http://www.ph.utexas.edu/~phy102m
Department of Physics
University of Texas at Austin
Contents
Acknowledgments v
Preface vii
About the Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Understanding Basic Concepts of Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
i
ii CONTENTS
4 Conservation of Energy 47
4.1 Introduction to Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2 The Atwood Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3 Corrections for the Atwood Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.4 The Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8 Archimedes’ Principle 85
8.1 Introduction to Archimedes’ Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.2 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.3 Buoyant force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.4 Suspended mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.5 Geometric Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.6 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Index 133
Bibliography 134
iv CONTENTS
Acknowledgments
The first edition of this manual was written by P. R. Antoniewicz in 1984 and extensively revised by David
Y. Chao in 1990. During the 1993-94 academic year a new, computer-based version of the laboratory
was developed by J. David Gavenda and Michael D. Foegelle.
Helpful suggestions for improving the experiments and clarifying the manual were made during
the 1995-96 academic year by Teaching Assistants James Daniel, Daniel Goldman, Nathan Harshman,
Robert Luter, and Paul Patuleanu.
The computer-based version of this laboratory course, which was introduced during the 1993-1994
academic year, was largely based on an IBM package called Personal Science Laboratory (PSL), con-
sisting of probes and software. The original IBM software was revised and rewritten by Foegelle and
Gavenda specifically for 102M.
In 1997, Team Labs. Inc. introduced new Excel based software called Excelerator to run the original
PSL probes. Beginning in Spring 1998, this new software and some new probes were introduced into
the 102M laboratory course. The manual was extensively revised by Linda Reichl, Robert Luter, and
Nathan Harshman to accommodate this new software. Some of the experiments have been revised and
the procedures the students must follow have been streamlined.
In spring 2001 an updated version of the software called Excelerator 2001 was introduced in the
lab. The hardware interface was also changed from the IBM PSL to the Thinkstation interface made
by Team Labs. Where necessary, the laboratory procedures were revised in the 2002 edition by Anil
Shaji to be compatible with the new hardware and software with minimal changes to the experiments
themselves.
In spring 2004 the experiments were extensively re-designed to use the PASCO SCIENCEWORK-
SHOP interface and DATASTUDIO software. The new experiments and laboratory procedures were
designed by Anil Shaji. This edition of the lab manual is designed to be used with the SCIENCE-
WORKSHOP interface, DATASTUDIO software and PASCO probes and sensors. Some illustrations
from the previous editions have been used in the 2004 edition.
In the Spring and Summer of 2006 further changes were made to the lab manual mainly by Michael
Snyder to accommodate some hardware changes made to labs 3-5 as well as some grammatical corrections.
Lab 10 was changed by Nathan Erickson to accommodate new hardware as well. Appendix B was added
by Zhen Wei to help explain the Vernier Calipers. In the Spring and Summer of 2007 further changes
were made to the lab manual. Most of the changes were corrections for consistence and clarification of
the lab. Appendix C was also added to give the student a reference for units which are used in this lab.
These changes were found and corrected by Melissa Jerkins, Megan Creasey, Guru Khalso, Zhen Wei
and Nathan Erickson.
In the 2008 edition, Lab 1 was completely changed. Lab 11 was also changed to eliminate mm and
kg. Finally, every mention of “slope (y,x)” has been changed to “slope (y vs. x)” to try to eliminate the
confusion with variables. Thanks again to the TAs of the 2007-2008 School year for their suggestions
and corrections as well as the classes that were the guinea pigs of the new version of Lab 1.
In the 2009 editions, most changes were grammar, clarification, or consistency changes. The useful
equations section in Lab 5 was changed to use “pushed (push)” and “stationary (stay)” notation. There
were also changes to Lab 11 to work out some of the issues. A place for the lab partner’s names was
added to all the labs. Thanks again to the TA’s of 2008-2009 who were responsible for finding all the
corrections.
In the 2010 editions, most of the changes were again grammar, clarification and consistency. The one
major change was with Lab 7, where some of the current experiment was reduced and conservation of
angular momentum was added. Thanks to all the TA’s for helping with the changes and to the students
in the first section of the week who again were guinea pigs for some lab changes.
In the 2011 editions, most of the changes were again grammar, clarification and consistency. Table
number blanks were added at the top of the lab pages to assist the TA’s. The Excel addendum was
updated by Henry Schreiner to reflect the 2010 version of Excel used in the computer labs. Thanks to
all the TA’s and students who helped find errors in the lab manual.
v
vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In the 2013 edition, lab 0 was rewritten in preperation of a new version of the manual.
In the 2014 edition, the manual was heavily revised and reformatted, and several labs were updated.
New equipment was incorporated into the labs. Lab 1 now uses calipers and rulers. Lab 2 was reworked
to enhance comprehension. Lab 5 was rewritten for all new equipment, and restructured for easier data
entry. Lab 11 was reworked. Food for thought and notation corners were added, and an index was
added. Places for taking notes were added to all labs. A Preface and a Survival Guide were added. All
new figures and schematic diagrams were added throughout. New software are hardware required many
changes to procedures. New slope fitting was added to several labs. Clear all data runs was removed
from the labs and the manual. The Excel addendum was changed to be a general spreadsheet tutorial,
with individual tutorials for specific programs moved to the website.
In the 2015 and 2016 edition, lab 0 was updated by Shirin Moza↵ari. A question related to graphing
was added to Prelab1. E↵ect of friction was added to the last two parts of lab 3. Some clarifications
were added to lab 6.
In the 2017 edition, new cameras were installed for lab 1 and the lab 1 on the manual was updated
accordingly. Thanks to all the TA’s and students who helped find errors in the lab manual.
Preface
vii
Survival Guide
Icon Guide
When completing the labs, look for icons to indicate extra pages required. The œ icon indicates
that you need to complete this on a computer and print it (in a computer lab or at home), the
“ icon indicates a page printed during the lab, and the b icon indicates a handwritten page.
These are the lines used to mark pages needed:
Equation Guide
Displayed equations come in three forms. Numbered equations are important results and often
are useful for the final exam. Numbered equations with a star are useful for doing the lab (high
probability that you will use this exactly as it appears). Unnumbered equations are there just
to explain how other equations are derived.
Answer Guide
There are several kinds of answer blanks.
1. The normal answer blank, , is usually for a single number and a unit.
2. The uncertanty answer blank, ± , expects an uncertainty also.
3. The name and number answer blank, = , expects you to write down
the name used in the manual (a variable, like x or r), and the number with units.
Performance Problems
Most common causes for poor performance in the lab are:
All TA’s have office hours to help if you don’t understand a question or a graded mistake. If
you have trouble, check the UT 102M website: www.ph.utexas.edu/~phy102m. This has links
to further help on the labs, such as interactive applets. This also has links to the prelab videos.
viii
Lab 0 Introduction to Experimental Physics
1
2 LAB 0. INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS
marks are 1 mm apart. Therefore, the uncertainty of a length measurement for this measuring
device is 0.5 mm or L = ±0.0005 m. You must guess an extra digit when you read the meter
stick, so the reading might look something like 7.3 ± 0.5 mm. You should never report this as
7 ± 0.5 mm, as the decimal place of uncertainty and the reading would not match.
Digital Rule
Many devices (including some we will use in this lab) give a digital readout of the data they
are measuring. For such devices, the uncertainty is equal to the smallest interval in the
digital readout.
Fluctuating Rule
If the reading fluctuates (some digital readings), the uncertainty is equal to the size of
the fluctuations. This may occur in two situations. First, if a device can only be read in
increments of 0.03 N, for example, it is common in scientific applications to have the device
report all available digits—but this has an uncertainty of about 0.03 N, not 0.01 N, since it
can’t read any numbers in between its minimum increment. (Many commercial applications,
like phones, will actually display fewer digits to hide this resolution limit).
The second reason you may see fluctuations is because something is actually fluctuating.
You are still unsure of the exact reading because it is changing.
Notation Corner
Uncertainty is denoted with the small Greek letter delta ( ) prefixed before the
quantity. If it is part of a measured value, it is listed with a plus/minus symbol
(±), and comes after the number but before the unit. If you have best measure-
ment x0 , and x0 = 2.20 m and x = 0.01 m, the correct way to write it is in the form
x = x0 ± x, with the unit last:
x = 2.20 ± 0.01 m
C = C 0 ± C = A0 + B 0 ± A ± B
C = A+ B (0.2.1)?
C0 ± C = (A0 ± A)(B0 ± B)
C = |A0 | B + |B0 | A + A B
4 LAB 0. INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS
Here, since uncertainties always add, we selected the positive values using the freedom granted
us by the ±. The final term in this equation, A B, is very tiny as long as the uncertainties
are smaller than the best values, so we can safely remove it.
Raising to a power
Most common operations are now accounted for, but let’s include a quick short-cut for raising
to a power (C = An ). We can just take the multiplication rule over and over again, and the
result is
A
C = nC0 (0.2.4)?
A0
The percent error gives an estimate of the discrepancy between our measured result and
the accepted result. If the discrepancy is larger than expected considering the known inherent
errors in the experiment, then we must re-examine all aspects of the experimental procedure
until we understand the source of the large discrepancy.
This also is a good way to test error in a conserved quantity; in this case, you would replace
accepted with initial, and measured with final in this formula.
We will use both the absolute percentage error and the relative percentage error in this
laboratory course.
2. Units that are not equivalent (mass and length, for example) cannot be added or sub-
tracted.
6 LAB 0. INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS
3. For every equation that you write down, the units of each term in the equation are the
same.
This provides an important way to check if your equation is correct. For example, the
displacement x at time t of a particle that experiences constant acceleration a can be written
in terms of the displacement x0 at time t = 0 s, the velocity v0 at time t = 0 s as
1
x = x0 + v0 t + at2 with units ! m + (m/s) s + (m/s2 ) s2 = m
2
Notice that after cancellations (according to the rules of algebra), every term in this equation
has units of meters.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mm
0.1 mm
0 5 10
A Vernier caliper is a measuring tool designed to get better readings than a ruler. A caliper
is just a device with a sliding jaw that you put on something to measure it. Usually there are
outer jaws to measure objects, and inner jaws to measure cavities. Most calipers also have a
Vernier scale. This is a special scale that uses a simple mathematical trick to enable better
readings.
A Vernier scale is designed by matching two separate scales at slightly di↵erent spacing.
For the pictured caliper, the lower (Vernier) scale has 10 marks in 9 mm. This means the first
mark is at 0, followed by 0.9 mm, then 1.8 mm, etc. If you ignore the whole number part and
only look at the decimal, you’ll see that it decreases by 0.1 mm each time. This is the trick that
is used; for it is easier for you to see which set of lines matches than to see lines 0.1 mm apart.
To read a caliper, first read the main scale as you would a normal scale. The point you
need to read is the location of the 0 vernier line on the normal scale (look at a closed caliper,
the reading should be 0, see Figure 0.1). Then, to get another digit, read the vernier scale by
matching lines. If the 3rd line past 0 matches a line on the main scale, the vernier reading is 3.
(See Figure 0.2)
0.4. LAB REPORT 7
6.3 mm
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mm
0.1 mm
0 5 10
Always make sure your reading is reasonable. If you would have guessed the measurement
to be between 6 mm and 6.5 mm, your vernier reading should come out to be between 6 mm
and 6.5 mm.
Even though your first time or two reading a vernier scale may be challenging, with practice,
you will find they are fast and easy to read.
0.4.1 Graphs
x vs. t
3
t (s) x (m) x = 0.333t + 1
0.3 1.1 2
x (m)
1.3 1.5
3.5 2.0 1
5.5 2.9
1 2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
A graph provides a visual picture of your data, and can show qualitative features not obvious
from looking at the numbers alone. Figure 0.3 shows a set of data along with it’s matching
graph, and a linear fit line.
8 LAB 0. INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS
Often your labs will require you to make graphs in a program such as Excel. These should
be done at home, or on a flash drive or personal computer in lab. You should make your own
graph, you cannot share anything except raw data with your partners. A graph should always
include the following parts:
Title The “vs.” always indicates vertical axis versus horizontal axis.
Tick marks The tick marks provide numerical increments for the values of plotted quantities
(grid optional).
Fit line We shall often be asked to plot a curve that best fits the data obtained in an experi-
ment. This can be obtained either by hand or by using a software package like Excel.
Fit equation It is often possible to write an equation that represents the curve that best fits
your data. This is particularly simple if the curve is straight line. If the curve is not a
straight line then a software package like Excel can be used to find the fit. Excel uses y
and x to refer to the vertical axis and the horizontal axis, respectively.
Your graphs should be as large as possible, usually a full page. Make sure you know what
fit is needed (linear or polynomial order 2 in this lab). It is possible to have points that look
like a line that are described by a second order polynomial equation. You will often compare
the equation of a graph with an equation from lab to find the values of the coefficients.
For a graph (with vertical axis y and horizontal axis x) whose data is fit by a straight line,
the equation describing that empirical curve can be written in the form y = mx + b, where m
is the slope of the best fit curve and b is the y-intercept. You can obtain the average slope m
between two points y2 = y(x2 ) and y1 = y(x1 ) by writing
y2 y1 y
m= = ,
x2 x1 x
where y = y2 y1 and x = x2 x1 .
For example, given the data and straight-line curve in Figure 0.3, we can write x = v0 t + x0 ,
where the slope of the curve is v0 = 0.333 m/s and the intercept is x0 = 1 m.
Lab 0 Notes
This is for initial comments, work, etc. that you may have from the reading and the prelab
videos. Put down anything you think might help for the upcoming lab.
9
10 LAB 0. INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS
Lab 0 Worksheet
Name: Table: Partner(s):
Note: This lab worksheet will not be graded. This is intended to prepare you for working in
this lab.
Significant figures
What is the correct way to report d = 0.13724 ± 0.00247 m?
Given the following numbers, write the answer with the correct number of significant figures.
Include units.
A = 3.000 m, B = 1.11 m, C = 0.004 m, D = 2.02 s
A⇥B =
A⇥C =
A/B =
A/D =
A5 =
Error Propagation
Given the following numbers, write the answer with the correct error and significant figures.
Include units.
A⇥B = ±
A⇥C = ±
A/B = ±
A/D = ±
11
12 Lab 0. Worksheet
A5 = ±
a
Assume a = 27 ± 2, b = 3.0 ± 0.5, c = 2.0 ± 0.2, and d = b c. Then, compute the value of d:
d= ±
Now, compute the maximum value that d can be (hint: a should be a = 12+2 = 14. Experiment
to maximize d).
dmax =
dmin =
d=
Graphing
Fill in the missing parts of this graph of d (distance in meters) vs. t (time in seconds).
y = 0.500x + 1
4
1 2 3 4 5 6
14 Lab 0. Worksheet
Vernier Calipers
Read the following calipers (include uncertainty and units, as always):
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mm
0.1 mm
0 5 10
Reading =
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mm
0.1 mm
0 5 10
Reading =
Measure the length of the object the cylinder in your box. Record that here:
Length =
œ Include postlab
TA sign-o↵:
Lab 1 Lab 1 Prelab
Name:
x vs. t
9
8
7
6
x (m)
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
t (s)
1. A ball is rolling along the x-axis as shown above, under constant acceleration. Solve the
following. Show your work.
(b) Find its average velocity, v̄1 , during the time from 0 to 1 seconds.
(c) Find its average velocity, v̄2 , during the time from 1 to 2 seconds.
(d) What is t when the object’s velocity, v1 , is equal to its average velocity, v̄1 , during
the first time interval? Think about the shape of the v-t graph.
15
16 Lab 1. Prelab
2. Below is the plot of v (velocity) vs. t (time) for an object. The equation of the fitted line
is written on the graph. Use that equation to find the slope and intercept of the graph.
What physical quantity the slope is equal to?
v vs. t
15
y = 0.50x + 11
14
Slope=
13
v ( ms )
Intercept=
12
Slope represents=
11
1 2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
3. Using the table below, calculate and insert the missing values in the following tables.
j xj (cm)
0 2.5
1 8.2
2 13.0
3 16.4
4 19.0
tj is the time at which the j th video frame is captured. The position, xj , is the position
of the steel ball in the j th frame. (The data is taken 30 times per second.)
j tj (s) xj (m)
j tj (s) v̄j (m/s)
0 0.00 0.0250 j ā (m/s2 )
0.5 0.0166 1.71
1 0.0333 0.0820 1 -8.10
1.5 0.0500 1.44
2 0.0667 0.130 2 -12.6
2.5 0.0833 1.02
3 3
3.5
4
1.1 Introduction
Kinematics is the description of the motion of material objects. The description of a moving
object is a record of the position of the object as a function of time. Once this record of position
versus time is obtained, it can be used to obtain the velocity of the object (the rate of change
of position) and the acceleration of the object (the rate of change of velocity).
In this lab, we study the kinematics of an object that is undergoing two particular kinds of
motion simultaneously, constant velocity in the horizontal direction and “free fall” in the vertical
direction. An object will have constant velocity in the horizontal direction if no horizontal
force acts on it. An object undergoes free fall motion when the only force on the object is the
gravitational attraction of the Earth. One goal of this experiment is to show that the horizontal
and vertical components of motion are independent of each other.
While we can come close to ideal unaccelerated motion and free fall, neither of these perfectly
occur on Earth because of air resistance. When an object moves through the air, it experiences
a “drag” force which opposes its motion. This drag force is proportional to the squared speed of
the object and the cross sectional area perpendicular to the motion. An additional goal of this
experiment is to show that the e↵ects of air resistance can be made small if the cross sectional
area is small and speeds are low. Then the horizontal and vertical motions experience very
small deceleration and we can measure the acceleration due to gravity during free fall with a
fair degree of accuracy.
The object whose motion we will study is a steel sphere (its small size and large inertia will
help reduce the e↵ects of air resistance). A web cam will be used to record the position of the
steel ball, at discrete times, as it moves through the air. A grid placed behind the steel ball will
enable us to see each position of the steel ball recorded by the webcam (each frame), and the
repetition rate of the webcam will enable us to obtain the time at which each frame occurred.
The major errors in this lab will be due to the resolution of the camera and our ability to
accurately find the position of the steel ball as a function of time.
xf = xi + vx t (1.2.1)
17
18 LAB 1. KINEMATICS OF FREE FALL
Worked Example
As an example, let us consider a cart rolling on a frictionless track with a fan on
top. The fan provides a constant acceleration of 1 m/s2 . Starting from rest, how fast
is it moving after 10 seconds? How long does it take to go 50 m?
....................................................................................
For the first part, we just need to use equation (1.2.3) to calculate velocity given a
time,
v = v0 + at = 0 + (1 m/s2 )(20 s) = 20 m/s.
And, for the second part, we can use equation (1.2.2) and solve for time, using the
fact that it starts from rest and has moved from x0 = 0 m to x = 100 m, and we get
1
x = at2
2
r r
2x 100 m
t= = = 10 s.
a 1 ms2
x xf xi
v̄ = = . (1.2.4)?
t tf ti
1.2. BACKGROUND DISCUSSION 19
At what time during the motion between xi and xf is this average velocity actually reached?
A simple method is to take the average of the two times, tf and ti , called the midpoint time.
This has an added bonus; when the acceleration is constant, the average velocity is
the velocity at the midpoint time. If the acceleration is not constant, it is still a better
approximation than choosing one of the two endpoint times.
v vs. t
, v f)
5 (t f
4
v
v (m/s)
3
)
, vi
2 (t i
t
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t (s)
v vf vi
ā = = . (1.2.5)
t tf ti
Even if the line is not as straight as the one in Figure 1.1, this still gives you the average
acceleration between the two chosen points.
j
tj = (1.2.6)?
f
With this notation, if the label for the initial point is j 0.5, and the label for the final point
is j 0 + 0.5, so that the average velocity equation (1.2.4) becomes
x xj 0 +0.5 xj 0.5
v̄ = = (1.2.7)
t tj 0 +0.5 tj 0.5
v
We can write a similar equation ā = t for the average acceleration (1.2.5).
20 LAB 1. KINEMATICS OF FREE FALL
We are going to film the motion of the steel sphere with a web cam (shown in Figure 1.2),
as it is bounced past a sheet of paper with grid lines. We will use the grid lines to record the
position of the sphere at discrete times tj . You have a two-sided sheet of graph paper in your
workbook to use for the two runs. The sheet is attached to the “wall” behind the bouncing
sphere.
In the first run we’ll bounce the ball and only analyze the vertical component of the motion.
The bounce allows us to track frames for the sphere going down and up, versus dropping it and
only tracking downward frames. As long as nothing touches the ball between the starting time
t0 and ending time tjmax , we have free fall.
In the second run, we will arc the ball across the paper, and track both vertical and horizontal
distances.
1.4. PREPARATION 21
1.4 Preparation
To do the experiment, you need to open two programs: Photo Booth and Webcam
Settings. These programs are in the Application folder in the dock of the MAC computer.
Click on the application folder and then double click on each of the programs to open them. We
first adjust the settings of the camera using Webcam Settings, and then record a movie of
the ball as it falls using Photo Booth. On Photo Booth, you should be able to see the grid
sheet in front of the camera. Make sure the entire grid behind the ball is visible and reasonably
flat. On Webcam Settings, under “Basic”, click on “Manual”, and change the “Exposure
Time” to 30. You can see the actual number for the exposure time by clicking on the word
“Exposure Time”. Adjust the rest of parameters (Gain, Brightness, Contrast,...) so that you
can see the fine-grid on the board. The ball is very fast so a very low exposure time helps to
have a less blurry picture of the ball. A slightly too dark image is usually clearer than a slightly
too bright image. See Figure 1.3 for an example of proper settings. Under “Performance” set
both the “Read auto settings from webcam” and “Write every settings to webcam” to “Every
0.5 seconds”. You are now ready for recording:
To take a movie, press the record button on Photo Booth and drop the ball very close to
the grid, but not touching the grid. After you finished recording, drag the file to the Desktop
and open the movie file by double clicking. In order to see the movie frame by frame, pause it
(by clicking on the I button) and use the arrow key to advance to the next frame. Once the
ball bounces o↵ the table copy (by hand) the position of the ball at each frame on the provided
grid sheet on the manual. One movie that has at least eight frames of the ball is sufficient. If
in any of the consecutive frames of the movie, the ball bounced out of the grid try recording
another movie while dropping the ball at a slightly lower initial height.
The frame rate for the camera is set to 30 frames/second.
22 LAB 1. KINEMATICS OF FREE FALL
Lab 1 Notes
This is for initial comments, work, etc. that you may have from the reading and the prelab
videos. Put down anything you think might help for the upcoming lab.
23
Lab 1 Guidelines
Raw Data
First dataset
Film the ball in free fall for at least 8 consecutive frames, more than 8 is better. You will need
to bounce the ball and then track the part after the bounce in order to get enough frames. You
cannot include a bounce for it to be in free fall! Transfer data from the screen to the graph
paper at the end of this lab. Number the points on the graph paper to keep track of direction.
Use a ruler to measure the positions and record them in the worksheet.
Looking at the ball diameter on the screen, try to measure its apparent diameter based on the
squares behind it.
Second dataset
Repeat the first experiment, only this time bounce the ball across the paper in an arc; record
both vertical and horizontal motion.
Analysis
Tables
You’ll need to calculate both v and a for midpoint times, though only on your first dataset.
24
Lab 1 Worksheet
Name: Table: Partner(s):
Run 1: Vertical
j tj (s) yj (m)
j tj (s) vj (m/s)
0 j aj (m/s2 )
0.5
1 1
1.5
2 2
2.5
3 3
3.5
4 4
4.5
5 5
5.5
6 6
6.5
7 7
7.5
8 8
8.5
9 9
9.5
10 10
10.5
11
Use Tmax and the fit line eqn. to get maximum height: Ymax =
25
26 Lab 1. Worksheet
Using the values of the best fit line coefficients on the y vs. t graph:
vy,0 = ay =
Using the values of the best fit line coefficients on the x vs. t graph:
vx,0 = ax =
Make sure you include the following sheet of graph paper, too, with your numbered points.
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TA sign-o↵:
Lab 1. Worksheet 27
28 Lab 1. Worksheet
Lab 2 Newton’s Laws and Vector Addition
2.1 Introduction
We live in a three-dimensional world and, consequently, many of the quantities we work with
have both a magnitude and a three-dimensional direction—we call these vector quantities. We
also work with quantities that do not have a direction, but only a magnitude - we call these
scalar quantities. For example, velocity is a vector quantity. To fully specify the velocity of
a moving object, we must specify the magnitude of its velocity (its speed), and the direction
of the motion. A volume is a scalar quantity; for example, a liter or a cup does not have a
direction.
Sometimes our motion is constrained to one or two dimensions. For example, If we walk
alone a straight flat road, we are moving in one dimension. There is no vertical or sideways
component to our velocity, so we can neglect those other two dimensions. If your motion has
only one dimension, it is sufficient to just use a sign to indicate direction. One direction is
positive, and the other is negative.
In this lab, you will learn how to work with vectors in two dimensions. In Lab 1, you
actually studied motion in two dimensions, but kept them separate. In this lab, we will learn
how to express two dimensional motion in vector notation.
Notation Corner
We often use one of three ways to indicate a vector.
Textbooks often use bold upright font, A
Handwritten equations often use an arrow, A ~
On the blackboard, you will sometimes see double lines, A
If a vector is not marked as one, it indicates the magnitude of the vector (A = |A|).
2.2 Vectors in 2D
In this lab, you will only work with two dimensional vectors (2D vectors). However, everything
we will cover is fairly simple to extend to 3D with the right mathematics. It is just harder to
measure and visualize in 3D.
A vector can be thought of as an arrow, where the length is the magnitude of the vector, and
the direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the vector. Vectors do not have a location!
The vector arrow can be moved anywhere on the graph without changing its properties as long
as one does not change its length or its direction. This should give you an idea of how to add
vectors.
As shown in Fig. 2.1, vectors can be drawn on a graph. Their direction is always measured
in terms of the angle they make with the positive x-axis in a counterclockwise direction.
Graphical Addition
Two vectors, A and B, are added by joining the tail of the B arrow to the head of the A arrow.
The resultant vector C = A + B is an arrow drawn from the tail of A (at origin) to the head
29
30 LAB 2. NEWTON’S LAWS AND VECTOR ADDITION
3c
m
@
13
5
135
x
of B. The length of C can be measured with a ruler and the direction of C can be measured
with a protractor. Always include a scale.
B
+
A
B
=
C
A 1 cm = 2 N
Remember that angles are always measured counterclockwise from the x-axis (0 ). The
resultant vector always points from the original starting point to the last vector tip. This
should give you a common-sense notion of what vector addition does, it is the shortest way
from the beginning to the end. As the crow flies, so to speak.
Algebraic Addition
Algebraic addition is another way to add vectors. To add, simply split up all the vectors into
perpendicular (orthogonal) components (in our case, x and y), and then add the components
like normal numbers.
⇢
Cx = Ax + Bx
A+B=C =) (2.2.1)
Cy = Ay + By
If you are given the components Ax and Ay of a vector A, you can easily find the length
A andqdirection ✓ of the vector. Remember that Ax = A cos(✓) and Ay = A sin(✓). Then
A
A = A2x + A2y and tan ✓ = Axy . However, note that there can be some ambiguity regarding
A
the angle ✓. If you use ✓ = tan 1 Axy , your calculator may only give answers from 90 to
90 (in the first and fourth quadrants), even if the correct answer lies in the second or third
quadrants (between 90 and 270 ). You can recover the correct angle (90 to 270 ) by adding
180 to the answer if Ax < 0. If you want to write a positive angle, you can always add 360 to
the angle without changing it.
2.3. NEWTON’S LAWS 31
Worked Example
As an example, let us consider the vector shown in Fig. 2.1, which we will call A.
The length of A is A = 3 cm and the angle it makes with the positive x-axis is ✓ =
135 .
....................................................................................
Thus,
Ax = (3 cm) cos (135 ) = 2.12 cm and Ay = (3 cm) sin (135 ) = 2.12 cm.
is equal to the vector sum of all forces acting on the object. Thus, when you have multiple
forces on a single object, they add according to the rules of vector addition. In this lab, we
will only consider an object at rest (in equilibrium), even though several forces act on it. This
means that the net force
Fnet = 0 (2.3.1)?
So, in all our experiments in Lab. 2, the combinations of forces should add up to zero.
Let’s take a moment to look at the units of force. We know that Fnet = ma, so force must
have units kgm/s2 using S.I. units. This combination of fundamental units is called the Newton.
One Newton of force has the value 1 N = 1 kg·m/s2 .
90
120 60
150 3N 30
@
13
5
180 2N @ 0 0
3 N @ 270
210 330
240 300
270
Figure 2.3: The force table. Figure 2.4: A free body diagram.
vectors lie at the same spot. Note that this is not a vector addition; you cannot measure a sum
from this plot. Here’s an example of a mass with three forces:
Notation Corner
There were three concepts introduced here:
Algebraic addition: Adding vectors by adding components.
Graphical addition: Adding vectors by placing them tip to tail and measuring.
Free body diagram: A way to visualize vectors. You cannot use this to add
vectors.
Note that vectors can only be added using one of the described methods. You can-
not add vectors by adding magnitudes and angles directly.
Lab 2 Notes
This is for initial comments, work, etc. that you may have from the reading and the prelab
videos. Put down anything you think might help for the upcoming lab.
33
Lab 2 Guidelines
Raw Data
Two String
Attach two masses on to the ring (via strings). Hang them o↵ at 0 and at 180 . The 0 degree
mass should be 200 g, including mass hanger. How much mass do you have to add (1 g at a
time) to one of the masses and to get the ring to move when tapped (no longer in equilibrium)?
Write down the actual measurements1 of the masses you used. Subtract to find the maximum
extra mass you can add while still keeping the system in equilibrium.
Three Strings
You are given two masses and angles for the three strings. Try to calculate algebraically and
graphically what the remaining mass and angle should be (calculation), then test it in lab
(measured). Remember that you want to find the sum, and then put a force equal and opposite
to make the final sum 0. Note: to get an opposite vector, add 180 to the angle.
Test your values on the force table and try to observe equilibrium. Tap the ring to make sure
it does not move. Write down measured masses.
On the table for the Three Strings part, Expected vector is the vector that is supposed to cancel
the sum vector.
Four Strings
On this one, you will not precalculate the values. Just experiment, and see if you can get
the ring to look like it is in equilibrium. You’ll test the lab answer later. Ask your TA to fill in
the TA blank for your group before starting.
Find the resultant algebraically and graphically. You will be summing four vectors instead of
two.
You probably missed true equilibrium by a little. Let’s see how close you got. First, how far
o↵ do you think you were (maximum force error)? Remember, there are four pulleys, you can
use the results of the two string experiment.
1
Use triple beam balance
34
Lab 2 Worksheet
Name: Table: Partner(s):
Two Strings
Three Strings
35
36 Lab 2. Worksheet
Scale: Sum: @
Lab 2. Worksheet 37
150 30 150 30
180 0 180 0
Four Strings
Error
Maximum force error, 4 pullies: F4
How did the magnitude of the resultant compare with the maximum error? (Smaller/Larger)
38 Lab 2. Worksheet
Scale: Sum: @
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