CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
"We are designed to walk ... That we are taught to walk is impossible." And in fact, the same is
true of language. (Noam Chomsky, The Human Language Series 2 - 1994)

1.1. Language learning and Acquisition

The term "language learning" covers two clearly distinct but rarely understood
concepts. One of them is to receive information about the language, to transform it into
knowledge through intellectual effort and to accumulate this knowledge through the exercise
of memory. We refer to this concept as "study". The other concept refers to the development of
the functional ability to interact with foreigners, understanding and speaking their
language. This is usually called "assimilation." In English, the first concept is called language
learning, while for the second, the term language acquisition is used, one of which is not a
natural consequence of the other (Krashen, 1987).

The distinction between acquisition and learning is one of the (most important)
assumptions made by the American linguist Stephen Krashen in his theory of foreign language
learning. Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of
linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his
recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition.
During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books and articles and has been invited
to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.

1.1.1. Language Acquisition

Language acquisition refers to the process of natural, intuitive, subconscious

assimilation, the fruit of interaction in real situations of human conviviality in environments of
the language and foreign culture, in which the learner participates as an active subject. It is
similar to the process of assimilation of the mother tongue by children; process that produces
practical-functional skill over spoken language and not theoretical knowledge; develops
familiarity with the phonetic characteristic of the language, its structure and its vocabulary; is
responsible for oral understanding, for the ability to communicate creatively, and for the
identification of cultural values. In methodologies inspired by acquisition, teaching and
learning are seen as activities that occur on a personal-psychological level. According to
Stephen Krashen
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 "Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural
communication - in which speakers are concerned with the form of their
utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding."

An approach inspired by acquisition values the communicative act and develops the
learner's self-confidence. A classic example of language acquisition are teenagers and young
adults who live abroad for a year through cultural exchange programs, reaching a degree of
fluency in the foreign language next to the mother tongue, but in most cases, respect to the
language. They do not even have notions of phonology, nor do they know what is perfect
tense, modal verbs, or phrasal verbs although they know how to use them intuitively.

1.1.2. Language Learning

The concept of language learning is linked to the traditional approach to language

teaching, as it is still generally practiced today in high schools. Attention is drawn to the
language in its written form and the objective is the student's understanding of grammatical
structure and language rules, the parts of which are dissected and analysed. It is a task that
requires intellectual effort and deductive-logical ability. Form has equal or greater importance
than communication. Teaching and learning are seen as activities in a technical-didactic plan
guided and delimited by pre-established content (Crystal, 1997).

The theory is taught in the absence of practice. The correct value is valued and the
incorrect is repressed. Deviations are constantly corrected, leaving little room for
spontaneity. The teacher assumes the role of authority in the subject and the student's
participation is predominantly passive. In the case of English, it is taught, for example, the
operation of the interrogative and negative modes, irregular verbs, modal, etc. The student
learns to construct sentences in the perfect tense in written exercises, but he will hardly know
how to pronounce it, let alone when to use it.

It is a progressive and cumulative process, usually linked to a predetermined didactic

plan, which includes vocabulary memorization and aims to provide metalinguistic
knowledge. That is, it transmits to the student knowledge about the foreign language, its
functioning and its grammatical structure with its irregularities, its contrasts with the mother
tongue, knowledge that is expected to become the practical ability to understand and speak that
language However, this effort to accumulate knowledge about the language with all its

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irregularities becomes frustrating in the direct reason of the lack of familiarity with the
language.

A classic example of language learning are the numerous graduates of letters, with
knowledge of the language and its literature, already accredited, but still with clear limitations
in communicating in the language that could theoretically teach.

1.2. Learning strategies

L2 learning strategies are specific behaviours or thought processes that students use to
enhance their own L2 learning. The word strategy comes from the ancient Greek word strategia,
which means steps or actions taken for the purpose of winning a war. The warlike meaning of
strategia has fortunately fallen away, but the control and goal directedness remain in the modern
version of the word (Oxford, 1990). A given strategy is neither good nor bad; it is essentially
neutral until the context of its use is thoroughly considered. What makes a strategy positive and
helpful for a given learner? A strategy is useful if the following conditions are present:

(a) The strategy relates well to the L2 task at hand

(b) The strategy fits the particular student’s learning style preferences to one degree or
another, and

(c) The student employs the strategy effectively and links it with other relevant
strategies. Strategies that fulfil these conditions “make learning easier, faster, more
enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations”.

1.3. Individual Differences

Why do some people almost achieve the native speaker’s levels of competence in a
foreign language while others never seem to progress much beyond a beginner’s level? Some
second language learners make rapid and apparently effortless progress while others progress
only very slowly and with great difficulty. The reason probably is that people are not
homogenous! They have different personalities and styles. Thus, each individual is different
from the other.

These individual differences, according to Krashen , “enduring personal characteristics

that are assumed to apply to everybody and on which people differ by degree.” Humans differ

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from each other due to many biological or conditioned factors (affected by nature) or
unconscious forces (affected by past experiences) (Krashen, Second Language Acquisition and
Second Language Learning, 1988).

The many ways in which one learns about these differences are usually similar, through
introspection and interaction with other people, or by reading books and watching television or
cinema. However, in order to conduct research in individual differences, it is necessary to have
rigorous instruments, and a scientific way of providing reliable and valid.

The differences that one can explore are:

A. Age

B. Sex

C. Aptitude

D. Motivation

E. Learning Styles

F. Learning Strategies

G. Personality

The above mentioned differences are intricately interlocked with each other and in
totality play important roles in language learning. Language teachers should be aware of their
effects. In compared to the linguistics factors, these non-linguistic factors are not given much
importance in SLA research. Still many researchers over the years have made significant efforts
at exploring the role of these factors. In a sequence, we will take a look at their role in second
language learning.

1.4. Conclusion

This chapter concludes that learning is a consciously earned knowledge of a language

while acquisition is an automatic process of gaining mastery over a language. Learning
strategies define the limits of mastery an individual can achieve in a language. More appropriate
the strategies are, more chances there are to learn a language. Moreover, individual differences
whether they are intrinsic or extrinsic, play an important role in learning outcomes of a
language.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Learning verses Acquisition

To investigate their interrelationships and their implications in language teaching, clear

understanding of differences between acquisition and learning is necessary (Lessard-Clouston,
1997.). First, we must consider that languages, in general, are complex, arbitrary, irregular
phenomena, full of ambiguities, constantly changing at random and uncontrollable. Therefore,
the grammatical structure of a language can be too complex and abstract to be categorized and
defined by rules.

Even if some partial knowledge of the functioning of the language is achieved, it does
not become communicative ability. What is actually happening is a predominantly contrary
dependency: to understand the functioning of language as a system and to know its irregularities
depends on familiarity with it. Both rules and exceptions will only make sense and will resonate
when we have already developed some intuitive control over the language in its oral form; only
when we have already assimilated it.

Krashen admits, on the other hand, that knowledge gained through formal learning
(language learning) can be used to monitor speech. Krashen, however, does not specify the
language that would be the object of study, but it is assumed that he was referring and basing
his inferences and conclusions on teaching Spanish, whose study and occurrence as a foreign
language predominates over other languages in the USA and especially in the state of
California, where Prof. Krashen lives and works.

It is therefore necessary to investigate the characteristics of the target language, its

degrees of irregularity and difficulty, and how they affect the applicability of Krashen's
theory. It is also necessary to analyse the personality characteristics of the protagonists of the
teaching-learning relationship and the environment in which it occurs (Schütz, 2002).

According to Krashen, the study of the structure of the language can have general
educational advantages and values that high schools and colleges may want to include in their
language programs. It should be clear, however, that examining irregularity, formulating rules
and teaching complex facts about the target language is not language teaching, but rather is

5
"language appreciation" or linguistics (Krashen, Second Language Acquisition and Second
Language Learning, 1988).

2.2. Learning Styles

According to Ehrman Learning styles are not dichotomous (black or white, present or
absent). Learning styles generally operate on a continuum or on multiple, intersecting continua.
For example, a person might be more extraverted than introverted, or more closure-oriented
than open, or equally visual and auditory but with lesser kinaesthetic and tactile involvement.
Few if any people could be classified as having all or nothing in any of these categories
(Ehrman, 1996).

When left to their own devices and if not encouraged by the teacher or forced by the
lesson to use a certain set of strategies, students typically use learning strategies that reflect
their basic learning styles. However, teachers’ can actively help students “stretch” their learning
styles by trying out some strategies that are outside of their primary style preferences.

2.3. Individual Differences

According to Freeman, individual learner differences play a crucial role in the

acquisition of second language. However, despite the efforts of many researchers at reaching a
conclusive theory with regard to this, success has eluded them. At present, the scientific study
of the role of these differences in second language learning may not be very sophisticated and
advanced, but it can be hoped that the growing awareness of the need to focus on the individual
student and his individuality in a language learning situation will fuel the need to study the
phenomenon in a detailed and empirical manner.

Moreover, the analysis of these differences reiterates the commonly held belief that a
teacher, especially a language teacher, apart from imparting knowledge must also be a
psychologist who can modify his/ her teaching methodology according to the factors related to
the individual differences of his/ her students. It is not enough to just know that all students are
different from each other. The teacher should also be skilled and willing enough to help the
students use these differences to their advantage in the process of second language acquisition.
Thus it is hoped that the study of individual differences and their pedagogical implications will
further lead to the kind of teaching practices that increase the success ratio at second language
acquisition (Freeman, 2000).

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 CHAPTER THREE

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

3.1. Research Methodology

Researcher has adopted the qualitative research methodology for collection of data,
analysis of findings and to draw conclusions.

3.2. Population of Research

This research is conducted on two research subjects who are lecturers at Manjanbazam
Cadet College Barotha. Both the research subjects are English language qualified multi-linguals
who are teaching English as a second language to the students up to secondary level.

3.3. Sampling

For sampling of subjects, random sampling technique is adopted by researcher because

of availability of excessive number of population of said standard.

3.4. Limitations and Delimitations

This research is deduced from two research subjects. Conclusions are drawn on the basis
of data collected from research subjects only. However, it can be considered as reliable and
replicable taking into account the expertise of research subjects.

3.5. Research tools

Live broadcast interviews of subjects, interview proformas are used as research tools to
conduct the research.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA COLLECTION

4.1. Case Study A

Mr. Zaheer Asad is an assistant professor of English Language at Manjanbazam Cadet

College Barotha. He belongs to Hari Pur, a district in Khyber Pakhton Khaw, Pakistan. He
belongs to a Pakhton tribe and his native language is Pashto. He can speak Urdu, Punjabi and
English. He claims that he can understand Arabic as well. The researcher conducted an
interview of subject about how did he learn to speak in above mentioned languages. The
transcription of script is given below.

Researcher: Hi Sir, Can I have a few minutes of you. I am conducting a research on

multilingualism and I need to interview you to collect data. I would be very obliged to
have you answering my few questions.

Zaheer: Hello Naeem. Yes please. I would be very happy to help you out.

Researcher: Thank you Sir. Where you from and what are is your native language?

Zaheer: I am from District Hari Pur. My native language is Pashto. However, I can
speak Hindku, a local language of my home town and additionally, I can speak Urdu, a
version of Punjabi spoken in surroundings of Attock and definitely, English as well.
(Smile)

Researcher: Very impressive. So from where did you learn Pashto? Did you attend
some classes for it? It seems very difficult language for me.

Zaheer: Actually I never attended any class to learn Pashto. I even do not remember
how and when I started speaking in Pashto. I just born into a Pashto family and that’s
it.

Researcher: Hmmm. So is the case with other languages like Hindku, Punjabi, Urdu
and English or you learnt them by your efforts?

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 Zaheer: No. I learnt all other languages in different scenarios. I learnt Hindku because
it was spoken in streets, public schools, and whereabouts of my home and approximately
everywhere wherever I spent my childhood days. So after Pashto, I can say Hindku is
the language that I learnt with lesser efforts to learn. I learnt Urdu and English in
classroom environment. Urdu was comparatively easy for me because in our time, the
medium of instruction in schools was Urdu. It took lot of efforts to have a command on
English. And I learnt Punjabi after getting job in Attock. In start, it was a tough to go
language for me but with time, I got accustomed with it and now I can speak fluently in
Punjabi. However, it is not like natives. They easily trace that I am a Pathan who can
speak Punjabi. (Smile)

Researcher: Thank you very much for your time

Zaheer: You are always welcome dear!

4.2. Case Study B

Mrs Zunaira Sehrish is head of English Department at Manjanbazam Cadet College

Barotha. She is from Sialkot whose parents are from Kashmir and speak Kashmiri language.
Zunaira grew in an environment where Urdu and Punjabi were spoken mostly at home because
his father was an army officer who retired as Major General. She is married to a businessman
whose mother tongue is Punjabi (Pothohari dialect). Resultantly, she can speak Urdu, Kashmiri,
Punjabi (Sialkoti dialect), English and Pothohari dialect of Punjabi. The researcher talked to
her about her linguistic repertoire. The transcription of conversation is as given below.

Researcher: Assalam o alaikum Madam. Can we talk for a few minutes please? I have
few questions to ask to compile my research on multilingualism.

Zunaira: Of course. Please go on.

Researcher: Thank you. What is your native language?

Zunaira: Well, It is a confusing question for me. Both of my parents speak different
languages. My mother speaks Kashmiri, my father used to speak to us mostly in Urdu,
however his mother tongue was Punjabi. So collectively, my native language is both
Punjabi and Urdu.

9
Researcher: Wow! But in which language you feel yourself easy to communicate?

Zunaira: Well, Urdu is more convenient for me. Although Punjabi is even fine.

Researcher: So you are living in Attock. I suppose you are good with Punjabi of this
area too. How was your experience of learning this language? How did you learn it?

Zunaira: Well, I learnt it once I came here after my marriage. “Waqas ( Zunaira’s
husband ) log kyn k yahi language bolty hain to mere ly aur koi option nhi thi siwaye is
zuban ko seekhny k.” Because Waqas and his family speaks Punjabi, I had no other
option but to learn this language. In start, it was very difficult for me and I could not
understand most of the words. I started asking for words like “ Is lafz ka kya matlb hai”
( What is the meaning of this word) and eventually I started learning that language. Late
on, I realized that it is very interesting language and sweet too. May be it is because of
the fact that it is native language of my husband. Hahaha

Researcher: hahah. Thank you very much for your time. I am very much obliged.

Zunaira: You are welcome dear Sir.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

DATA ANALYSIS

5.1. Analysis of Case Study A

Case study A elaborates about a subject who is multilingual and can speak more than
two languages. He is a qualified teacher of English language. When asked about his mother
tongue he replies;

“Actually I never attended any class to learn Pashto. I even do not remember how and
when I started speaking in Pashto. I just born into a Pashto family and that’s it.”

His answer shows that first language acquisition is an unconscious process. All we need
to acquire a language is to have an environment of language in use during the period of your
initial language learning. As a result, you learn that language without paying much efforts to it,
regardless of the fact that how much difficult that language is.

When asked about the learning of other languages, he responds;

“Urdu was comparatively easy for me because in our time, the medium of instruction
in schools was Urdu”

Speaking about rest of second languages, for example about Punjabi, he says;

“I learnt Punjabi after getting job in Attock. In start, it was a tough to go language for
me but with time, I got accustomed with it and now I can speak fluently in Punjabi.
However, it is not like natives. They easily trace that I am a Pathan who can speak
Punjabi”

His responses make it clear that for second language learning, a person needs to pay
pretty much attention on the subject matter. Mastery over second languages vary from language
to language because natures of languages, degree of attraction, frequency of intimacy with
language and individual differences like ethnicity, social background, gender and first language
play a very important role during the process of second language acquisition. This can be seen
in Zaheer’s reply about Punjabi that;

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 I can speak fluently in Punjabi. However, it is not like natives. They easily trace that I
am a Pathan who can speak Punjabi”

It shows that individual differences and learning strategies play an important role in
language learning and language acquisition.

5.2 Analysis of Case Study B

Case study B describes a subject who is a multilingual lady from a native background
of multilingual family. Surprisingly, her first language is neither of her father nor of her mother
as she says;

“Both of my parents speak different languages. My mother speaks Kashmiri, my father

used to speak to us mostly in Urdu, however his mother tongue was Punjabi. So
collectively, my native language is both Punjabi and Urdu”

Critically analysing her answer, it can be inferred that she is hesitant to say that her
native language is actually Punjabi. Because she belongs to high middle class, she feels
uncomfortable to mention the fact. She assumes that Punjabi is a local language, however her
attitude towards language is superficial but realistically a natural one.

Cultural variation along with personality traits and class differences plays an important
role. Mr. Zaheer has no issue mentioning about Pashto as his native language. On the other
hand, Zunaira feels nervous to mention that her first language is Punjabi. While telling the
reasons of learning Punjabi, she says;

“Waqas log kyn k yahi language bolty hain to mere ly aur koi option nhi thi siwaye is
zuban ko seekhny k.”

Critical analysis reveals that she did not learn Punjabi willingly but for social
adaptability. While mentioning it, she thought it necessary to add that “mere ly aur koi option
nhi thi”. Personal attitude, personality and class difference paly a great part towards learning
of a language or languages.

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 CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSION

6.1 Learning and Acquisition

In the light of thesis built above, it is inferred that acquisition is an autonomous process
of attaining the knowledge of a language. On the other hand, learning is earning of command
with effort, motivation, personal attitude and natural ability to learn a language. Case studies
prove the language acquisition hypothesis of Stephen Krashen.

6.2 Role of Individual Differences

Individual differences play a crucial role in the acquisition of second language. At

present, the scientific study of the role of these differences in second language learning may not
be very sophisticated and advanced, but it can be hoped that the growing awareness of the need
to focus on the individual student and his individuality in a language learning situation will fuel
the need to study the phenomenon in a detailed and empirical manner. Moreover, the analysis
of these differences reiterates the commonly held belief that a teacher, especially a language
teacher, apart from imparting knowledge must also be a psychologist who can modify his/ her
teaching methodology according to the factors related to the individual differences of his/ her
students. It is not enough to just know that all students are different from each other. The teacher
should also be skilled and willing enough to help the students use these differences to their
advantage in the process of second language acquisition.

6.3. Conclusion

Language is all about connections and relations. Like individuals, words make families
while they interact with others. Verbs, Nouns, Phrases are just like components of body; organs
playing their role to make the body run. Familiarity, the ultimate result of interaction and
attention produces sequence of understandings and understandable words which is called
Language. Language is both acquired consciously and unconsciously while individual
differences work as catalysts.

13
References

Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. London: Cambridge

University Press.
Ehrman. (1996). Second Language Learning Difficulties: Looking Beneath the Surface.
Toronto : Sage Publishers.
Freeman, L. (2000). An introduction to second language acquisition research. London:
Longman.
Krashen, S. (1987). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New York City:
Prentice-Hall International.
Krashen, S. (1988). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. London:
Prentice-Hall International.
Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997.). Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers.
Tokyo: Kwansei Gakuin University Press.
Schütz, R. (2002, May 12). Periodicals of Language. London: Bingley Publishers. Retrieved
from https://www.sk.com.br/sk-laxll.html.

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