efcornelius@comcast.net
frankcornelius@alum.mit.edu
How it all began— A teenager’s complaint?
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References
Cornelius & P. Schultz, Sequences Generated by Polynomials,
American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 115, No. 2 (2008), 154-158
Cornelius & P. Schultz, Polynomial Points,
Journal of Integer Sequences, Vol. 10, No. 3 (2007), Article 07.3.6
Cornelius & P. Schultz, Multinomial Points,
Houston Journal of Mathematics, Vol. 34, No. 3 (2008), 661-676
Cornelius & P. Schultz, Root Bases of Polynomials Over Integral Domains,
in Models, Modules and Abelian Groups, R. Gobel & B. Goldsmith, eds.
(Walter de Gruyter Berlin 2008), 237-250
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Integral Root Basis
Integral root basis for integral polynomials [ x]:
R {1, x, x( x 1), x( x 1)( x 2), , x( x 1) ( x j 1), }
satisfying the recursion formula j 1 ( x) j ( x)( x j )
Advantages of the integral root basis:
(i) When constructing polynomials inductively, what is done at one step
does not affect what was done at previous steps; i.e.,
f j 1 ( x) f j ( x) a j 1 j 1 ( x)
(ii) Power series [[ x]]R { a j j ( x) : a j } converge at all
j 0
non-negative integers
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Methodology
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Stacked Bases
Under the valuation map, the integral root basis of Z [ x]n , i.e., the first n
elements of the integral root basis R, is mapped into a basis of Pn , called
the "Gamma basis" {γ j }. For purposes of matrix-vector multiplication,
objects on the right are viewed as column vectors. The transformation
i
matrix of v, denoted Cn (cij ), is given by cij j ! ; its columns form
j
the Gamma basis of Pn . Observe that the j th column of Cn is divisible
by j !. Such divisibility yields stacked bases, which are essential to
extensions to higher dimensions and to general integral domains.
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The Structure Theorem
Divide the j th column of Cn by j ! to obtain a matrix An (aij ) in
i
which aij . You recognize An as Pascal's matrix with inverse
j
1 i j i
An (1) . The columns of An form a basis of Z n , called
j
the "Alpha basis" {α j }, which is stacked with the Gamma basis of Pn ,
γ j j !α j . As a result of this stacking,
n 1
Z n
Z j !Z Z
Z
Pn j 0 2! Z (n 1)! Z
the first two factors in the product being degenerate, as 0! 1 1!
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Superfactorials
n
The order of Z is 0!1! (n 1)!, or ( n 1) - superfactorial , denoted
Pn
(n 1)$; see Sequence A000178 in The On - Line Encyclopedia of
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Lagrange Interpolation Polynomials
Observe: Cn is a lower-triangular matrix with non-zero elements
down the diagonal and hence is invertible over the rationals.
Cn R -coefficients of polynomial polynomial values at 0, , n 1.
Therefore, R -coefficients Cn1 values. Let Cn1 Bn (bij ); then
(1)i j i (1)i j
bij
i ! j (i j )! j !
(3) 𝐶𝑛−1 𝐚 = 𝐵𝑛 𝐚 ∈ 𝑍 𝑛
𝑖
(−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑎𝑗
(4) ∈ 𝑍 for all 𝑖 = 0, … , 𝑛 − 1
𝑗! (𝑖 − 𝑗)!
𝑗 =0
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To Infinity and Beyond
j 0
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The Motivation to Go Higher
The motivation to expand into higher dimensions comes from the fact
that no permutation of the sequence 1, 0, 0, 0 can be generated by any
integral polynomial in one variable, but all arrangements of those four
numbers, indexed by the four elements of {0,1} {0,1} -- for example,
0(0,0) , 1(0,1) , 0(1,0) , 0(1,1) -- can be generated by polynomials in two variables
evaluated on {0,1} {0,1}. This is, of course, but one such example.
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The Trip to Higher Dimensions
• Index by and evaluate at C (k , n), the set of all k -tuples of integers
from {0, , n 1}
• Use the group of integral polynomials in k variables, Z ( X k ); denote
by Z ( X k ) n the group of integral polynomials in which the degree of
each variable is n
• Use the integral root basis for each variable; for example, when k 2,
the basis for Z ( X 2 ) is {i ( x) j ( y ) : i, j N }
• The valuation map v : Z ( X k ) Z C ( k ,n ) operates this way:
For a (a0 , , ak 1 ) C (k , n) and f ( x0 , , xk 1 ) Z ( X k ),
[v ( f )](a) f (a0 , , ak 1 )
• Denote the "multinomial points" by MP(k , n) v(Z ( X k )) v(Z ( X k ) n )
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All Results Carry Over to
Higher Dimensions
•
Z C ( k ,n )
Z
MP(k , n) ( m0 , , mk 1 )C ( k , n ) m0 ! mk 1 ! Z
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A Proposition About Primes
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The Alpha and Gamma Bases
Are Bases of Free Groups
Let P denote the image of Z [ x] under the valuation map Z [[ x]]R Π
and let P denote the pure subgroup generated by P . Let Σ denote
those sequences in Π, which are 0 after a while. Then
• P
P
Π
Σ
• The Gamma basis is a basis of the countable free group P
and P γ j
j 0
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Correspondence Between
Product Bases and Invertible Matrices
A k -dimensional, infinite, integral matrix G is a function
G : C (k , N ) C (k , N ) Z . G is said to be row-finite if, for all
a C (k , N ), G (a, b) 0 except for finitely many b C (k , N ),
the number depending upon a. The set of such row-finite matrices is
a unital ring under pointwise addition, with multiplication of G and H
defined as GH (a, b)
cC ( k , N )
G (a, c) H (c, b), for all a, b C (k , N ).
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Divisibility Conditions
The elements of the j th column of the C matrix are divisible by the
j th diagonal element in these cases, with d a non-zero element of D:
d i 1
(3) si , hypergeometric sequence
d 1
(d n d 0 )(d n d1 ) (d n di 1 )
n
(1)i 1
i 1
d1 di
xl 1 x l 1 1 x l p 1 1
( x 1
)( x2 1
) ( x 1
p
) D[ x] for all positive integers l and p
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