The Clinical Supervisor

ISSN: 0732-5223 (Print) 1545-231X (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wcsu20

Social work supervision in Malta: A specialism in

the making

Maureen Cole

To cite this article: Maureen Cole (2019): Social work supervision in Malta: A specialism in the
making, The Clinical Supervisor, DOI: 10.1080/07325223.2019.1582393

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/07325223.2019.1582393

Published online: 04 Mar 2019.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 14

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=wcsu20
THE CLINICAL SUPERVISOR
https://doi.org/10.1080/07325223.2019.1582393

Social work supervision in Malta: A specialism in the

making
Maureen Cole
Department of Social Policy and Social Work, Faculty for Social Wellbeing, University of Malta, Msida,
Malta

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The leitmotif for this piece is the development of social work Social work; social work
supervision in Malta as a specialism. As background, I present supervision; Malta; social
concentric circles of influence on supervision. I first consider work specialism
Malta’s geo-socio-cultural context, then the professional status
of social work, followed with a focus on supervision. I next
introduce the supervisors and review pertinent research stu-
dies, followed by supervisor education and supervisory prac-
tices, and then propose recommendations for future practice
and research. Finally, I ask: Can social work supervision in Malta
be considered a specialism in the making? My answer is yes,
but it is at a rudimentary stage of development.

In this article, the author explores the development of social work super-
vision in Malta. The leitmotif for the piece is that social work supervision is
a specialism in the making. In an attempt to describe and explain this
development, circles of influence which have impacted it are considered.
The geo-socio-cultural context of the Maltese islands is expounded; this is
then followed by an exploration of the professional status of social work, and
a short history of social work and supervision. The foundations for social
work supervision as a developing specialism are presented as part of an
important process which has implications for social work supervisor educa-
tion, who carries out the supervision, the nature of the supervision, and
ethical and legal issues. In addition, the few research studies which have been
undertaken about social work supervision in Malta are reviewed. In conclu-
sion, the author asserts that social work supervision in Malta could be
considered a specialism in a rudimentary stage of development.

Malta: The geo-socio-cultural context

A brief background about the geo-socio-cultural context of the Maltese
islands will help set the scene for an understanding of supervisory practice

CONTACT Maureen Cole maureen.cole@um.edu.mt Department of Social Policy and Social Work, Faculty
for Social Wellbeing, University of Malta Msida, MSD2080, Malta.
© 2019 Taylor & Francis
2 M. COLE

in social work. This will also serve as a useful backdrop to the information
about the professional status of social work, which is key to an appreciation
of the state of play with regards to social work supervision and its develop-
ment as a specialism in Malta.
Malta is an archipelago of three small islands, Malta (246 square kilometers),
Gozo (67 square kilometers), and Comino (2.5 square kilometers). It lies at the
center of the Mediterranean Sea 93 kilometers south of Sicily and 288 kilo-
meters north of the North African coast. The population as of December 31,
2016, stood at 460,297 inhabitants (National Statistics Office, Malta, 2018). This
results in a high density of population, making Malta one of the most densely
populated places on Earth. The density of population and proximity impacts
relationships and, as a result, the same persons are brought into contact with
one another time and again in various activities and settings on account of the
different roles they hold (Sultana & Baldacchino, 1994).
The primary relations are within the family, which has been described as
a “modified extended family” where the unity within it is such that, although
family members live separately, their frequent contact results in ties which
are similar to those of the extended family (Tabone, 1987). An important
social change which has impacted Maltese families recently is the increasing
number of women in employment. This has happened very rapidly and,
between 2005 and 2015, the employment rate rose by 10 percentage points,
mainly due to the higher proportion of females joining the labor market
(National Statistics Office, Malta, 2016). Nonetheless, families, and especially
women, are still expected to be the primary caretakers in situations of need
(Abela, Farrugia, Vella, & De Giovanni, 2016).
Malta’s cultural heritage has been strongly influenced by its geographical
position, which has meant that it has been colonized and ruled by various
powers: The Phoenicians, the Romans, the Arabs, the Normans, the various
royal houses of Spain, the Sovereign Military Order of St. John of Jerusalem
(1530–1798), the French (1798–1800), and finally the British (1800–1964;
Cassar, 2000). All these colonizers have left their mark:

● On the language, which is Semitic in origin, with many English words

assimilated during the British period (Aquilina, 1970); both Maltese and
English are official languages.
● On the religion, which is mainly Roman Catholic.
● On the legal system. Malta became a civil law jurisdiction with a codified
framework of laws based on continental European systems and princi-
ples; however, under British rule doctrines of common law were intro-
duced (NEWCO & Bonnici, 2015).
● On the education system, which is still mainly influenced by the British
system.
 THE CLINICAL SUPERVISOR 3

The islands obtained their independence from Britain in 1964, became a Republic
in 1974, a member of the European Union (EU) in 2004, and a member of the
Eurozone in 2008. Malta conforms to a Western-style parliamentary democracy.
The economy is dependent on foreign trade, manufacturing, and tourism. At 4.0%
in 2017, it had one of the lowest unemployment rates in Europe and during the
same year it registered a GDP growth (%, year on year) of 6.6 (Directorate-General
for Economic and Financial Affairs [DG ECFIN], Spring 2018). The main growth
was in the services sector, the financial services sector, online gaming, and tourism.
This growth has drawn other EU and European migrants to seek employment in
Malta, although wages are low when compared to other European countries. This
influx of people is contributing to some very rapid social changes which do
generate some tension between tradition and change.

The professional status of social work

The construction of the professional status of social work is influenced by
various elements, including the educational preparation required for the prac-
tice of social work, the process for obtaining and retaining registration, the
regulatory mechanism, the part played by the professional association, and the
professional practice of social work per se. As social work in Malta does not
have a very long history, some attention will be given to the processes which
have resulted in the regulation of the profession through the enactment of the
Social Work Profession Act of 2003 (Chapter 468 of the Laws of Malta) and to
the inclusion of a supervision requirement for registration.
The minimum educational requirement for the practice of social work in
Malta is the Bachelor of Arts (Honors) in Social Work degree from the
University of Malta. This is a four-year program of study which includes both
theoretical and practice-based study units intended to prepare graduates for
social work practice in various contexts (“Bachelor of Arts (Honours) Social
Work,” n.d.). This qualification was set as the benchmark in the Social Work
Profession Act of 2003 (Chapter 468 of the Laws of Malta), which also decreed
that the diploma level qualification in social work would no longer satisfy the
requirements for the practice of social work if this was obtained after 2002. At
the time, this change placed social work education on a par with that of other
professions, such as teaching and a number of the health care professions. It did
not, however, place it on the same level as medicine and law, which require
a longer course of study. This is one strand in the construction of the profes-
sional status of social work.
Another strand is the Social Work Profession Act (Chapter 468 of the Laws
of Malta), which also determines the processes involved in obtaining and
retaining registration as a social worker and provides the main regulatory
mechanism for the profession. This piece of legislation determined that the
term “social worker” could only be used for a person who is in possession of
4 M. COLE

a warrant, which is the equivalent to a license. Supervision is key to the process

of obtaining a warrant to practice as, besides the benchmark qualification of
a Bachelor of Arts (Honors) in Social Work, the applicant must satisfy the
Social Work Profession Board that they have worked for a period of two years
(full-time) under the supervision of a registered social worker. This same
supervision requirement for registration is shared with that of other profes-
sions, such as psychology and counseling. The Social Work Profession Board is
currently drawing up the prescribed programs of professional development
which will allow warrant holders to retain their registration.1 This will serve
to further the professionalization process and put social work in line with sister
professions locally and with social work internationally.
The Maltese Association of Social Workers (MASW), which was set up in
July 1993, has also played an important part in the recognition and professio-
nalization of social work in Malta. It was following several years of lobbying by
the MASW that the Social Work Profession Act was enacted by the Maltese
Parliament in November 2003 (“The Maltese Association of Social Workers,” n.
d.). The MASW also contributed to the process of professionalization of social
work through its Code of Ethics as well as its local and international member-
ships in professional bodies. The association is a member of the Malta
Federation of Professional Associations, which is made up of 17 Maltese profes-
sional associations (“Malta Federation of Professional Associations,” n.d.). This
membership places the social work profession in an important dialogue with
other professions and contributes significantly to the local recognition for social
work as a profession. The MASW has also been a member of the International
Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) since 1995 and in 2006 a member of the
MASW executive sat on the IFSW Europe Executive Committee (Borg, 2009).
This participation has helped to place local social work practice in the broader
international arena and contributes to its developing professional status.
There is no doubt that the most important confirmations and challenges to
the professional status of social work come from the daily practice of social
workers as this is experienced by service users and collaborators. Social work
is practiced in a number of state agencies, nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs), and private agencies. The main employer of social workers in Malta
is the Foundation for Social Welfare Services, which, through its agencies,
provides social welfare services to children and families and in the area of
addictions. Other government agencies provide social work services to var-
ious user groups including children, older persons, mental health service
users, health service users, disabled persons, asylum seekers, and residents of
the correctional facilities. These services are complemented by those offered
by nongovernmental organizations, which likewise offer social work services
to a number of service user groups. The main social work provision, whether
that delivered by the state or that given by NGOs, has a specialist focus,
although Aġenzija Appoġġ also offers a generic community-based service. As
 THE CLINICAL SUPERVISOR 5

in the United Kingdom (Horwath & Shardlow, 2003), specialism by client

group tends to be the dominant form of specialist practice in Malta.
The recent challenges posed by a sharp influx of migrants point to the
need to consolidate community-based social work and foster community
development practices. This would change the profile of social work practice
in Malta, which has tended be more focused on micro and meso practice.

Social work supervision: A specialism in the making

Although the dominant form of specialist practice in Malta is by client group, the
development of social work supervision practice may be viewed as that of a social
work specialism in the making. Social work supervision may be considered as
a specialization by method just like “group work” and it could also become
a specialization by qualification if a qualification is required to provide it
(Horwath & Shardlow, 2003). Acknowledging that the ultimate objective of social
work supervision is “to provide efficient, effective, and appropriate social work
services to clients” (Kadushin & Harkness, 2014, p. 9), it could be conceptualized
as a “meta” specialization on account of the fact that it is a service to clients once
removed.
The main influences on the development of social work supervision have
come from various sources. The first mention of supervision responsibilities for
a social worker at a more senior level was made in a Ministry for Social Policy
1990 green paper titled “A Caring Society in a Changing World” (Ministry for
Social Policy, 1990). Three years later (1993), a collective agreement entered into
between the government and two major trade unions to regulate social work
employment in government service included several references to social work
supervision. This agreement contributed significantly to ensuring that the prac-
tice of supervision become institutionalized (Cole, 2003).
The process involved in the lead-up to the enactment of the Social Work
Profession Act of 2003 (Chapter 468 of the Laws of Malta) proved influential
in determining the importance of social work supervision. As early as 1994,
when a precursor to the legislation was published under the heading “Social
Welfare Act, 1994,” reference was made to a supervision requirement for
obtaining a warrant. Although the legislation was not enacted until nine
years later, this draft bill contributed to the debate around the importance of
supervision, but also raised concerns amongst some “… long-established
social workers who may not have received two years of supervision as
stipulated in the draft bill” (Cole, 2003, p. 167).
That said, the scene had been set and the key agencies began to make the
necessary arrangements to ensure that supervision was provided to practi-
tioners in their employ (Social Welfare Development Programme, 1998). The
1990s also saw a steady increase in the number of persons acquiring quali-
fications in social work and taking up employment in the sector. The newly
6 M. COLE

qualified social workers expected their employers and managers to provide

them with supervision, which also contributed to the establishment of super-
visory practice (Cole, 2003). The seal was set on the importance of social
work supervision when two years of supervised practice was stipulated in the
Social Work Profession Act of 2003 as a requirement for obtaining a warrant
to practice (Chapter 468 of the Laws of Malta).
As referred to earlier, the Social Work Profession Board is in the process of
determining the program of professional development, which will allow war-
rant holders to retain their registration, these being post-licensing require-
ments. In line with what is prescribed locally for sister professions such as
psychology (Malta Psychology Profession Board, n.d.), and internationally for
social work (CORU, Ireland, n.d.) these requirements are going to include
a number of hours of supervision per annum. This development will further
regulate supervision requirements beyond the first two years of practice. It will
undoubtedly put more pressure on social work agencies to provide regular
supervision to all practitioners and this will in turn have human resource,
financial, time management, and training implications for the agencies. It is
also likely to prove to be another important step in the growth of the super-
vision specialization.

Who are the social work supervisors?

In Malta, there are no established requirements to become a supervisor nor
standards of practice for supervision. This is similar to countries in southeast
Europe which have limited regulation of supervision (Akesson & Canavera,
2018). The Social Work Profession Act of 2003 (Chapter 468 of the Laws of
Malta) only stipulates that the supervision of social workers, prior to regis-
tration, is to be provided by registered social workers. This arrangement
usually continues post-registration. This is a shift from what I found in my
research (Cole, 2003), that a number of supervisors were not social workers
but were instead clinical and counseling psychologists.
As there is no frequency requirement for supervision preregistration, the
provision of supervision to beginning workers ranges from weekly sessions in
some agencies to once every three weeks in others.2 The frequency tends to be
reduced postregistration. Although the frequency of provision to beginning
workers tends to be slightly higher in Malta than in England, the tapering
process echoes what was found by Manthorpe, Moriarty, Hussein, Stevens, and
Sharpe (2015) in their study of newly qualified social workers.
In most agencies the registered social workers who provide supervision are the
line managers to the social workers and supervision forms part of their job
specification. Other arrangements are also in place, including registered social
workers who are external to the agency engaged specifically to provide super-
vision. These arrangements are more likely to be the case in the smaller
 THE CLINICAL SUPERVISOR 7

nongovernmental agencies, although they also have been adopted in a smaller

government agency. These external supervisors are mainly seasoned social work-
ers who act as freelance supervisors. Such external arrangements are normally
sought when the agency does not have the experienced human resource to
provide the supervision. These arrangements do not seem to be linked to the
incompatibility of the supervision functions nor to the trend noted in New
Zealand to separate “clinical” supervision from “line management supervision”
(Beddoe, 2012, p. 199). Interestingly, these external arrangements are sometimes
retained even when the agency’s internal human resources include social workers
who are qualified to provide the supervision. The rationale for retention of such
arrangements is not always clearly articulated. I am nonetheless aware of one
small agency which switched from external to line management supervision, as
the external supervisor was not sufficiently expert in the modality of practice
adopted by the agency. The engagement of external supervisors is normally
circumscribed by a contract of service agreed to with the agency’s management
(Cole, 2003). Although contracted by the agency, external supervisors may well
be selected by the social workers themselves; however, unlike the situation in
Sweden (Bradley & Höjer, 2009), this would not always be the case.
Supervisors provide supervision in all the settings which employ social
workers, whether field or residential, and with whatever method or service
group with which they work. Supervisors who are also line managers perform
roles which pertain to administrative, educational, and supportive supervision
(Kadushin & Harkness, 2014). On the other hand, supervisors who are engaged
externally, especially group supervisors, tend to focus on the educational and
supportive functions of supervision (Abela, 2012).

What does the research about social work supervision in Malta say?
Only four research studies have been carried out about social work supervision
in Malta. The first was concluded in 2003 and the more recent study in 2016. The
first study focused on both the practice and experience of social work super-
vision using a qualitative methodology. This was a doctoral research study
carried out by the author, a social work academic at the University of Malta.
The second was carried out by Andreana Dibben in 2007; at the time Dibben was
a practicing social worker and student on the Master of Arts in Creativity and
Innovation. Dibben (2007) chose to explore creativity and social work super-
vision in her dissertation. In 2012, Sandra Abela, a practicing social worker and
team leader, undertook qualitative research about social work and emotional
intelligence as part of the course of studies leading to a Master of Arts in Social
Work. The last of these four studies was carried out by Yvonne Pisani,
a practicing social worker, who in 2016 explored the use of evidence-based
practice during social work supervision sessions. This too formed part of her
studies on the Master of Arts in Social Work.
8 M. COLE

Cole (2003). A question which intrigued the author in the late 1990s, when the
research study (Cole, 2003) was being planned, was whether the practice of
supervision was integrated in the process of the development of the social
work profession. This was particularly pertinent at a time of fast growth of the
profession and during the process which resulted in the enactment of the Social
Work Profession Act of 2003 (Chapter 468 of the Laws of Malta). The main aim
of the study was to explore the practice of supervision with a view to finding out
the form this was taking. This was supplemented by a second aim, which was to
hear from supervisors and supervisees about how they experienced supervision.
A grounded theory approach was used to study 28 supervision sessions and
interviews with 56 participating supervisors and supervisees (Cole, 2003).
A framework was developed to try to explain the differences which were
observed between the supervision sessions. It was noted that supervision was
a potentially “impossible task” and that this was due to its complexity, multi-
farious character, and possible incompatibility of supervision functions. In order
to address the impossibility of the task a “resolution” of sessions was observed in
one of four directions along an agency/person continuum. The term resolution
was adopted as it suggested that the nature of the sessions was the resultant of
various forces which impacted them. It was also noted that aspects which usually
form part of the supervisory activity were omitted. These were in turn identified
as “missing” from supervision by both supervisors and supervisees. The four
types of supervision sessions were the agency-oriented resolution focusing on
ensuring performance, the case-oriented resolution focusing on cases and social
work practice, the worker-oriented resolution focusing on how the work affects
the worker, and the person-oriented resolution focusing on the person of the
worker. A divide was also observed between those resolutions which focused on
the “work” and others which focused on the “worker.” The possible reasons
which were proposed for this resolution and the direction of resolution of
supervision sessions were the following:

● that factors such as agency supervision policy and contracts which

define the supervision arrangements might influence session resolution
in the direction of particular types;
● that characteristics such as the professional qualifications of the supervisor,
whether the supervisor is internal or external to the agency, the frequency of
holding of supervision sessions, and the gender of supervisors and super-
visees are likely to influence the type of the session resolution (Cole, 2003).

It is worth noting that when the data were collected in the late 1990s, only
one of the 12 agencies studied stated that they had a supervision policy. This
policy governed two of the supervisory dyads studied and, since these were
resolved in different directions, the policy’s influence could not be gauged.
Another interesting characteristic of the research participants was that, of the
 THE CLINICAL SUPERVISOR 9

28 supervisory dyads, 13 had a supervision arrangement in which the super-

visor was external to the agency and specifically engaged to provide super-
vision. It was only in five of these dyads that the agency management had
a contract in place to define the parameters for supervision. These contracts
influenced the sessions which were resolved in a way to exclude the admin-
istrative/management function of supervision (Cole, 2003).
An important feature of social work supervision at the time of the study
was that a number of the supervisors were not social workers but clinical
and counseling psychologists. The worker-oriented resolution was the one
with the greatest number of counseling psychologists, who were also exter-
nal to the agency. On the other hand, the supervisors of agency-oriented
sessions were mainly social workers. These features helped to determine the
leanings of these particular supervision sessions. Most of the supervisors
who were social workers had received some form of training in supervision
(Cole, 2003).
Dibben (2007, 2009). Dibben carried out a qualitative study in which, using
a grounded theory approach, she explored how supervisors perceived creativity,
whether they used it in the supervision process, what helped and hindered its use,
and the impact creativity in supervision might have on social work practice. She
analyzed eight audiotapes of supervision sessions, eight taped interviews, and
eight taped discussions with 16 supervisors and supervisees from different agen-
cies in Malta. Research participants acknowledged the importance of creativity in
supervision and said that this could be adopted through both a consciously
creative approach and through the use of specific techniques. They noted that
the right conditions must exist for creativity in supervision, including know-how
of creativity, a conducive environment, a positive supervisory relationship, and
“… creative permission allowed by organisations through their philosophy,
structure and policies” (Dibben, 2007, p. iii). Despite their appreciation of the
value of creativity in supervision, research participants granted that it was per-
ipheral to supervision and that, as Dibben (2007) explained, it could only be
regarded as a budding concept. This study highlighted the fact that creativity in
supervision in Malta was not well-developed and that, for it to flourish, the right
conditions were required in terms of both the supervisor and organizational
preparation. An important contribution of this study was the pointer to the
organizational context for supervision and how this was shaping supervision.
Abela (2012). Abela explored the connection between social work supervision
and emotional intelligence through a qualitative study. She was keen to discover
what made for “good” supervision and to find out whether there was any
connection between “good” supervision and emotional intelligence. She did this
by first obtaining the views of 16 supervisees about what makes for a “good”
supervision experience. She then followed this up with a focus group session with
five of their supervisors where she presented the highlights of her findings from
10 M. COLE

the interviews with the supervisees. From this study it emerged that, according to
the supervisees, the main focus of supervision was case discussion and the
development of action plans; supervisees’ emotional responses to presenting
situations were also explored, but the focus on this aspect was limited. An
interesting finding from this study was that there was general agreement by the
five supervisors that supervisees should be offered what was recommended by
one of the supervisees, who suggested the following:

Perhaps there could be supervision,… that focuses also on the personal side, how
we are experiencing the cases, the cases we are working with, I believe we would
prevent burn out. That there is guidance… perhaps not with the same frequency,
… but perhaps once a month or a month and a half you have a session, perhaps
psychological sessions, they are personal supervision where you can process your
feelings and thoughts and you grow both on the professional and personal side.
(Abela, 2012, p. 91)

This finding suggested that social work supervisors seemed to be con-

sidering the exploration of the impact of work on the workers as outside
their realm of responsibility and which could be addressed in another forum
and by a psychologist. It also contrasted with Cole’s (2003) findings, where
nine of the 28 supervision sessions studied focused on how the work affected
the worker and the person of the worker. Abela’s (2012) results suggested
that issues relating to the incompatibility of supervision functions were
being experienced and that supervisors were proposing that those functions
could be carried out by different professionals. This approach is similar to
what takes place in Scandinavian countries, although Magnussen (2018)
warned that these arrangements should not be considered a “panacea.”
Pisani (2016). In a more recent qualitative research study, Pisani (2016)
explored whether six social work supervisors included evidence-based prac-
tice (EBP) for social work in their social work supervision. The researcher
adopted an action research strategy, which included individual interviews
with supervisors about EBP. During this same interview Pisani (2016) shared
the Haynes, Devereaux, and Guyatt (2002) EBP model for their information.
Following that, with the consent of their supervisees, she asked supervisors to
audio-record a supervision session in which they tried to incorporate EBP
into their practice. The researcher later analyzed the supervision sessions
with the supervisors, with a special focus on the use of EBP.
Pisani (2016) found that there were many instances when the supervisors
explained how they incorporated EBP in their supervisory practice. In
exploring their use of EBP, some of the participants raised the issue of the
quality of their supervision and noted that there was little opportunity to
gauge its quality. Supervisors identified the following amongst the limitations
in incorporating EBP through supervision:
 THE CLINICAL SUPERVISOR 11

● lack of training in EBP;

● lack of training in giving supervision, as they had been promoted to
their supervisory role without formal training;
● severe time constraints for both supervisors and supervisees;
● far too much reliance on practice wisdom;
● lack of openness and commitment to learning with some practitioners;
and
● the difficulties faced by beginning workers in applying theory to practice
(Pisani, 2016).

A thread which runs through the findings across these research studies of
social work supervision is how little is known about what actually takes place
during the supervision sessions. Each of the authors underscored this in one
way or another. Cole (2003) pointed to how some very dissimilar supervision
sessions with different focuses were all classified as supervision. This point
suggests that the varied understandings of supervision not only span cultural,
political geographic, and professional boundaries (Beddoe, Karvinen-
Niinikoski, Ruch, & Tsui, 2016) but also are present in microcosms. Dibben’s
(2007) work highlighted that creativity, although valued, was peripheral to the
supervision sessions studied. The emphasis on case discussion and plans of
action with little emphasis on workers’ emotional responses in Abela’s (2012)
work likewise points to how little is known about supervision sessions on a day-
to-day basis. Pisani’s (2016) results stressed supervisors’ declared reliance on
practice wisdom, their lack of training for supervision, and serious time con-
straints, yet did not actually illustrate what took place during the sessions;
however, they nonetheless served as valued indicators. The calls by participants
in Pisani’s (2016) study for mechanisms of quality assurance of supervision and
for more training in supervision were indeed very apt.

Social work supervisor education

Social work supervisor education in Malta has developed over the years. The first
Certificate in Social Work Management was successfully completed by 25 social
workers in 1996. This certificate course included a 28-hour specialized training
program in social work supervision. This post-qualifying training course was
offered by the University of Malta by request of the government and was in
fulfillment of training requirements stated in the collective agreement of 1993
(Cole, 2003). This training program was offered on four occasions up to 2005.
The University of Malta has continued to offer a 28-hour study unit in social
work supervision, which forms part of the Master of Arts in Social Work, as
a Continuing Professional Development (CPD) course. This was last offered in
2015.3 To date, no specific postdegree training requirements are made for social
work supervisors by the Social Work Profession Board. Furthermore, no
12 M. COLE

training requirement for supervision is currently being made by employing

agencies either. They do nonetheless encourage supervisors to attend training
and a number of agencies arrange training for their staff. These arrangements
are made by both the larger government agencies and the smaller NGOs. As
a result, most social work supervisors have received some form of training in
supervision, whether the 28-hour study unit offered by the University of Malta
or in-service programs offered by their employing agencies.
The study unit offered by the University of Malta focuses on the nature of
supervision from a functional perspective, standards of practice for super-
vision, supervision policies, the supervision relationship, supervisor styles, the
application of social work theory through supervision, supervision techniques,
how adults learn, accountability, appraisal, and creativity in supervision and
group supervision. Didactic and experiential learning methods are adopted in
the course (SWP5133 Supervision in Social Work, n.d.). Participants engage in
role-plays and simulation exercises and are assessed through a video of an
excerpt of a supervision session and a critical analysis of the session. There are
no opportunities for supervised in situ practice as part of this study unit.
The ad hoc training programs offered internally by agencies or by training
entities primarily make use of experiential learning methods. One of these ad
hoc training programs offered an opportunity for in situ supervised practice.4

Approaches and modalities adopted for social work supervision

The prevailing model of social work supervision in use in Malta is a structural-
functional model which highlights that service to clients can be ensured if
supervisors use administrative, educational, supportive (Kadushin & Harkness,
2014), and mediation functions (Morrison, 2005). The majority of agencies
provide social workers with both individual and group supervision, although
some agencies provide only individual supervision. Individual supervision
tends to be the only modality used in smaller agencies which employ a very
small number of workers and where group supervision would not be feasible.
A number of the agencies which provide group supervision engage psycholo-
gists or psychotherapists in an external capacity. These arrangements are
similar to those described by Magnussen (2018), who noted from a review of
15 Scandinavian studies of supervision that the “… choice of supervisor is
usually based on a combination of familiarity, recommendations and relevant
experience in the field” (p. 365). This group supervision tends to be more
growth-centered, focusing on supervisees’ understanding of their personal and
professional selves. The sessions also serve to address issues which might be
impacting relationships within the team.
The main interventions in both the individual and group supervision
modalities are supervisee self-report. In a number of agencies this is sup-
planted through the information supervisors glean from co-working with
 THE CLINICAL SUPERVISOR 13

their supervisees, which offers supervisors opportunities to observe direct

interaction with both service users and colleagues. Supervisors also draw on
case records to complement and confirm information drawn from super-
visees’ self-reports. Audio or video recordings of sessions with service users
are not usually used for supervision purposes. Furthermore, as a result of the
smallness of the country and easy opportunities for face-to-face interaction,
little to no use is made of online or distance supervision.
The supervisory relationship is granted a great deal of importance by both
supervisors and supervisees. Whilst acknowledging the hierarchical nature,
emphasis is placed on the collaborative nature of supervisory relationships
(Cole, 2003). My own research suggested that the attention to supervisee self-
awareness depended on the “type of supervision provided” (Cole, 2003). On
the other hand, Abela (2012) quoted supervisees who said that they are so
pressed for time that there is little opportunity to do more than discuss cases
and get on with it during their supervision sessions. As one supervisee stated,
“The urgent things, in the service we work in, are nearly the order of
the hour” (Abela, 2012, p. 57).

Ethical and legal issues

The Code of Ethics for social work which the Malta Social Work Profession
Board recommended for prescription to the Minister responsible for social
welfare, was launched in autumn 2018 (Malta Social Work Profession Board
& Maltese Association of Social Workers, n.d.). This code reminds social
workers of their responsibility to maintain best practice by making appropriate
and regular use of supervision. The Code of Ethics also requires employers to
provide supervision to social workers. Other references to supervision in the
code are only made with respect to the regulation of personal and/or sexual
relationships with services users and to indicate that social workers who are
engaged by educational organizations and provide supervision are likewise
bound by the Code of Ethics.
Despite these references to social work supervision in the Code of Ethics,
ethical issues do arise in supervision. Foremost amongst these is the degree of
confidentiality which can be afforded to material discussed during super-
vision. In my research (Cole, 2003), the primary position held by supervisors
and supervisees was that what takes place during supervision was confiden-
tial; however, there were variations in this which depended on the resolution
of the session. Supervisors from agency-oriented sessions stated that they did
not think that confidentiality was an issue, as what they had to do to share
information from supervision was simply obtain their supervisees’ consent.
Both supervisors and supervisees from case-oriented sessions held the view
that what is discussed during supervision was confidential; however, they did
accept that there are certain circumstances where information would need to
14 M. COLE

be communicated to agency management. The issue of the confidentiality of

supervisory material becomes more complicated when external supervisors
are involved. An external supervisor from a worker-oriented session was
keen to communicate that whatever reports she gave to the agency were
shared with supervisees, thus ensuring that the relationship was not jeopar-
dized (Cole, 2003). On the other hand, a supervisor from a person-oriented
session stated quite categorically that supervisory material was confidential
and not disclosed unless someone is in danger (Cole, 2003). These findings
suggest that the issue of confidentiality of supervisory material becomes more
complex the more personal the content.
The only requirement which is established by law with respect to social
work supervision is that social workers need two years of supervised practice
for obtaining a warrant to practice social work (Chapter 468 of the Laws of
Malta). To date, there have been no local law court rulings or inquiry
decisions which apportion responsibility to social work supervisors. The
issue of the professional liability of social work supervisors is not yet topical
and the situation locally is similar to that described by Reamer (1989) in the
United States in the late 1980s.
As in any other small community, dual and multiple relationships are
likewise a feature of Maltese society. Mifsud (2004) went so far as to describe
local relationships as “enmeshed” (p. 77). With the number of registered
social workers standing at 509 (N. Hansen, Secretary to the Malta Social
Work Profession Board, personal communication, May 29, 2018), the like-
lihood for supervisors to become engaged in a dual or multiple relationship is
high. The situation echoes what was described by Abela and Sammut-Scerri
(2010), who wrote about multiple relationships in Malta with reference to
systemic psychotherapy supervision. Social work supervisors may likewise
have been part of the same cohort with their supervisees at the University of
Malta, have sat on government boards with them, live in the same neighbor-
hood, and be distantly related or long-standing friends. The recent influx of
migrants has not really impacted this situation as very few social workers
from overseas have taken up employment in Malta.
As no clear guidance is provided by the Code of Ethics about dual and
multiple relationships, supervisors and supervisees normally regulate their
own relationships. This approach does raise issues as such regulation
becomes reliant on the degree of ethical preparation and sensitivity of the
individual supervisors and supervisees. Kadushin and Harkness (2014) iden-
tified at least two types of gatekeeping in which supervisors engage. The first
is that of administrative gatekeepers through their contribution in the selec-
tion of social work staff. The second gatekeeping function is the protection of
clients. The authors stated, “If it is clear that a supervisee is not competent
and is not likely to become competent, the supervisor is responsible for
advising a change of career or terminating employment” (p. 343).
 THE CLINICAL SUPERVISOR 15

Social work supervisors are more likely to be involved in staff recruitment

and selection in the smaller agencies where supervision is provided by line
supervisors. This is harder to effect in the case of larger agencies where calls for
applications are normally quite broad in scope. This implies that the latter are
far more likely to influence the gatekeeping process in the smaller agencies
than in the larger ones. All supervisors, whether internal or external to the
agency, have the ethical duty to protect their clients. A substantial number of
agencies have mechanisms such as performance appraisals to determine
whether supervisees are meeting the requirements of their position. Thus,
supervisors can draw on these annual appraisals, which rely on predetermined
criteria for assessment. The performance appraisals facilitate the evaluation
process, helping to reduce some of the inherent dislike for it (Weinbach, 2003).
These more formal forms of appraisal also help supervisors address issues
faced by professionals in difficulty. As stated earlier, this becomes particularly
difficult in the context of a small country where supervisors are likely to be
engaged in multiple relationships with their supervisees.

The way forward

The vital step forward which was made with the inclusion of a supervision
requirement in the Social Work Profession Act (Chapter 468 of the Laws of
Malta) needs urgent consolidation. Standards of practice are required for
supervision. The development of such standards falls within the remit of the
Malta Social Work Profession Board as indicated in clause 5 (1)(a) of the
Social Work Profession Act, which states that one of the functions of the
board is the following:

(a) establish and, where necessary, assess existing social work standards
and develop new continuing social work professional development and
other standards, and recommend to the Minister in relation to initial
and continuing social work education, proficiency, experience and
other qualifications required for holding a warrant under this Act.
(Social Work Profession Act, Chapter 468 of the Laws of Malta, 2003)

The Standards of Practice for Supervision need to lay down supervision

requirements at all stages of social workers’ professional development. They
should include the following:

● the aims, functions, and values which guide social work supervision;
● a guide for good practice in social work supervision for supervisors and
supervisees in a variety of roles and settings (Australian Association of
Social Workers, 2014);
16 M. COLE

● an articulation of the modes and processes of social work supervision

which are acceptable under the guidelines for continuing professional
development and post-registration supervision requirements due to be
issued in the near future by the Malta Social Work Profession Board; and
● the requirements and responsibilities of the participants in supervision
(Australian Association of Social Workers, 2014).

The standards of practice for social work supervision must also include
minimum training requirements for supervisors, as recent research about
social work supervision (Pisani, 2016) indicates that there is a patchy and
sparse uptake of training. Furthermore, in line with another of its functions,
the Malta Social Work Profession Board could bolster this requirement by
also designating social work supervision as a specialized social work practice
requiring specific qualifications. The Board also has the prerogative to
recommend the granting of a specialist warrant to this effect.
In tandem with the drawing up of standards of practice for social work
supervision and the designation of social work supervision as a specialist social
work practice, an education and training program for supervisors needs to be
offered on a regular basis. This will help to ensure that all prospective and
current supervisors are prepared to perform their role effectively and become
eligible for the granting of a specialist warrant. The main challenge posed by
a more regulated context is ensuring both the human and material resources to
meet the standards.
Research is required to better appreciate the nature of the social work
supervision which is being provided. Abela (2012) found that the supervision
provided is mostly task-oriented and that the more process-focused aspects
of supervision are not given sufficient attention. More research which
explores what actually takes place during social work supervision would be
helpful. The aspects of the author’s research (Cole, 2003) which focused on
the practice of supervision could be replicated. Furthermore, research into
the part played by supervision during the first two years of practice would
also be useful, as it would provide insights into whether and how supervision
contributes to the professionalization of social workers.
In conclusion, can social work supervision in Malta be considered a specialism
in the making? My answer is yes. However, it is very much at a rudimentary stage
of development. Only once supervision is formally recognized as such and the
mechanisms for the granting of a specialist warrant are in place can social work
supervision in Malta be considered a fully fledged specialism.

Notes
1. I am aware of this as I formed part of the task group working on the Continuing
Professional Development requirements.
 THE CLINICAL SUPERVISOR 17

2. I am aware of this through my professional contacts with the agencies and from
information given to me by the agency managers.
3. I am aware of this as I was the person responsible for the various supervision training
courses.
4. I am aware of this as I was responsible for this training program.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

ORCID
Maureen Cole http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2322-8695

References
Abela, A. (2016). Family life. In M. Briguglio & M. Brown (Eds.), Sociology of the Maltese
Islands (pp. 17–46). Luqa, Malta: Miller Publishing.
Abela, A., Farrugia, R., Vella, A. M., & De Giovanni, K. (2016). Familialistic countries need a
family-inclusive service when caring for people with mental health problems - the case of Malta.
Families, Relationships and Societies, 5, 313–331. doi:10.1332/204674315X14365326675064
Abela, A., & Sammut-Scerri, C. (2010). Managing multiple relationships in supervision:
Dealing with the complexity. In C. Burck & G. Daniel (Eds.), Mirrors and reflections:
Processes in systemic supervision (pp. 289–308). London: Karnac Books Ltd. Retrieved from
https://books.google.com.mt/books?hl=en&id=imnZTsorQ20C&oi=fnd&pg=PA289&ots=
9xJGdlrjDk&sig=hIiEaQs29lQeS6sWa4GcBvnbtMY&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
Abela, S. (2012). Social workers’ experience of what makes for a satisfactory supervision
experience (Unpublished master’s dissertation). Malta: University of Malta.
Akesson, B., & Canavera, M. (2018). Expert understandings of supervision as a means to
strengthen the social service workforce: Results from a global Delphi study. European
Journal of Social Work, 21, 333–347. doi:10.1080/13691457.2017.1399352
Aquilina, J. (1970). Papers in Maltese linguistics. Malta: Malta University Press.
Australian Association of Social Workers. (2014). Supervision standards – 2014. Retrieved
June 14, 2018, from https://www.aasw.asn.au/document/item/6027
Bachelor of Arts (Honours) in Social Work. (n.d.). University of Malta. Retrieved April 30,
2018, from https://www.um.edu.mt/courses/overview/UBAHSWKFT-2018-9-O
Beddoe, L. (2012). External supervision in social work: Power, space, risk, and the search for
safety. Australian Social Work, 65, 197–213. doi:10.1080/0312407X.2011.591187
Beddoe, L., Karvinen-Niinikoski, S., Ruch, G., & Tsui, M. S. (2016). Towards an interna-
tional consensus on a research agenda for social work supervision: Report on the first
survey of a Delphi study. British Journal of Social Work, 46, 1568–1586. doi:10.1093/
bjsw/bcv110
Borg, C. (2009). The link between the International Federation of Social Workers and
social workers in Malta: A must for the social work profession. In A. Agius, M. Cole,
M. Naudi, & J. Xuereb (Eds.), Social work and social cohesion in Europe (pp. 200–213).
Malta: The Maltese Association of Social Workers and the Department of Social Policy
and Social Work, Faculty of Economics, Management and Accountancy, Malta:
University of Malta.
18 M. COLE

Bradley, G., & Höjer, S. (2009). Supervision reviewed: Reflections on two different social work
models in England and Sweden. European Journal of Social Work, 12(1), 71–85.
doi:10.1080/13691450802220990
Cassar, C. (2000). A concise history of Malta. Msida, Malta: Mireva Publications.
Cole, M. (2003). The practice and experience of social work supervision: An analysis of
supervisory practices in Malta (Unpublished doctoral thesis). England: University of East
Anglia.
CORU. (n.d.). Continuing professional development standards and requirements for social
workers. Retrieved May 8, 2018, from http://coru.ie/uploads/documents/SWRB_CPD_
Requirements_19.5.17.pdf
Dibben, A. (2007). Creativity in professional social work supervision (Unpublished master’s
dissertation). Malta: University of Malta.
Dibben, A. (2009). Creativity in professional social work supervision. In A. Agius, M. Cole,
M. Naudi, & J. Xuereb (Eds.), Social work and social cohesion in Europe (pp. 200–213).
Malta: The Maltese Association of Social Workers and the Department of Social Policy and
Social Work, Faculty of Economics, Management and Accountancy, Malta: University of
Malta.
Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs (DG ECFIN). (2018, Spring).
Economic Forecast for Malta. Retrieved June 15, 2018, from https://ec.europa.eu/info/
business-economy-euro/economic-performance-and-forecasts/economic-performance-
country/malta/economic-forecast-malta_en
Haynes, R., Devereaux, P., & Guyatt, G. (2002). Clinical expertise in the era of evidence-based
medicine and patient choice. Evidence-Based Medicine, 7, 36–38. doi:10.1136/ebm.7.2.36
Horwath, J., & Shardlow, S. M. (Eds.). (2003). Making links across specialisms: Understanding
modern social work practice. England: Russell House Publishing.
Kadushin, A., & Harkness, D. (2014). Supervision in social work (5th ed.). New York, NY:
Columbia University Press.
Magnussen, J. (2018). Supervision in Denmark - An empirical account of experiences and
practice. European Journal of Social Work, 21, 359–373. doi:10.1080/13691457.2018.1451827
Malta Federation of Professional Associations. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2018, from http://
www.mfpa.org.mt/#/en/fa/41?path=%2Fen%2Ffa%2F41
Malta Psychology Profession Board. (n.d.). Continuous professional development (CPD).
Retrieved May 8, 2018, from https://family.gov.mt/en/The-Ministry/Documents/continu
ous_professional_development(4).pdf
Malta Social Work Profession Board & Maltese Association of Social Workers. (n.d.). Social
work code of ethics: Values and principles for the social work profession.Malta: Malta Social
Work Profession Board & Maltese Association of Social Workers
The Maltese Association of Social Workers. (n.d.). Retrieved May 1, 2018, from https://sites.
google.com/site/maswmalta/about-masw
Manthorpe, J., Moriarty, J., Hussein, S., Stevens, M., & Sharpe, E. (2015). Content and
purpose of supervision in social work practice in England: Views of newly qualified social
workers, managers and directors. British Journal of Social Work, 45, 52–68. doi:10.1093/
bjsw/bct102
Mifsud, D. (2004). Inside the oracle’s chamber: The experience of counselling supervision in
a Maltese context (Unpublished master’s dissertation). England, UK: University of Bristol.
Ministry for Social Policy. (1990). A caring society in a changing world: Proposals for a social
welfare strategy for the nineties and beyond. Publication number 2/90. Malta: Author.
Morrison, T. (2005). Staff supervision in social care: Making a real difference for staff and
service users. Brighton: England: Pavilion Publishing.
 THE CLINICAL SUPERVISOR 19

National Statistics Office, Malta. (2016). Trends in Malta 2016. Retrieved from https://nso.
gov.mt/en/publicatons/Publications_by_Unit/Documents/D2_Dissemination_Unit/Trends
%20in%20Malta%202016.pdf
National Statistics Office, Malta. (2018). Population statics (revisions): 2012–2016 [New
Release]. Retrieved from https://nso.gov.mt/en/News_Releases/View_by_Unit/Unit_C5/
Population_and_Migration_Statistics/Documents/2018/News2018_022.pdf
NEWCO (Interviewer), & Bonnici, R. (Interviewee). (2015, June 15). Understanding the
Maltese legal system: An interview with Rosanne Bonnici, Tax Partner of Fenech &
Fenech Advocates [Interview transcript]. Retrieved from http://www.newco.pro/blog/en/
understanding-the-maltese-legal-system-an-interview-with-rosanne-bonnici-tax-partner-of
-fenech-fenech-advocates/
Pisani, Y. (2016). Exploring evidence-based practice in supervision (Unpublished master’s
dissertation). Malta: University of Malta.
Reamer, F. G. (1989). Liability issues in social work supervision. Social Work, 34, 445–448.
Social Welfare Development Programme. (1998). Annual report. Malta: Unpublished report.
Social Work Profession Act 2003 (Chapter 468) Laws of Malta.
Sultana, R. G., & Baldacchino, G. (Eds.). (1994). Maltese society: A sociological inquiry. Msida,
Malta: Mireva Publications.
SWP5133 Supervision in Social Work. (n.d.). University of Malta. Retrieved July 7, 2017, from
http://www.um.edu.mt/socialwellbeing/studyunit/SWP5133
Tabone, C. (1987). The secularisation of the family in changing Malta. Malta: Dominican
Publications.
Weinbach, R. W. (2003). The social worker as manager: A practical guide to success (4th ed.).
Boston, USA: Pearson.

Maureen Cole, B.A. (Melit.), B.Soc.Wk.(Hons.) (Monash), Ph.D.(UEA), is a senior lecturer in

social work, Department of Social Policy and Social Work, Faculty for Social Wellbeing,
University of Malta. Her main teaching responsibilities center on social work theory and
practice, and on social work supervision. Maureen’s research focus is the practice and experi-
ence of social work supervision. She also maintains a small supervisory practice.