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Fall 11-17-2016

Teaching Functions: The Good, the Bad, and the

Many Ways to Do Better
Melanie Bayens
Murray State University

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 Murray State University Honors Program

HONORS THESIS

Certificate of Approval

Teaching Functions: The Good, the Bad, and the Many Ways to Do Better

Melanie Bayens

May 2017

Approved to fulfill the ____________________________________

Requirements of HON 437 Dr. Craig Collins, Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Approved to fulfill the ____________________________________

Honors Thesis requirement Dr. Warren Edminster, Executive Director
Of the Murray State Honors Honors College
Diploma
  

Examination Approval Page

Author: Melanie Bayens

Project Title: Teaching Functions: The Good, the Bad, and the Many Ways to Do Better

Department: Mathematics and Statistics

Date of Defense: November 17, 2016

Approval by Examining Committee:

_________________________________ __________________
(Dr. Craig Collins, Advisor) (Date)

_________________________________ __________________
(Dr. David Gibson, Committee Member) (Date)

_________________________________ __________________
(Dr. David Roach, Committee Member) (Date)

 
  

Teaching Functions:

The Good, the Bad, and the Many Ways to Do Better

Submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements

for the Murray State University Honors Diploma

Melanie Bayens

May 2017

 
  

Table of Contents

List of Figures..................................................................................................................................ii

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................iii

Introduction......................................................................................................................................1

Definition of Function and Its Role in Mathematics.......................................................................2

The Problems with Teaching Functions the Standard Way.............................................................7

Alternative Methods for Teaching Functions................................................................................14

Visual.................................................................................................................................14

Kinesthetic.........................................................................................................................20

Auditory.............................................................................................................................27

Technological.....................................................................................................................30

Whole Class Immersion.....................................................................................................35

When Nothing Fits Quite Right.........................................................................................39

Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................40

References......................................................................................................................................42

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List of Figures

Figure 1. Teachers Responses to Part One and Two of Task One

in the Musgrave and Thompson Study............................................................................8

Figure 2. Tasks One and Two Combined

in the Musgrave and Thompson Study............................................................................9

Figure 3. Histogram of Student Scores for the Two Physics Sections

in the Bressoud Study....................................................................................................11

Figure 4. The Family Tree............................................................................................................15

Figure 5. Dr. Carol Burn’s Box Diagram......................................................................................18

Figure 6. Cool Math’s Box Diagram............................................................................................18

Figure 7. Sarah Carter’s Function Machine Diagram...................................................................18

Figure 8. Sarah Carter’s Function Machines................................................................................21

Figure 9. The Front and Back of Sybrina L. King’s Box..............................................................21

Figure 10. Dynagraph Style One...................................................................................................33

Figure 11. Dynagraph Style Two..................................................................................................33

Figure 12. Dynagraph Style Three................................................................................................33

ii  
  

Abstract

The way functions are taught in school needs improvement. Many times when students are

introduced to functions in Algebra 2, the definition is glossed over, the instruction is lacking, and

deeper understanding of the concept is lost. This causes problems when students are required to

use this knowledge of functions in later classes, particularly, in Precalculus and Calculus. First,

this paper will give the definition of a function and its role in mathematics. Second, this paper

will delve into the problems of teaching functions the standard way. Finally, it will present

multiple alternative methods for teaching functions. Specifically, it will talk about teaching the

student using visual, kinesthetic, auditory, technological, and whole class immersion techniques.

While there is no specific “best way” to teach functions, this paper will show new and creative

ways to teach a subject that students often times dislike. Ultimately, this paper will persuade

current and future teachers to choose an alternative way to teach not only functions, but also any

concept, mathematical or otherwise.

iii  
  

Introduction

The understanding of functions is a crucial concept in the study of mathematics.

Functions are a core element, introduced in algebra and built upon for the rest of a student’s

mathematical career. By the time a student reaches calculus, it is assumed that he or she can

understand functions, use proper function notation, and begin to apply their knowledge of

functions to more complex problems. An issue arises when students don’t have this basic

foundation. They don’t understand functions because they weren’t taught functions in a manner

that was truly beneficial for student learning. Active learning can change this trend and provide

students with the critical foundation of functions that they need in order to succeed.

The term active learning was coined in the early 1990s by Bonwell & Eison as any

learning method that has students directly engaging with the material and using higher-order

thinking (1991, p. iii). Here, higher-order thinking refers to the top three tiers of Bloom’s

Taxonomy: analyzing, evaluating, or creating. Thus, active learning is not one specific method of

teaching. It is actually an umbrella term, which covers a variety of teaching methods that focus

on student interaction with the subject matter in a way that allows them to analyze, evaluate, or

create. According to a recent article by the Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences, “the

most important aspect of supporting [active learning] techniques is to recognize that there is not

‘one right way’ to teach. Instead, there is a spectrum of [active learning] methods, techniques,

and environments in which students can be effectively engaged in the process of learning” (2016,

p. 7). Thus, teachers can select different techniques each day so that they will fit with the lesson

they are teaching. They are not required to choose a specific technique and repeat it every day.

Each day is a blank slate, and every lesson can use a unique method.

1  
  

Functions can be taught using many different active learning techniques. However, in

order to discover the techniques and understand how to how to implement them, it is important

to first have a working definition of functions and understand why active learning works the way

it does. Consequently, the first section will discuss the good and the bad in multiple different

definitions of function and introduce the definition that will be used throughout the paper. The

second section will delve into the problems of teaching functions the standard way and discuss

why active learning is a valid and reliable alternative. The final section will present multiple

active learning methods for teaching functions. Specifically, examples of visual, kinesthetic,

auditory, technological, and whole class immersion techniques will be presented. While there is

no specific “best way” to teach functions, this paper will show new and better ways to teach a

subject that students often times dislike and do not understand. Ultimately, this paper will show

many alternative ways to teach functions, but that can also apply to any concept, mathematical or

otherwise.

The Definition of a Function and Its Role in Mathematics

There are several issues in the way functions are taught. One issue is how the definition

of functions is presented. When functions are introduced in algebra, students are often given a

poor definition of both functions and function notation, or the definitions are glossed over

entirely. Sometimes, definitions are never mentioned, and students must figure out their own

definition based on examples given in the class. For example, students might be told that y=x2 is

a function, y2+x2=1 is not a function, and then they must weed through the thousands of other

examples and figure out what does and does not fit the pattern.

2  
  

Some students are equipped with seemingly random tools to figure out what equations

are and are not functions, such as “the vertical line test.” They are told that if a vertical line

touches two or more points on the graph of an equation at one time, the equation is not a

function. The vertical line test is a valid and useful tool that makes it easy for students to pick out

what is and is not a function. However, without a proper definition to back up what the vertical

line test is exemplifying, students have no idea what a function actually is, what it does, why the

vertical line test makes sense, or how to identify functions in a non-graphical format. Even when

students are given a definition for function, another problem can arise: the definitions are often

lacking.

There is a multitude of different definitions for function, many of which are overly

simplified. According to Math Open Reference, “a function is a mathematical device that

converts one value to another in a known way.” While this is not wrong, it fails to explain many

other aspects of functions, such as there must be only one output for every input. According to

Icoachmath, “a function is a relationship between two quantities in which one quantity depends

on the other. A function is a many-to-one (or sometimes one-to-one) relation.” Whereas, the

Math Centre states that “a function is a rule which maps a number to another unique number”

(2009, p. 2). These definitions cover the issue of uniqueness, but can be confusing in that they

refer to functions in different ways. The Icoachmath definition refers to a function as a

relationship whereas the Math Centre definition refers to a function as a mapping. All three of

these definitions also simplify functions so that they apply only to numbers. Many definitions

have similar problems; they refer to functions in different ways and often narrow the focus too

much.

3  
  

In fact, functions are seen as variety of different things depending on the website or book

used. The Visual Calculus definition refers to a function as a “grouping or correspondence” of

numbers. Merriam-Webster also uses the word “correspondence”, but differs slightly by

introducing the idea that the correspondence is between elements in a set. WolframMathWorld

and the American Heritage Dictionary both use set theory to give the definition of a function,

and they also mention elements, not numbers. Algebra: A Complete Introduction refers to a

function as a mapping, but includes the word “numbers” again (Abbott & Neill, 2013, p. 65).

Paul’s Online Math Notes and Dictionary.com refer to functions as a relationship between sets of

ordered pairs. Wikipedia claims a function is a “relation between a set of inputs and a set of

permissible outputs.” Math Insight also references a relation between inputs and outputs. Math is

Fun calls it a “special relationship” between inputs and outputs. The list goes on and on. None of

the definitions are the same. Just from these few definitions, a function can be seen as a

grouping, correspondence, relationship, or relation. According to these definitions, functions also

apply to numbers, quantities, elements in a set, ordered pairs, inputs and outputs, or permissible

inputs and outputs. Without a proper definition of function, the examples used to explain

functions may become confusing and even incorrect. For example, if the working definition were

“a relationship between inputs and outputs,” a carwash could be seen as a function because it

takes in cars, and puts out clean cars. However, if the definition were “a mapping from one

number to another unique number,” a carwash would no longer be considered a function because

a car is not a number. Thus, it is important to have a good working definition of function.

Taking the best of each of the definitions referenced above and synthesizing them into

one yields the working definition for this paper:

4  
  

A function is a relationship between two groups of objects where each object in the first

group, the domain, corresponds to exactly one object in the second group, the codomain.

The benefits of this definition are that it is broad, precise, and understandable. This definition is

inclusive of many types of functions, not just numbers or ordered pairs. It is precise because

using it can easily filter out what is and is not a function. There is no gray area. Also, it is

understandable because the words are basic enough for even young students to understand. The

word “relationship” does not require upper-level math experience like a definition based on set

theory would. While this definition is the best and will be referenced throughout the paper, it

(along with the definitions mentioned previously) still lacks one aspect: it fails to mention

anything about function notation.

Function notation is as important to the understanding of functions as the definition itself.

It does not matter how thorough or well written a definition is. If it does not explain function

notation well, the students will not understand mathematical functions properly. In Master Math:

Algebra 2, the definition of function includes function notation. It states, “When the equation is a

function, you can write it in function notation. y=3x+1 is written f(x)=3x+1 in function notation.

f(x)=3x+1 is read as ‘f of x equals 3x+1.’ f(x) means the value of the function at x. f(x) is another

name for y in an equation” (Hansen, 2015, p. 86). This definiton includes a fatal flaw when

introducing students to function notation. Instead of explaining what f(x) means in terms of

function notation, it states that f(x) and y are interchangeable. It also fails to mention that

functions are written in terms of any other variables or have any other names other than f. These

are two common mistakes that many teachers make. They claim that f(x) and y are

interchangeable, and they introduce f as the only name of a function and x as the only variable.

5  
  

This leads to confusion when students continue their studies and begin to see functions with

different names such as g, h, or r written in terms of u, v, or t.

Intermediate Algebra with Trigonometry also claims the fatal flaw that “the symbols f(x)

and y are interchangeable when we are working with functions” (McKeague, 1983, p. 387). It

does however include an important note that is rarely mentioned in other definitions. It states,

“Note: The notation f(x) does not mean ‘f times x.’ It is a special kind of notation that does not

imply multiplication” (p. 387). This is something that students often do not understand and is,

therefore, an important part of the definition. Many definitions of function notation completely

overlook this, and, thus, teachers often forget to mention it.

The most thorough, well-written definition of function notation comes from College

Algebra. It reads:

It is customary to designate a function by the letter of the alphabet, such as f, g, F, or C.

We then denote the output corresponding to [the input] x by f(x), which is read ‘f of x.’

Thus f(x)=2x+3 specifies a rule f for determining an output f(x) for a given value of x. To

find f(x) when x=5, we simply substitute 5 for x and obtain f(5)=2(5)+3=13. The notation

f(5) is a convenient way of specifying ‘the value of a function f that corresponds to x=5.’

The symbol f represents the function or rule; the notation f(x) represents the output

produced by the rule. For convenience, however, we will at times join in the common

practice of designating the function f by f(x); (Shapiro & Kolman, 1985, p. 127-128)

This example includes several important aspects about function notation that were not mentioned

in the previous example. It includes the idea that a function can be called anything but is most

commonly referred to by a letter. It includes several examples on how to use function notation

and why it is important. It also carefully distinguishes the difference between f, the name of the

6  
  

function, and f(x), the output of the function. The final thing it does is reference x as the input,

implying that anything could be the input. Thus, for the rest of the paper, it can be assumed that

when function notation is referenced, this definition is in mind.

The Problems with Teaching Functions the Standard Way

The first issue with teaching functions is the poor definition of both function and function

notation used in the classroom, or the complete lack of a definition of one or the other. The

second issue occurs in the actual presentation of functions in the class. Teachers have two bad

habits when presenting functions. They gloss over the definition of function, function notation,

or both, or they teach primarily via lecture.

Often teachers introduce the definition of function but gloss over the definition of

function notation, leaving students to wonder about one of the core elements of mathematics.

When students are asked to build upon functions in precalculus and calculus, it is no wonder that

they struggle. They cannot solve complicated operations such as f (x + h) because they cannot

read function notation. Their previous teacher has set them up to fail because the functional

foundation given to them is shaky at best. Rather than ensure that the students have a deep and

thorough understanding of functions, the teacher has presented them with just enough

information necessary to pass the class. The mentality that teachers only need to guarantee that

the students pass their own class is one reason that leads teachers to gloss over proper

definitions. Another reason is that some teachers do not understand function notation themselves.

According to a 2014 research study at Arizona State University, out of 87 high school

teachers, 39 were placed in the low category based on their tendency to use variables consistently

and use function notation properly (Musgrave & Thompson, p. 285). In this study, 100 teachers

7  
  

were tested to see if they were able to define functions based on other functions and to

understand mismatched variables. In order to discover this, the teachers were given two tasks to

complete. In task one, given the functions w(u) and q(r), the teachers were asked to define c(v)

properly by filling in the blanks to the following statement, “c(v)= q(__) if 0<= __ <1 and w(__)

!(!!!)
if __>1” (p. 282-283). Then, given f(x)= !
, they were asked to find f(9) and explain their

answers. In proper function notation, the correct response should be v in all of the blanks for the

!(!!!)
first part of task one, and f(9)= !
or f is ill-defined for the second part of task one (p.283).

The results for task one are summarized in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Teachers Responses to Part One and Two of Task One

In task two, they were asked to describe the area inside a ripple of water as a function of

elapsed time, when the radius is increasing at a non-constant rate. The answer to this question

was judged not by whether the teacher had the correct formula, but instead on the proper use of

function notation. These responses were judged as high, medium, or low. Finally, the responses

from parts one and two of task one were also collectively judged as high, medium, or low (p.

284). These results are compared in Figure 2.

8  
  

Figure 2. Tasks One and Two Combined

These results show that only 10 out of the 87 teachers in the study or roughly 11.5% were

ranked as high on both tasks, and only 38 or roughly 43.7% were ranked as high on either or

both tasks. On the other hand, 39 out of the 87 teachers or roughly 44.8% were ranked low on

both tasks, and 68 or roughly 78.2% were ranked as low on either or both tasks (p. 285).

Although more research needs to be done, this study indicates that a large portion of high school

teachers do not fully understand functions or, more specifically, function notation. If teachers do

not understand function notation themselves, it is no wonder that the students will not be taught

function notation properly. However, even under the assumption that the teacher does in fact

understand function notation, many teachers still have a second bad habit when teaching

functions: teachers rely solely on lecture to teach.

Many teachers use lecture as their primary method of teaching. According to a 1997

survey of 207 academic members of the American Economic Association, lecture (86%),

blackboard (80%), and textbook (76%) had the greatest percentages of teachers using them “all

the time” or “very often.” (Benzing & Christ, p. 186). Although these instructors taught

economics, it is likely that this is the case in mathematics classrooms as well. The downside to

lecture is that this method simply gives students information without compelling them to

analyze, synthesize, or create a deeper meaning from the material. Active learning, on the other

hand, gives students the opportunity to learn at the higher levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy. In other

9  
  

words, active learning allows students to reach a higher understanding of the material by urging

students to learn on their own, analyze patterns, synthesize data, make discoveries, and create

their own understanding. There is a substantial amount of research supporting active learning and

its effects on student learning.

A 2004 meta-analysis done by Micheal Prince of the Department of Chemical

Engineering at Bucknell University examined multiple other research papers on the effects of

active learning, specifically looking for collaborative learning, cooperative learning, and

problem-based learning to discover evidence for or against active learning in the classroom.

Prince notes that “although the results [seen in the various papers] vary in strength, this study has

found support for all forms of active learning examined” (Prince, p. 7). A 2012 study by Grace

Fayombo of the School of Humanities and Education at The University of the West Indies in

Barbados showed that there were “statistically significant positive correlations between students’

learning outcomes and active learning strategies indicating that the strategies are important in

achieving learning outcomes” (p. 87). Thus, active learning increased the amount of student

learning in this study.

Another meta-analysis was published by the National Academy of Sciences in 2014

based off of the research of 225 studies “that reported data on examination scores or failure rates

when comparing student performance in undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and

mathematics (STEM) courses under traditional lecturing versus active learning” (Freeman et al.,

p.8410). This meta-analysis concluded that “active learning leads to increases in examination

performance that would raise average grades by a half a letter (p.8410). It also noted that “on

average, students in traditional lecture courses are 1.5 times more likely to fail than students in

courses with active learning” (p.8410). In fact, there was a 55% increase in failure rates under

10  
  

traditional learning when compared to active learning (p.8410). This analysis corroborates the

results of Fayombo, concluding that students are more likely to succeed and less likely to fail

under active learning when compared to lecture.

There are many forms of active learning. A study from the Carl Wieman Science

Education Initiative (CWSEI) at the University of British Columbia (UBC) compared traditional

instruction and “clicker-based peer instruction,” a form of active learning, in two introductory

physics sections of over 250 students each (Bressoud, 2011). In this study, the two sections were

taught identically using traditional lecture methods for the first 11 weeks. At the end of the 11th

week, the students were tested based on the Brief Electricity and Magnetism Assessment. The

results showed no noticeable difference between the two classes. For the 12th week, the control

section was taught using traditional lecture, while the other was taught using clicker-based peer

instruction. At the beginning of week 13, the students were tested on the material covered in

week 12. The results can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Histogram of Student Scores for the Two Physics Sections

The results showed a difference of 2.5 standard deviations between the means of the two

sections, indicating a huge advantage in clicker-based peer instruction over traditional lecture.

The Bressoud study covered large classes with over 250 students. A 2006 study by James

M. Carpenter of the University of South Carolina also studied large class sizes. This study

compared the effectiveness of various methods of learning, specifically jigsaw, lecture,

11  
  

lecture/discussion, case study, and team project. When comparing the students’ pretest and

posttest, jigsaw showed significantly more improvement than lecture and case study, both of

which showed significantly more improvement than lecture/discussion, which in turn showed

significantly more improvement than team project. The difference between lecture and case

study was inconclusive (p.16). While lecture tied as showing the second most significant

improvement, it was still tied with and beaten by a form active learning.

Interactive lecture with group activities was compared with lecture in a study by David

Lake in 2001. This study covered 170 physical therapist students in a physiology class split over

3 quarters. The first class was taught based entirely on lecture. The second was based on active

learning styles consisting of interactive lecture and group activities. The third class was taught

based on active learning again, but this time the students were told the benefits of active learning

and were given the results of the previous quarter. All three sections of the course covered the

same material, had the same readings, and had comparable weekly quizzes, midterms, and final

exams. For each of the active learning quarters “student academic performance was higher than

the academic performance of the students in the lecture course” (Lake, p. 899). This corroborates

the results of Bressoud, Carpenter, and Fayombo from the previous studies as well as the meta-

analyses done by Freeman et al and Prince. Again, the students achieved more in the active

learning classrooms.

All of these studies show an advantage for some form of active learning over traditional

instruction or lecture, although some techniques and studies show a greater advantage than

others. Many others also support the use of active learning techniques. It is said that active

learning is a basis for higher-order thinking. When students simply listen and take notes they

may not fully grasp the material, but active learning keeps students engaged, thereby helping

12  
  

them more fully understand the material (Gatewood, 2013). Recent literature related to teaching

mathematics shows that the best teaching practices use core content standards, technology,

manipulatives, differentiated instruction, grouping, scaffolding, probing questions, open-ended

assessment, and/or vertical and horizontal curriculum alignment (Education Alliance, 2006, p.15-

16). Many of these are forms of active learning.

The Schools Our Children Deserve by Alfie Kohn also puts an emphasis on active

learning. It references several research studies that place students in non-traditional classrooms.

In one done by researchers at Purdue University, the students are given a few problems and learn

to solve them solely by working with each other. The teacher merely guides instruction but does

not claim a student is right or wrong. The students are left to discover mathematics for

themselves and in turn decide what is right and wrong. In another study, students were given

fewer problems to solve over the course of the year, but asked more in depth questions about

them. In another, students were asked how to solve problems multiple ways. Another study done

by theorist Constance Kamii had students solve problems without being given any algorithms.

The results of all of the studies were the same. The students in these types of classrooms did just

as well as students in traditional classrooms. However, these students measured higher when

tested on thinking skills or more complex tasks that they had never seen before (Kohn, 1999,

p.159-182) Both research and literature show an advantage in active learning over traditional

lecture. Students succeed more, learn more, and develop better thinking and reasoning skills.

Active learning is not just for one type of classroom. It has been shown to be beneficial

for all types of students from engineering majors to physical therapists to children in the second

grade. While many teachers remain focused on lecture and textbook learning, those who are

breaking away from the crowd are encountering amazing results through active learning. Active

13  
  

learning can be applied anywhere in any classroom. It may offer a potential solution to the deficit

in student knowledge of functions and function notation, no matter what form it takes.

Alternative Methods For Teaching Functions

Active learning does not have one form. As mentioned previously, there is a multitude of

methods under the umbrella of active learning. This section attempts to give a few examples of

the best methods used for teaching functions and function notation. These teaching methods can

be roughly categorized by the type of learner that each method assists best. While a method may

fall into more than one category, for convenience sake, each method has been placed into only

one of the following categories: visual, kinesthetic, auditory, technological, or whole class

immersion.

Visual

The first category of methods is visual. These techniques are often effective for any

student, but are specifically geared toward students who learn by seeing things done. Recall that

these methods are not simply writing on a blackboard, which could be considered a visual

method of teaching. Rather, these methods go further than simply giving the students knowledge.

They allow the student to directly engage with the material and learn at the higher levels of

Bloom’s Taxonomy.

The first example is a subtle extension of blackboard teaching that comes from Mrs. E, a

teacher of 7 years. In order to teach functions and function notation, she begins by writing a

function. Then she replaces all of the variables with symbols such as boxes, stars, or hearts and

asks the students what is different about what she is doing. For example, she begins with f (x) =

x2 + 7, and then transforms it to f () = 2 + 7. She continues the process by changing the

14  
  

variables into other variables and asks the same question. Finally, she inserts numbers into the

functions. Then, she gives them problems from the book and asks them to work together to

figure out what is going on (E, 2014). The whole process is a discovery. The students are led by

the teacher, who is writing the problems on the board, but the students are not simply copying

down solutions as the teacher solves problems. Simply changing the input variables from letters

to symbols gives the students the opportunity to notice patterns, interpret inputs and outputs, and

discover function notation for themselves.

A 1987 article by Anita Johnston gives another twist on traditional function notation

instruction. She introduces functions through family trees. Her functions are not random

equations of numbers and variables; they are ways to relate family members to one another, such

as f (x) for “the father of x,” m(x) for “the mother of x,” s(x) for “the sister of x,” and b(x) for “the

brother of x” (p. 561). The students then take some time to solve specific examples for these

functions given a specific family tree (See Figure 4). For example, students are asked to find

“s(Joan),” “f (Brad),” and “m(m(Jennifer)” (p.561). When using this method, it is important to

check that the relations presented are actually functions. For example, if Joan has more than one

sister, this relation would not be a function. In the method shown by Johnston, this exact issue is

used to introduce the difference between relations and functions. s(x) was actually a relation and

not a function. Johnston used this to discuss the similarities and differences of functions and non-

functions.

Figure 4. The Family Tree

15  
  

After the completion of the family tree worksheet, Johnston continues the lesson by

giving another visual representation of functions. In this instance numbers are mapped to other

numbers. She begins with predictable mapping such as x→x + 5, before moving to more

complicated mappings such as x→2x – 3. She also shows relational mapping that are not

functions. During the discussion, students are asked to determine if a mapping is or is not a

function and why they know. Finally, she introduced function notation and gives an example.

She shows h(x) = x + 5, she provides them with several inputs and outputs such as h(0) = 5, h(8)

= 13, h(-4) = 1 and so on. Then, she gives the students several examples of relations written in

function notation and as a mapping and allows them to struggle to figure out which mappings are

functions and the outputs for several given inputs (p. 563). Johnston, like E, provided the

students with a visual interpretation of functions, but allowed the students to discover functions

and function notation for themselves. Rather than giving the students lists upon lists of examples

and non-examples and telling the students “this one is a function” or “this one is not a function”,

they begin with a basic definition and allow the students to work their way up to showing which

relations are or are not functions. The students are allowed to understand the examples based on

their own interpretation of the definition, not by simply taking the teacher’s word for it. These

methods are valuable for that reason. The students are given the opportunity to take a bit of

information and apply it on their own terms. They see what the teacher is doing in function

notation and how it is affecting the outcome, they come to recognize a pattern, and interpret how

this pattern could apply to all functions.

While some visual methods, like the ones previously seen, provide a path for student

discovery, many are simpler. Often visual methods are just ways to introduce functions. These

types of visual methods can then be used in association with other methods. Once functions are

16  
  

introduced via these methods, an alternative technique from another category altogether can take

over to reinforce these visual methods.

One such method comes from a 1979 article by Nancy Cetorelli. Cetorelli’s method is

similar to that of E. However, instead of using shapes to replace variables, she replaces the

variables in the functions with large boxes that the students can write in (p. 590). For example,

f (x) = x2 + 7 becomes f   =   2
+ 7. Cetorelli does not mention a method to teach

the students once function notation is introduced. However, it is said that f (a) or f (9) or f (g(x))

could easily be evaluated by placing a, 9, or g(x), respectively, into the appropriate box, and that

the students “seemed to have little trouble with the composite function when they used the box

notation as a guide” (1979, p. 591). Thus, any appropriate teaching method could be paired with

this way of structuring functions.

One example of a visual way to format functions comes from Dr. Carol Burns, who

relates functions to a box. In her example, the name for the function is labeled on the box.

Something, namely the input, is put into the top of box. Inside, something is done to that input.

Then, the output comes out of the bottom (2016). The image associated with this method is seen

in Figure 5. Cool Math introduces a similar formatting. There, functions are treated as “a box

with a special rule” (2016). The box takes an input in the top and spits an output out the bottom.

What the function does is written inside the box. The image associated with this method is seen

in Figure 6. An article from the blog Everybody is a Genius written by Sarah Carter, then a

teacher of 10 years, uses an image she calls a “function machine” to represent functions.

Similarly, it takes the input in the top, spits the output out the bottom, and places the function on

the inside. The only difference is that she places the name of the function to the left of the

“machine” (2012). The image associated with this method can be seen in Figure 7. Given the

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boxes or function machines, students can use these to understand functions. Any one of these

examples can make functions a little more understandable for students. In order to use these

formatting tools, all the students must do is place the inputs at the top, do something (as defined

by the function) to the input, and then place the output or answer at the bottom.

Figure 5. Figure 6. Figure 7.

Another option for introducing functions can be found at Cool Math. In addition to

providing a simple diagram for students to use, it also goes one step further. Before it introduces

functions via numbers and variables, it takes the math terms out and puts in a relatable example.

The first example of a function from Cool Math is “spit out the first letter of the movie” (2016).

An example such as this allows students to conceptualize what a function does, and possibly

even understand domain and range better. In the example used by Cool Math, students can

understand that 101 Dalmatians cannot be an input of the function, because it does not begin

with a letter. Therefore, it is not in the domain. Students might also understand that the outputs or

range of the function would only be letters, not phrases or numbers because the function only

asks for the first letter (2016). By relating functions to something concrete that students

understand such as a box, or a film, the students can better interpret the more abstract idea of

functions.

One critique of these methods is that students need to understand function notation, and

functions in general, without creating diagrams of boxes or machines. While this is true, these

visuals form a basis that allows students to get a grasp on an otherwise intangible topic. Students

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can begin by using these formatting techniques and then work toward utilizing function notation

properly without them. These diagrams are simply tools that allow the students to take their first

steps toward understanding one of the most crucial concepts in mathematics.

Not every visual technique is written on the board, in a worksheet, or a PowerPoint.

Another example of a visual method of teaching functions is a video. There are several videos on

the internet for teaching functions and function notation. From introducing a short clip for a

bellringer to using a video to introduce the main concept of the lesson, videos can be an engaging

visual method to teach students. Khan Academy has several instructional videos that can be used

to teach any type of lesson. Their lesson on functions and function notation gives an interesting

definition along with several examples of how to evaluate functions at a given input (Khan,

2013).

While there are several pre-made videos online at Khan Academy as well many other

websites, there is another way to create unique videos in the classroom. Animoto is a website

that allows a user to create videos using their own PowerPoint slides, images, text, and music for

a monthly fee. An article entitled “funky function notation” at busynessgirl.com gives an

example of a video about functions created using Animoto (busynessgirl, 2009). It introduces

functions and asks the students questions in a way that the teacher chooses and at a pace that the

teacher desires.

These are just a few of the many visual active learning methods that can be used to teach

functions. All of these methods provide the students with an opportunity to see functions in a

different manner. Their effectiveness comes not to the fact that they are visual, but to the fact

that they engage the students in higher-level thinking. These methods allow students to visually

see functions and function notation, synthesize materials, and discover functions for themselves.

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While many of these methods relate specifically to functions, some, such as videos, worksheets,

and diagrams, can be applied to a multitude of subjects. It is up to the instructor to pick and

choose what will work for their classroom.

Kinesthetic

Another category of instructional methods is kinesthetic. These methods involve hands

on or movement activities. They often take up a larger portion of the lesson than visual methods

because they require more time to set up and complete. While many of these methods are paired

with group work, they do not have to be. They can be completed in a whole class setting, in

groups, in pairs, or even individually. How these activities are framed is up to the instructor. The

important aspect of these kinesthetic activities is that they get students up, moving, creating, and

engaging themselves with the material, which places them in the active learning category.

The first few kinesthetic examples require a little bit of crafting skills. These methods

take the visual concept of the “function machine”, seen in the article “Everybody is a Genius,” a

step further by creating actual working “function machines.” One version of these machines

comes from Sarah Carter, a fourth year high school teacher, who created them out of boxes, as

seen in Figure 8. She labeled the “machines” with the names for two different functions:

Francine and George, or f and g, for short. By taking an input and putting it into the correct

“function machine,” the students could receive the output for that given input. In reality, the

boxes were designed to flip over a piece of paper. On one side of the paper was a value to be

found, for example, f (2), and on the other side was the answer, for example, 1. Carter used these

machines to allow students to check their work when solving the given functions: g(x) = x + 2

and f (x) = 2x – 3 (2014). While the students could have simply flipped the slips of paper over,

20  
  

the “function machines” provided them with the opportunity to get up, move across the

classroom, and see the machines do what functions do.

Figure 8. Function Machines

A 2002 article by Sybrina L. King provides a similar example of a function machine for

students to use. King uses a box with slits cut into the side of the box that are large enough to

slide card stock strips through them so that the strips stick out on both sides. The function is

fastened to the front of the box by Velcro. On one side of the strip, the input is visible. By sliding

the input into the box, the output becomes visible on the other side of the card stock strip (p.

637). This box can be seen in Figure 9. Similar to the machines made by Carter, King’s boxes

give the students the opportunity figure out how functions work for on their own. Both of these

“function machines” can be used in discovery lessons, group activities, or simply to allow

students to check their work after solving problems. Either way, the students are more involved

in the lesson because they are actively engaging with the material.

Figure 9. The Front and Back of King’s Box

The examples thus far have been crafty ways to involve the students in the lesson, but

there are multiple other kinesthetic ways to get students directly engaging with the material that

21  
  

do not require the teacher to be as skilled in arts and crafts. Getting the students up and

interacting with each other and the course material is the main goal. The tools used to facilitate

this learning are secondary.

Not all teachers are crafty. If a teacher is lacking in arts and crafts skills, another

kinesthetic method to implement is the case study. In the case study method, students are given a

source material (a newspaper article, video, photo, script, scenario, etc) to analyze in a way that

the teacher chooses (Centre for Teaching Excellence, 2013). Perhaps the students are given

photos of real life functions (e.g. a car going through a car wash, bread being placed in a toaster,

clothes going in the washing machine, or someone painting a fence) along with photos of non-

functions (e.g. someone rolling dice, a dollar being placed in a vending machine, or someone

pulling the handle on a slot machine). The students are then are asked to group the photos into

functions and non-functions and explain why they placed the photos where they did. This is just

one example of a case study that could be used with functions.

With case studies, there are multiple options. Students can analyze business articles that

have functions in them or watch videos about real world applications of functions before being

asked to use this information in a way the teacher desires. Even something as simple as word

problems could also be considered a case study. Case studies in general can be formatted to fit

the subject being taught and organized however the teacher likes. When using case studies, the

students are engaging with the material in a way that prompts them to think at the higher levels

of Bloom’s taxonomy.

For teachers who are less crafty but more outgoing, role-play is an option. Functions can

be presented in a disguise. For example, the students could run stores in the classroom. The

students would then need to figure out how much it would cost to purchase items at different

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stores. Rather than an exact price for each item, the stores could give discounts for purchasing

more than a certain number. For example, one store selling school supplies could sell pencils for

10 cents each, but if a student purchases 10, each additional pencil is 5 cents. This allows the

students to create their own functions; all the while, they are role-playing as vendors. The Centre

for Teaching Excellence at the University of Waterloo states that role-play is “a form of

interactive case study where the experience of participating in the role-play is the basis for

further discussion” (2013). This means that getting the students involved through role-play

creates questions. The students will be learning, thinking, discovering, and asking more and

better questions. The teacher also gets the opportunity to direct the learning process by asking

questions and sharing information (e.g. “How would you calculate if someone bought 40

pencils?” “Can you create an equation for this?” “This is called a function,” etc). Like case

studies, role-play can be used as an introductory activity where the students are discovering the

information or as a lesson check where the students have been presented with the information

previously and are now being asked to apply what they have learned.

A commonly used kinesthetic method is grouping. Grouping of any kind gets students up

and moving around the classroom and allows students to work with one another. A unique

example of grouping was presented in a conference paper written by Seifedine Kadry and Fadi

Safieddine of the American University of the Middle East (KUWAIT) in July of 2016. Kadry

and Safieddine proposed grouping the students into several groups of 4 or 5 students, where the

top students in the class are the leader/mentor of each group. The mentors also form a separate

group sometimes called the M-Team, leaving their remaining peers in the Peer Group (p. 4041,

2016). While the mentors were in the M-Team, each Peer Group and the M-Team were allotted

25 minutes to read and work the material. After 25 minutes, the mentors are placed back with the

23  
  

peers and each group is allotted another 20 minutes to discuss material and allow the mentors to

answer any questions for their group of peers. Then, 15 minutes are given for an individual quiz,

followed by 20 minutes to go over answers and have a group discussion (p. 4044, 2016). While

this is a very structured version, this type of grouping can be modified to work with a teacher’s

desired schedule. The way the students are grouped is more important to the method than the

exact amount of time allotted for each activity. The method proposed by Kadry and Safieddine is

one of the many ways to group students. Students can also be grouped by ability, by mixed

ability, by the type of learner they are, or by any other way the teacher desires. Grouping is a

method that is easy to include in any lesson and can be paired with almost any other method.

While grouping is easy to include in the classroom, some techniques are more difficult.

These techniques, however, can provide a wonderful classroom dynamic if they are possible to

implement. A math emporium is an example of such a technique. According to Active Learning

Methods in Mathematics Part 3, “an emporium usually has tables at which students can work

collaboratively and is staffed by a large number of teaching assistants and tutors. Because the

work of students is self-paced, … students spend most of their time actively engaging with

course content, providing opportunities for engagement with a range of tasks” (Braun, 2015).

Since this environment requires several teachers or tutors to be successful, it is often difficult to

implement. However, a smaller version of an emporium would work for small class sizes. With

functions, a group of students could work on mapping, another group on graphs, another group

on written functions, and another on applications or any number of things. The students in the

groups could also use a variety of techniques to learn the material. The possibilities are endless,

and most of them are for the student to decide. The teacher is there to help answer questions and

24  
  

guide only when necessary. The emporium method can be easily combined with multiple other

methods, kinesthetic or otherwise.

Another method that is often difficult to implement but can have a huge payoff is inquiry-

based learning. With inquiry-based learning, individual students are asked to solve and present

problems to the rest of the class. Often students are given the problems for homework the day

before so that most of the class time is used in the presentation of student work. The rest of the

time is used discussing whether the student’s work is correct or how to fix it if it is wrong. The

other students in the classroom do all of the discussing and correcting. The teacher may give a

mini-lecture at the beginning of a unit, but, other than that, the teacher only guides the students if

absolutely necessary and assigns the problems to be solved (Braun, 2015).

To teach functions under an inquiry-based learning approach, the teacher might begin

with a mini-lecture, perhaps giving the students the definition of function and function notation.

Then he or she would assign three or so students the task to solve a problem. The next day, the

three students would present each of their problems on the board and explain their process. For

example, one student might be asked to classify several relations as functions or not functions

when viewed as a mapping. Another student might be asked to present graphical representations

of relations and explain why they are or are not functions. The final student might be asked to

explain how to determine an output of a function based on some representation. The rest of the

class will critique their work and provide rationale. The rest of the unit will continue in the same

manner. Some days will require more time for presentations and others will require less. The rest

of the time will be used for whole group discussion. Like the emporium method, the students do

most of the learning on their own while the teacher serves only as a guide. One reason inquiry-

based learning may be difficult to implement is because students are required to do quite a bit of

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work outside of the classroom before it is their turn to present. If students are not willing to do

this, inquiry-based learning is almost impossible to implement.

The final kinesthetic method to be mentioned exists outside of the classroom completely.

It is the field trip. Field trips often get a bad reputation for not providing the students with any

real opportunities to learn and allowing students to goof off. However, field trips can go well if

implemented correctly. According to The Centre for Teaching Excellence at the University of

Waterloo, “research shows that students learn more from field trips in which they are not simply

observers” (2013). Thus it is important to “encourage students to participate in their surroundings

by giving an assignment that must be accomplished using data from the field or notes from a

visit” (2013). When teaching functions, students could potentially benefit from visiting a

professional who uses functions in their everyday work. This could show students the importance

of learning functions. One possible assignment to give the students might be to ask a valuable

question during the field trip or to take notes on the discussions.

To ensure the students benefit from the field trip as much as possible, it is important to

use the class period before the field trip to prepare by discussing what is going to happen and

giving the assignment to be accomplished on the field trip. The final way to help the students

benefit from the field trip is to have a discussion over the material covered on the field trip as

soon as possible so that the students can retain the important information. If the field trip lasts for

the entire class period or day, the discussion should occur during the next class period (n.d). If

students are prepared, have a goal, and can recap what happened, field trips can be a great

kinesthetic method of instruction.

Kinesthetic instructional techniques provide the students with a hands-on learning

environment. The methods can range from simple manipulatives to a complete change of the

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learning environment. While there are many more methods out there, the methods discussed in

this section give a few really good examples of how to kinesthetically teach functions. Each of

these can be modified to work for other lessons and even subjects. It is up to the teacher to

modify them to fit the needs of the class.

Auditory

The next category is auditory. Auditory methods are those that use mostly sound to teach.

The students not only benefit by listening to the teacher and other students, but also by speaking

up and taking a more active role in the classroom themselves. These methods can take any

amount of time from a few minutes to an entire class period. While the options are endless, the

examples presented in this section are just a few of the ways to use active learning to teach with

an auditory perspective.

Some auditory methods are quick and easy to include in almost any lesson. “Think-Pair-

Share” is one of them. This technique gives the students a few minutes, usually 2-5, to think

about a problem or prompt on their own. In a lesson about functions, students could be asked to

evaluate a function at a specific input or interpret a graph or determine whether a given relation

is or is not a function. Then, students are paired with a partner to discuss the work they have

done and compare their answers. Finally, some pairs are asked to share with the entire class.

Both the students and the teacher benefit greatly from this type of procedure (Braun, 2015). The

students are given the opportunity to think about the concepts being taught on their own before

discussing with a partner to justify their answer. This allows the students to think deeply and

then explain their thought process. With this technique, the teacher is also given verbal feedback

27  
  

from the class. Thus, they can immediately assess the understanding of the students and

determine whether the instruction went well or if something needs to be retaught.

Another quick auditory technique is to read a short story. Short stories are great ways to

excite the class and get them interested in the lesson. King used the short story “The Sneetches”

by Dr. Seuss to teach function notation (2002). In this story, the “Plain-Belly Sneetches” go

through Mr. McMonkey McBean’s machine and come out with stars on their bellies, while the

opposite happens for the “Star-Belly Sneetches”. King relates the story to teaching functions

because the machine in the story is a representation of a function machine: a “Plain-Belly

Sneetch” goes in, a “Star-Belly Sneetch” comes out, or vice versa (2002). This short story or a

multitude of other short stories could be told to get the class excited about learning and ready for

the lesson without taking a lot of instructional time.

A more time intensive, but still commonly used, method is questioning. Questioning is a

method that is often paired with lecture, group work, or used entirely on its own. When

questioning is used on its own it is often referred to as discussion. Many teachers believe that

discussion only belongs in English and History classrooms, but this is not the case. Discussion

allows students to interpret the lesson in their own words. Rather than listing examples of

problems, working them out step by step, and having students copy down the work, teachers can

use questions to ask students how they would do the next step, why the step is valid, how they

know something is true or not true or simply what the answer is. According to The Centre for

Teaching Excellence at the University of Waterloo, “questions are the simplest form of

interactive teaching tool” (2013). This is because any and all students can participate. Questions

range in difficulty and keep students of every level engaged and focused.

28  
  

A more structured version of questioning is a debate. Again, many people believe debates

only belong in a history class, but this is simply not true. Students can be split up into groups to

debate anything for as little or as long as the teacher desires. To understand functions, one group

of students could cover graphical representation of functions, one mapping diagrams of

functions, and another algebraic representation of functions. The students could then debate

which format is the best representation by analyzing the pros and cons of each. The students can

debate which approach is best to see that an equation is or is not a function, which one is best for

evaluating inputs, which approach is the most abstract, and so on. The students will have fun

debating with the other students about why their representation is best and learn something about

the different ways to represent functions in the process. According to The Centre for Teaching

Excellence at the University of Waterloo, “a debate is a good way to encourage class

participation in large groups without losing control” (2013). Debates have structure and rules set

out at the beginning to prevent the discussion from turning into chaos. By structuring the

questioning in a debate, it gives the opportunity for students to collaborate and listen to others, as

well as speak their minds on the subject without being overpowered by other, more-talkative

students.

The final example for the auditory category can really be placed in almost any category.

It is the “flipped classroom.” In this method, the students do most of the tedious, but necessary,

work outside of class. At home, students read passages from the book, watch videos on the

subject, do practice problems, copy down definitions, or complete basic proofs, etc. (Braun,

2015). This leaves the class period open for more in-depth learning. The reason it has been

placed in the auditory category is because, while “flipped classrooms” can use group work,

manipulatives, videos, worksheets, or any other form of instruction during the regular class time,

29  
  

more often than not, they are paired with discussion. The students go over the reading, examples,

video, or any questions that may have arisen from the work done in preparation for the class.

Much like inquiry-based learning mentioned in the kinesthetic section, a “flipped classroom” can

be difficult to implement because they both require the students to do quite a bit of work outside

the classroom. In fact, “flipped classrooms” do not work if the students refuse to do the assigned

work ahead of time. Instead of being able to use the class period to discuss what was planned, it

must be used to catch the students up on what they were supposed to do the night before.

Therefore, this method must be used cautiously. When it works, it can have wonderful results,

but when it does not work, it fails spectacularly.

The use of auditory methods range from simple five-minute short stories or think-pair-

shares to completely discussion based classrooms. The methods discussed in this section are just

a few of the many auditory active learning methods that exist. Any one of these methods can be

paired with any lesson and used in any way a teacher desires. Because these procedures are

active learning techniques, they allow the students themselves to teach most of the lesson by

letting the students speak their own minds and hear from other students. The teacher is mostly a

guide to facilitate the learning along the way.

Technological

As we move further into the 21st Century, technology is becoming better and better.

Computers are becoming faster, smaller, and are more readily available in classrooms. If a

teacher has access to the internet and computers, that opens the possibility for including

technological methods in the classroom. These methods require a variety of technological

30  
  

devices from computers to tablets to smart phones to SmartBoards, and so the ability to include

them in the classroom depends on the availability of those devices.

The first option for technology in the classroom is the SmartBoard. SmartBoards are not

always available, but, if a teacher has access to one, SmartBoards can change the classroom

dynamic completely. SmartBoards are digital whiteboards that allow students and teachers to

write directly on the board and solve problems, which makes it interactive and fun for the

students. They can be thought of as a larger version of a tablet. Each SmartBoard comes with

notebook. The toolbar in notebook comes with many preset images, such as lines, coordinate

planes, circles, etc., that can be pulled up onto the screen. No time needs to be wasted drawing

coordinate planes when the image can easily be displayed. Also the SmartBoard can extend

pages when writing whereas with a traditional chalkboard or whiteboard, work must be erased.

With a SmartBoard, notes can continue until they are completed and can even be saved for a later

date. Thus, forgetting where the class left off is no longer an issue. At the very least,

SmartBoards can turn lectures into interactive discussions.

SmartBoards are not always available, but most teachers are equipped with a computer,

tablet, or smart phone. Because of this availability, apps are a second group of tools that can be

used to improve a lesson. A good list of 21 apps for teaching mathematics can be found at

teachthought.com. This includes apps for many different subjects and grade levels. Two apps in

particular that can easily be applied to functions are GeoGebra and Ezy Graph (edshelf, 2013).

GeoGebra is primarily a graphing tool that allows teachers and students to plot points, lines,

functions, and shapes by typing in equations and points. In addition to graphing, teachers can

create their own interactives for students to use if they have any programming knowledge.

GeoGebra is available for Apple, Android, and even Linux devices. Ezy Graph is also an

31  
  

interactive graphing tool to use in the classroom. With Ezy Graph, students and teachers can plot

points and create graphs by typing in equations and points or by simply touching the screen. The

graphs are customizable by color and type (dotted, dashed, full line, etc.), and the critical points

are shown on the screen. This is available for iPad and iPhone, so students can work on their own

devices at school or at home. The downside is that it is not available for Android devices. Both

apps are a great way to graph functions and create an active learning environment in the

classroom. An example of how to teach functions with these apps comes from the article

“Teaching the concept of function,” found at math4teaching.com. It includes a sample program

created with GeoGebra along with a worksheet (erlina, 2010). The worksheet prompts the

students to use the program to discover what happens to a shape when one aspect of the shape

changes.

Another application for GeoGebra is to present functions through dynagraphs. Michael

Todd Edwards, professor at Miami University, and Jennifer Nickell, PhD Candidate at North

Carolina State University, created several different versions of dynagraphs which can be found at

nctm.org (2014). There are multiple types of dynagraphs. One shows two number lines, one

labeled input and one labeled output. The point on the input line draws an arrow to the output

line. When the student moves the point on the input line, the arrow moves to adjust to the correct

outpu (See Figure 10). Another dynagraph shows the same relation between the points, except

the output line is not parallel, but perpendicular to the input line, which resembles a coordinate

plane (See Figure 11). The final dynagraph plots input and output points on a coordinate plane,

thereby graphing the function. The student creates the function from scratch by moving the input

on the x-axis. There are dotted lines that connect the coordinate point to both the x and y-axes

(See Figure 12). No matter which style of dynagraph the teacher chooses, the function can be

32  
  

presented outright or hidden, and the function can be changed. This allows the student to guess

the function, plot different functions, or simply relate the function given to what they see

happening in the dynagraph (2014). Therefore, this tool can be used in discovery lessons,

knowledge checks, or as a way for students to go more in-depth with functions. Additional apps

for teachers, mathematical or otherwise, can be found at scholastic.com (Connell, 2012).

Figure 10.

Figure 11.

Figure 12.

In a relatively low-tech classroom, where students do not have access to apps because

they do not have smart phones or do not have the proper type of smart phone, there are websites

33  
  

available that allow students to interact with functions online. As long as there is access to a

single computer in the classroom, the teacher can pull up the websites and provide a whole class

instruction using the online programs. The previous example of dynagraphs is one example that

can be done online and not just on a smart phone. Another interactive function activity that can

be used online is a function machine found at shador.org (2016). Students are able to insert an

input or x into the function machine. It will give them an output or y value. The students

continue to do this until they are able to guess what function the machine is performing. Then,

the students can try again with a new function machine. If they get it wrong, they are able to try

again until they get it right. They can even check their score to see how well they are doing at

guessing the right function (Shador, 2016).

A similar activity entitled “the Function Machine” created by wpsu.org asks students to

guess the function based off a list of four inputs and outputs. Students are then asked to guess the

graph of the equation out of three given graphs (ket.pbslearningmedia.org). Both of these online

“function machine” activities provide a discovery-type lesson. Rather than giving the students

the function, they are guessing the function from the inputs and outputs. These activities can be

presented in a whole class setting, but, if there are enough computers, phones, iPads, etc., they

can also be done individually or in groups.

Technology, if readily available, can also be a basis for an entire course. Teachers can

structure a day, unit, or even an entire course as a lab course. Lab courses give students the

opportunity to work on several problems with the aid of a computer or calculator (Braun, 2015).

The problems presented in a lab course can be as in-depth as the teacher desires and are usually

presented through a computer program that the teacher either chooses or designs. The students

work individually or in pairs to solve the problems. Like inquiry-based learning, mentioned in

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the kinesthetic section, lab courses allow students to learn on their own and with each other;

however, instead of the teacher acting as a guide, the teacher works behind the scenes by creating

or choosing the computer programs, which serve as a guide instead. The difficulty in using a lab

course as an active learning method is that technology is not always readily available for all

students. It is difficult for students to use computers to learn the material if there are not enough

computers for each student. However, when it is possible to create a lab course, they provide a

great way for students to work at their own pace and discover the material independently.

Overall, when it is readily available, technology can be a great tool to use to teach functions.

Whole Class Immersion

The term “whole class immersion” is used to mean any method that transforms the way a

class is structured rather than how a class is taught. These methods range from subtle to

dramatic, but often take up very little class time. They are easily paired with any of the other

methods previously mentioned because they generally do not have much to do with instruction.

Rather, they deal with the routine, discipline, or grading procedures in a class. These methods,

however, are not to be underestimated because they can transform an entire class, providing

students with additional motivation to succeed, keeping students interested in the material, and

encouraging students to help one another.

The first example falls on the subtle end of the spectrum and comes from the 2012 article

“My 35 Favorite Free Apps for Teachers” by Genia Connell. Out of the 35 apps listed,

ClassDojo is one of the best to use to structure a classroom. ClassDojo is an app that allows a

teacher to give students points for behaving well and take away points for behaving poorly. It

also connects students, teachers, and parents through chat, pictures, and videos. Simply put, it is

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a way to reward students for behaving well in class and notify students on their misbehaviors,

but also to connect teachers and parents. The teacher can notify the parents when a student acts

out or does exceptionally well. The teacher can also connect with students in case they miss

assignments, need extra help, etc. Students can also submit their work by sending a picture to the

teacher via the app. ClassDojo is meant as a simple way to help with the organization and

discipline used in the classroom. It may also foster a healthy competition between students as

they try to earn the most points in the class. Overall, the teacher spends very few minutes of the

class adding or subtracting points from students. Most of the class time is spent doing activities

such as the previously mentioned active learning methods.

Another whole class immersion technique is called “Survivor Algebra,” found at

coolmath.com (K., 2005). It is entitled “Survivor Algebra” because, originally, it structured an

algebra class based on the show “Survivor.” Although it was first used in an algebra class, it can

be implemented in any class, mathematical or otherwise. In “Survivor Algebra,” students are

placed into Groups/Tribes and are told that, in order to “survive” the class, they must work

together. Teams are balanced by basing the teams either on the students’ perceived strengths and

abilities, or on the students’ previous math grades. During class time, there is always time for

Tribes to work together to solve problems or complete activities. The rest of the class is

completed normally, as the teacher decides. The differences between this set up and traditional

classes revolves mainly around the grading.

Tribes compete in a predetermined number of challenges (e.g. tests/quizzes) throughout

the year/semester. For a tribe to “win” the challenge, the tribe must have the highest average

score compared to the other tribes. Before the tribes’ averages are calculated, the lowest score

from each team is dropped. In the scenario at coolmath.com, the teacher provides each member 5

36  
  

bonus points for winning the challenge, but different prizes could be given based on teacher

preference. A few extra rules are also added. For example, when a winning team member scores

less than a 70%, he or she does not receive any points. Also, if the lowest score on the winning

team is less than a 79%, that member does not get any points. Teams with all members receiving

a 70% or higher receive 3 bonus points each. Tribe members cannot sit next to each other during

challenges, but are encouraged to help one another during and outside of class. In the end, the

players whose average is 100 or higher going into the final challenge receives immunity from the

final challenge (2005).

Before survivor algebra, the algebra class mentioned had a typical college pass rate of

40%; it now has a steady 75-80% pass rate (2005). Whether this comes from the bonus points the

students receive on tests or the fact that the students enjoy the class, collaborate more, and

consequently learn the material better is undetermined. Regardless, teachers can modify this

method as they see fit to work for any classroom. If a teacher does not believe in extra credit,

instead of giving bonus points, the teacher could award winning students with a prize at the end

of the year or a special privilege. For example, the winning team each week could receive a

privilege such as eating in class, an extension on homework, or sitting in a special area of the

classroom during group activities. The possibilities are endless with this technique because it can

be easily molded to fit any class and any subject.

The final whole class immersion technique is a computer program called Classcraft that

was created in 2013 by Shawn Young, a high school physics teacher, along with his father,

Lauren, and brother, Devin. This technique morphs an ordinary class into an interactive video

game. In order to “play,” students are broken up into teams of 5 or 6 where the success of the

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team is dependent on the success of everyone in the team. Each student takes on a character role

such as Mage, Healer, or Warrior, each of which has its own strengths and weaknesses.

Like ClassDojo, Classcraft is designed so that the game runs passively in the background.

The teacher teaches the lesson normally, however he or she sees fit, and when something

eventful happens in the class (such as a student answering a question correctly or a student

talking without raising his or her hand), the teacher can quickly switch over to Classcraft to

award experience points or take away health points before moving on with the lesson. Classcraft

does not change how the teacher instructs; it simply changes how the teacher interacts with the

students, maintains discipline, and structures the class.

When a student misbehaves too many times, they may lose all their health points and

“fall in battle.” It is up to their teammates to save them or they run the risk of losing health points

as well. On the other hand, doing well earns experience points, which can help a student to gain

rewards. According to classcraft.com, “Classcraft is relevant to students because the risks and

rewards in the game are real. Do well academically and help your teammates with their

homework, and you can gain experience points that can unlock real powers like eating in class or

asking a question on an exam. Show up late too many times, and you might fall in battle and

need to come to detention” (2016). Thus, Classcraft blends school with a video game, making it

fun and relatable for the students. The rewards are completely customizable by the teacher, so if

he or she does not like the original rewards or punishments, they can be changed according to his

or her preference.

Overall, Classcraft can help teachers monitor behaviors, encourage students to participate

and become involved in the class so they can earn experience points, and even get students to

enjoy the subject because they are more focused and therefore understand it better. It also fosters

38  
  

cooperation because all members of the group are affected by the actions of each member. Thus,

the students help each other and keep each other on task. In addition, positive reinforcement is

often lacking in classrooms, and Classcraft is a way to remind the teacher to reward students for

being on task and participating. Another benefit is that the basic version of Classcraft is free.

Only the upgraded version with additional features costs anything, and it is just eight dollars per

month. Classcraft, in general, is an inexpensive way to structure a class, motivate students, and

maintain discipline.

Whole class immersion techniques are not meant to be used as a lesson plan. They are a

way to structure an entire course so that the teacher can focus on teaching and the students can

focus on learning. These techniques support collaboration, involvement, and higher-level

thinking, which is why they can be placed under the umbrella of active learning. Whole class

immersion techniques usually take very little class time, but they do require a little bit of extra

work to set up. After the students understand the structure of the class, these techniques simply

run in the background, allowing the teacher to use any other method during class. This is why

whole class immersion techniques can be used in any classroom and any subject.

When Nothing Fits Quite Right

Many different methods have been presented to teach functions; however, there are

hundreds more. If none of the previously mentioned methods seem to work with the proposed

topic, there are two excellent databases where teachers can find activities for any lesson.

Mathelicious.com is one such database, helping teachers to take common core math standards

and turn them into lessons. Teachers can search this website to find the types of lessons that are

more relatable to students and the real world. There are filters that enable teachers to refine their

39  
  

search to specific standards, grade levels, and subjects. The results are lesson guides, handouts,

interactives, videos, and much more. A one-year subscription to mathelicious.com cost three

hundred and twenty dollars, but a 30-day trial is free. By signing up on the website, teachers are

able to save the lessons, teach them, and reflect on the results.

Another useful database is PBS LearningMedia. This database provides lessons and

activities for all courses (not just math) and all levels from preschool to 12th grade (2016). Like

mathelicious.com, PBS LearningMedia allows teachers to search for activities and narrow the

results based on subject, resource type, language, accessibility features, permitted use, and

Kentucky custom content. Unlike mathelicious.com, PBS LearningMedia allows teachers and

students to sign up for an account for free. By signing up, teachers can save different activities to

their favorites and place different items into folders for later viewing. The website also has a

lesson builder, storyboard, quiz maker, and puzzle builder available for member teachers.

Students who sign up also have direct access to the quizzes, puzzles, and lessons that the teacher

creates. In addition, they can look for their own lessons or activities and favorite those as well.

Both databases are a good source for teachers to find active learning methods and lesson plans

and can be used whenever a teacher is looking for a new method or activity to use in the

classroom.

Conclusion

There are many ways to teach. Some are good, some are bad, but there are many ways to

do better. In order to teach functions properly, students must first be introduced to the definition

of function and function notation. There are several definitions for function and function

notation, and many of them are not great. In order for students to fully understand functions, they

40  
  

need a solid definition of function and function notation that is consistent throughout the

lesson/course and is in line with the teacher’s objectives. If a teacher plans to introduce real

world examples of functions, the definition must be one that can be used for those types of

examples. The teacher also needs to understand function notation and the definition of function

and consistently use them properly. If a teacher cannot consistently use function notation

accurately, the students will not be able to either. In addition to a good definition, the method in

which the students are taught is also important.

There is a time and place for lecture, but an entire lesson shouldn’t use lecture alone.

Instead, there is a better method: active learning. Active learning has been shown to increase

student performance when compared to lecture alone. By providing students with active learning

techniques, students have been shown to learn more and at a higher level of Bloom’s Taxonomy

than they would with lecture alone. Active learning comes in many forms: visual, kinesthetic,

auditory, technological, or whole class immersion. These techniques can be used alone or can be

combined throughout a lesson. Teachers may use the methods listed above, or come up with their

own because active learning can be done in many ways and applied to all subjects and lessons. It

is important to remember that “there is not ‘one right way’ to teach. Instead, there is a spectrum

of [active learning] methods, techniques, and environments in which students can be effectively

engaged in the process of learning” (Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences, 2016, p.7).

If students have a solid foundation, that is, the teacher has introduced a good definition of

function and function notation, and the students are given the opportunity to learn through active

learning, the students will succeed. Mathematics does not have to be boring. Through active

learning, students can come to love any subject and be prepared for their futures.

41  
  

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