) Glass insulator:

Nowadays glass insulator has become popular in transmission and distribution system. Annealed
tough glass is used for insulating purpose.
Fig; glass insulator

Advantages of Glass Insulator:

 It has very high dielectric strength compared to porcelain.
 Its resistivity is also very high.
 It has low coefficient of thermal expansion.
 It has higher tensile strength compared to porcelain insulator.
 As it is transparent in nature it is not heated up in sunlight as porcelain.
 The impurities and air bubble can be easily detected inside the glass insulator body because
of its transparency.
 Glass has very long service life as because mechanical and electrical properties of glass do
not be affected by ageing.
 After all, glass is cheaper than porcelain.

Disadvantages of Glass Insulator:

 Moisture can easily condensed on glass surface and hence air dust will be deposited on the
wed glass surface which will provide path to the leakage current of the system.
 For higher voltage glass can’t be cast in irregular shapes since due to irregular cooling
internal cooling internal strains are caused.
TYPES OF INSULATORS:
There are five types of insulators:

1. Pin type insulator

2. Suspension type insulator
3. Strain type insulator
4. Shackle type insulator
5. Stay type insulator

1. Pin type insulator:

Pin Insulator is earliest developed overhead insulator, but still popularly used in power
network up to 33 KV system. Pin type insulator can be one part, two parts or three parts type,
depending upon application voltage. In 11 KV system we generally use one part type insulator
where whole pin insulator is one piece of properly shaped porcelain or glass. As the leakage
path of insulator is through its surface, it is desirable to increase the vertical length of the
insulator surface area for lengthening leakage path.

Fig: pin type insulator

2. Suspension type insulator:

In higher voltage, beyond 33KV, it becomes uneconomical to use pin insulator because size,
weight of the insulator become more. Handling and replacing bigger size single unit insulator
are quite difficult task. For overcoming these difficulties, suspension insulator was developed.
In suspension insulator numbers of insulators are connected in series to form a string and the
line conductor is carried by the bottom most insulator. Each insulator of a suspension string
is called disc insulator because of their disc-like shape.

fig: suspension type insulator

3. STRAIN TYPE INSULATOR:

When suspension string is used to sustain extraordinary tensile load of conductor it is referred
as string insulator. When there is a dead end or there is a sharp corner in transmission line,
the line has to sustain a great tensile load of conductor or strain. A strain insulator must have
considerable mechanical strength as well as the necessary electrical insulating properties.

Fig: strain type insulator

4. SHACKLE TYPE INSULATOR:
The shackle insulator or spool insulator is usually used in low voltage distribution network. It
can be used both in horizontal and vertical position. The use of such insulator has decreased
recently after increasing the using of underground cable for distribution purpose. The tapered
hole of the spool insulator distributes the load more evenly and minimizes the possibility of
breakage when heavily loaded. The conductor in the groove of shackle insulator is fixed with
the help of soft binding wire.

Fig: shackle type insulator

5. STAY TYPE INSULATOR:
For low voltage lines, the stays are to be insulated from ground at a height. The insulator used
in the stay wire is called as the stay insulator and is usually of porcelain and is so designed
that in case of breakage of the insulator the guy-wire will not fall to the ground.

Fig: stay type insulator

 CHAPTER-8
CIRCUIT BREAKER & ISOLATOR

CIRCUIT BREAKER:
A circuit breaker is the equipment, which can open or close a circuit under normal as well as
fault condition. These circuit breaker breaks for a fault which can damage other instrument in
the station.

It is so designed that it can be operated manually (or by remote control) under normal conditions
and automatically under fault condition.

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an

electrical circuit from damage caused by overcurrent or overload or short circuit. Its basic
function is to interrupt current flow after protective relays detect a fault.

Fig: SF6 circuit breaker

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT BREAKER:
The Circuit Breaker mainly consist of fixed contacts and moving contacts. In normal “no”
condition of circuit breaker, these two contacts are physically connected to each other due to
applied mechanical pressure on the moving contacts.

There is an arrangement stored potential energy in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker
which is realized if switching signal is given to the breaker. The potential energy can be stored
in the circuit breaker by different ways like by deforming metal spring, by compressed air or
by hydraulic pressure.
TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER:
According to different criteria there are different type of circuit breaker:

According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can be divided as:

 Oil circuit breaker

 Air blast circuit breaker
 SF6 circuit breaker
 Vacuum circuit breaker

 OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER:

A high-voltage circuit breaker in which the arc is drawn in oil to dissipate the heat and
extinguish the arc; the intense heat of arc decomposes the oil, generating a gas whose high
pressure produced a flow of fresh fluid through the arc that furnishes the necessary insulation
to prevent a re-strike of the arc.

The arc is then extinguished, both because of its elongation upon parting of contacts and because
of intensive cooling by the gases of oil vacuum.

Fig: oil circuit breaker


 AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKER:
Fast operations, suitability for repeated operation, auto re-closure, unit type multi-break
constructions, simple assembly and modest maintenance are some of the main features of air
blast circuit breakers. The compressors plant necessary to maintain high air pressure in the air
receiver. The air blast circuit breakers are especially suitable for railway and arc furnaces,
where the breaker operates repeatedly. Air blast circuit breaker is used for interconnected
lines where rapid operation is desired.

Fig: air blast circuit breaker

High pressure air at a pressure between 20 to 30 kg/cm2 stored in the air reservoir. Air is taken
from the compressed air system. Three hollow insulator columns are mounted on the reservoir
with valves at their basis. The double arc extinguished chambers are mounted on the top of
the hollow insulator chambers. The current carrying parts connect the three arc extinction
chamber to each other in series and the pole to the neighbouring equipment. Since there exist
a very high voltage between the conductor and the air reservoir, the entire arc extinction
chambers assembly is mounted on insulators.

 SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER:

In such circuit breaker, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used as the arc quenching medium. The
SF6 is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons.
The SF6 circuit breakers have been found to a very effective for high power and high voltage
service. SF6 circuit breakers have been developed for voltage 115 kV to 230 kV, power rating
10MVA.
It consists of fixed and moving contacts. It has chamber, contains SF6 gas. When the contacts
are opened, the mechanism permits a high pressure SF6 gas from reservoir to flow towards
the arc interruption chamber. The moving contact permits the SF6 gas to let through these
holes.

A typical SF6 circuit breaker consists of interrupter units. Each unit is capable of interrupting
currents up to 60 kA and voltage in the range 50-80 kV. A number of units are connected in
series according to system voltage. SF6 breakers are developed for voltages range from 115
to 500 kV and power of 10MVA rating and with interrupting time of 3 cycles and less.

Fig: SF6 circuit breaker

The use of SF6 circuit breaker is mainly in the substations which are having high input kV
input, say above 220kv and more. The gas is put inside the circuit breaker by force i.e. under
high pressure. When if the gas gets decreases there is a motor connected to the circuit breaker.
The motor starts operating if the gas went lower than 20.8 bar. There is a meter connected to
the breaker so that it can be manually seen if the gas goes low. The circuit breaker uses the
SF6 gas to reduce the torque produced in it due to any fault in the line. The circuit breaker has
a direct link with the instruments in the station, when any fault occur alarm bell rings. The
spring type of circuit breakers is used for small kV stations. The spring here reduces the torque
produced so that the breaker can function again. The spring type is used for step down side of
132kv to 33kv also in 33kv to 11kv and so on. They are only used in low distribution side.
 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER:
Vacuum circuit breakers are the breakers which are used to protect medium and high voltage
circuit from dangerous electrical situations. Like other types of circuit breakers, vacuum
circuit breakers are literally break the circuit so that energy can not continue flowing through
it, thereby preventing fires, power surge and other problems which may emerge. These
devices have been utilized since the 1920s and several companies have introduced
refinements to make them even safer and more effective.

Fig: vacuum circuit breaker

ISOLATORS:
Isolator is used to ensure that an electrical circuit is completely de-energized for service or
maintenance.

In Sub-Station, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for general maintenance and
repairs. This is accomplished by an isolating switch or isolator.

An isolator is essentially a knife Switch and is design to often open a circuit under no load, in other
words, isolator Switches are operate only when the line in which they are connected carry no load.
For example, consider that the isolator are connected on both side of a circuit breaker, if the
isolators are to be opened, the C.B. must be opened first.

“An Isolator or a disconnector is a mechanical switch device, which provides in the open
position, an isolating distance in accordance with special requirements. An isolator is capable
of opening and closing a circuit when either negligible current is broken/made or when no
significant change in the voltage across the terminals of each of the poles of isolator occurs.
It is also capable of carrying current under normal circuit conditions and carrying for a
specified time, current under abnormal conditions such as those of short circuit.”

Fig: isolator
OPERATION OF ELECTRICAL ISOLATOR:
An isolator is a mechanical switch that is manually operated. Depending on the requirement
of a given system, there are different types of isolators. With isolators, one is able to see any
open circuit physically as compared to circuit breakers where no physical observation can be
made.

Since no technique for arc quenching exists in isolators, the operation of electrical isolators
should only be carried out when no possible current is flowing through a circuit. An isolator
should not be used to open a completely closed live circuit. Additionally, live circuits should
not be completed and closed using an isolator. This is to avoid large amounts of arcing from
taking place at the isolator contacts. Hence isolators should only be opened after a circuit
breaker is open and should be closed before closing a circuit breaker.

Electrical isolators can be operated using a motorized mechanism as well as by hand. Hand
operation happens to be cheaper, compared to a motorized arrangement.

As no arc quenching technique is provided in isolator it must be operated when there is no

chance of current flowing through the circuit. No live circuit should be closed or opened by
isolator operation. A complete live closed circuit must not be opened by isolator operation
and also a live circuit must not be closed and completed by isolator to avoid huge arcing in
between isolator contacts. That is why isolator must be open after circuit breaker is open and
these must be closed before circuit breaker is closed. Isolator can be operated by hand locally
as well as by motorized mechanism from remote position. Motorized operation arrangement
costs more compared to hand operation; hence decision must be taken before choosing an
isolator for the system whether hand operated or motor operated economically optimum for
the system. For voltage up to 145 KV system hand operated isolators are used whereas for
higher voltage systems like 245 KV or 420 KV and above motorized isolator are used.

Fig: isolator
TANDEM ISOLATORS:
Tandem isolator, often called split breaker or double breakers, provides two separate circuits
in the space of rectangular sized breaker opening. Every circuit breaker panel has a limited
number of circuits available. The problem is that when the openings are all used up and you
still need to add another circuit, what do you do you? You could change the electrical panel
or double up circuits on a breaker, but this could place to much load on a particular circuit.
So what then? The answer that many have found is tandem breaker. This type of breaker is
the same size as any other breaker, but it has its difference.

Fig: Tandem Isolator

 CHAPTER-9
CONTROL & RELAY ROOM
The control room has various control panels which shows the information like incoming
power, outgoing power, frequency, time common to all sub-stations, status of various
lines(healthy, faulted, under outage or maintenance), status of various protective instruments
like isolators, circuit breaker, temperature of various instruments, working tap of transformer
etc.

The DAS (Data Acquisition System) is used to accumulate the data received from various sources.

The relay room is separate from the control room. All relay used here are numerical and are either
from Siemens® or ABB®.

The protection system is so fast that it can detect a fault within 30 ms and hence the circuit
breaker can be operated within as less as 80 ms. For 400KV side C.B., one time auto reclosure
is allowed in order to clear the faults automatically.

BATTERY ROOM:

 The control panels and relays of the sub-station required DC supply of 110 V.
 The DC supply is made with the help of battery bank reserve normally kept in a separate room
called battery room.
 The batteries used in this sub-station are Nickel-Cadmium (NI-Cd) batteries. These batteries
are reused due to their advantages like low maintenance, longer life (15-20 years) etc. Each
cell is of 2 V and 300 Ah Capacity.

Use of battery in sub-station:

Storage battery system is used in emergency situation for the working of electrical equipments:

 To open and close the switch gear

 For indication and control
 Emergency lighting
 Relay and interlocking equipments

 For working of alarm circuit.

Protective Relaying:
Protective relays are used to detect defective lines or apparatus and to initiate the operation of
circuit interrupting devices to isolate the defective equipment. Relays are also used to detect
abnormal or undesirable operating conditions other than those caused by defective equipment
and either operate an alarm or initiate operation of circuit interrupting devices. Protective
relays protect the electrical system by causing the defective apparatus or lines to be
disconnected to minimize damage and maintain service continuity to the rest of the system.

There are different types of relays:

i. Overcurrent
relay
ii. Distance relay
iii. Differential relay
iv. Directional over
current relay

i. OverCurrent Relay:
The over current relay responds to a magnitude of current above a specified value. There are
four basic types of construction: They are plunger, rotating disc, static, and microprocessor
type. In the plunger type, a plunger is moved by magnetic attraction when the current exceeds
a specified value. In the rotating induction-disc type, which is a motor, the disc rotates by
electromagnetic induction when the current exceeds a specified value.

Static types convert the current to a proportional D.C mill volt signal and apply it to a level
detector with voltage or contact output. Such relays can be designed to have various current-
l type of rotating induction-disc relay, called the voltage restrained over current relay. The
magnitude of voltage restrains the operation of the disc until the magnitude of the voltage
drops below a threshold value. Static over current relays are equipped with multiple curve
characteristics and can duplicate almost any shape of electromechanical relay curve.
Microprocessor relays convert the current to a digital signal. The digital signal can then be
compared to the setting values input into the relay. With the microprocessor relay, various
curves or multiple time-delay settings can be input to set the relay operation. Some relays
allow the user to define the curve with points or calculations to determine the output
characteristics.
ii. Distance Relay:
It has the overall effect of measuring impedance. The relay operates instantaneously
(within a few cycles) on a 60-cycle basis for values of impedance below the set value.
When time delay is required, the relays energizes a separate time-delay relay or
function with the contacts or output of this time-delay relay or function performing the
desired output functions. The relay operates on the magnitude of impedance measured
by the combination of restraint voltage and the operating current passing through it
according to the settings applied to the relay. When the impedance is such that the
impedance point is within the impedance characteristic circle, the relay will trip. The
relay is inherently directional. The line impedance typically corresponds to the diameter
of the circle with the reach of the relay being the diameter of the circle.

iii. Differential Relay:

The differential relay is a current-operated relay that responds to the difference between two
or more device currents above a set value. The relay works on the basis of the differential
principle that what goes into the device has to come out .If the current does not add to zero,
the error current flows to cause the relay to operate and trip the circuit.

The differential relay is used to provide internal fault protection to equipment such as transformers,
generators, and buses. Relays are designed

to permit differences in the input currents as a result of current transformer mismatch and
applications where the input currents come from different system voltages, such as
transformers. A current differential relay provides restraint coils on the incoming current
circuits. The restraint coils in combination with the operating coil provide an operation curve,
above which the relay will operate. Differential relays are often used with a lockout relay to
trip all power sources to the device and prevent the device from being automatically or
remotely reenergized. These relays are very sensitive. The operation of the device usually
means major problems with the protected equipment and the likely failure in re-energizing
the equipment.

iv. Directional Over current Relay:

A directional over current relay operates only for excessive current flow in a given direction.
Directional over current relays are available in electromechanical, static, and microprocessor
constructions. An electromechanical overcorrect relay is made directional by adding a
directional unit that prevents the over current relay from operating until the directional unit
has operated. The directional unit responds to the product of the magnitude of current, voltage,
and the phase angle between them or to the product of two currents and the phase angle
between them. The value of this product necessary to provide operation of the directional unit
is small, so that it will not limit the sensitivity of the relay (such as an over current relay that
it controls). In most cases, the directional element is mounted inside the same case as the relay
it controls. For example, an over current relay and a directional element are mounted in the
same case, and the combination is called a directional over current relay. Microprocessor
relays often provide a choice as to the polarizing method that can be used in providing the
direction of fault, such as applying residual current or voltage or negative sequence current or
voltage polarizing functions to the relay.

CHAPTER-10
WAVE TRAP
Line trap is also known as wave trap. What it does is trapping the high frequency
communication signals sent on the line from the remote sub-station and diverting them to the
telecom/teleprotection panel in the substation control room (through coupling capacitor and
LMU).

This is relevant in power line carrier communication (PLCC) systems for communication
among various substations without dependence on the telecom company network. The signals
are primarily teleprotection signals and in addition, voice and data communication signals.

The line trap offers high impedance to high frequency communication signals thus obstructs
the flow of these signals into the substations bus-bars. If there were not to there, then signal
loss in more and communication will be ineffective/probably impossible.

Wave trap is an instrument using for tripping of the wave. The function of this trap is that it
traps the unwanted waves. Its function is of trapping wave. Its shape is like a drum. It is
connected to the main incoming feeder so that it can trap the waves which may be dangerous
to the instruments here in the substation.
 CHAPTER-11
SMART GRID

The Smart Grid is the modernization of the electricity delivery system. A smart grid differs from
the traditional grid in that it allows two-way communication of electricity data, rather than a one
way flow. Smart grids enable real time data collection concerning electricity supply and demand
during the transmission and distribution process, making monitoring, generation, consumption
and maintenance more efficient.

Most electricity grids are based on one-way interaction from the stages of generation to
consumption. Smart grids, on the other hand, integrate the action of all users in the power
network using computer-based remote control and automation. This two-way interaction is what
makes the grid “smart". Like the internet, the Smart Grid consists of controls, computers,
automation, telecommunication and equipment that work together, but in this case, these
technologies work with the electrical grid to respond digitally to our quickly changing electric
demand.
In order for the Smart Grid to work effectively, it relies on an entire system of smart
technologies.

Examples of smart grid applications include:

Generation
A wide variety of generation sources that can respond quickly to changing demand will be
necessary as intermittent renewables become an important component of the energy system. As
more energy generation sources are distributed, the Smart Grid will help to effectively connect
all these power generating systems to the grid, provide data about their operation to utilities and
owners and give information about how much surplus energy is feeding back into the grid versus
being consumed on site.

Distribution
Distribution intelligence enables an electric utility to remotely monitor and coordinate its
distribution assets (transmission lines, substations etc.), operating them in an optimal matter
using either manual or automatic controls. The Smart Grid also provides outage detection and
response capabilities, sometimes enabling the grid to “self-heal”.
Consumption
Computerized controls in your home and appliances can be set up to communicate with the
smart grid and respond to signals from your energy provider to minimize their energy use at
times when the power grid is under stress from high demand, or to reduce power consumption at
high priced hours. Smart controls and appliances can predict consumption patterns and respond
to a wide set of pre-programmed variables to curb electricity use and costs.

CHAPTER-12
CONCLUSION
Now from this report we can conclude that electricity plays an important role in our life. We
are made aware of how the transmission the transmission of electricity is done. We too came
to know about the various parts of the substation system. The three wings of electrical system
viz. generation, transmission and distribution are connected to each other and that too very
perfectly.

Smart grids enable society to move from a centralized energy generation system, where
electricity is produced at large industrial facilities and is transmitted over long distances to
consumers, to a distributed energy resource system, where sources at various scales can be
added to the supply mix with limited disruption.

Thus for effective transmission and distribution a substation must:

• Ensure steady state and transient stability

• Effective voltage control
• Prevention of loss of synchronism
• Reliable supply by feeding the network at various points
• Fault analysis improvement in respective field
• Establishment of economic load distribution